396:. Communication tends to be more successful if the source has a positive attitude toward themselves. The attitude of the source toward the receiver concerns whether the source likes or dislikes the receiver and includes aspects of their past relation. These attitudes are a central factor for the fidelity of communication. Negative attitudes toward each other can make communication more adversarial than it would be otherwise. For example, if the source does not like the receiver, they may formulate a request in a rude manner or if the receiver does not like the source, they may reject an otherwise reasonable proposal. The attitude toward the subject matter concerns what the communicators think about the topic. For example, a salesperson who is convinced that their product is of high quality has a positive attitude toward the product. This attitude has an significant impact on their success as a salesperson when talking about the product to a prospective client.
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idea. Berlo holds that these six components are necessary to account for communication in its most general sense. However, the model can be simplified to four components for regular person-to-person communication. This is the case because source and encoder can be grouped together as one entity, just like decoder and receiver. In this regard, Berlo speaks of the source-encoder and the decoder-receiver. Treating the additional components separately is especially relevant for technical forms of communication. For example, in the case of a telephone conversation, the message is transmitted as an electrical signal and the telephone devices act as encoder and decoder.
642:. For intrinsic motivation, the activity is desired because it is enjoyable. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, aims at external rewards. Communication can fail if the source does not address the needs of the receiver on the right level. For example, an employer may try to motivate the employees by encoding the message in terms of lower-level needs. This attempt may fail if the employees decode this message as being about higher-level needs. A similar form of miscommunication can happen if the source encodes their message in terms of intrinsic motivation but the receiver decodes it in terms of extrinsic motivation.
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this purpose in the form of a message. Good encoding skills ensure that the purpose is expressed very clearly and makes the decoding for the receiver much easier. The relevant communication skills for the receiver include being able to decode the message correctly, such as listening and reading skills. If the receiver's communication skills are very limited, they may not be able to understand the expressions used by the source and thus not follow their train of thought.
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cases. It reflects the style of the source as a communicator. This affects whether the chosen content and code are appropriate to the situation, the receiver, and the channel. For example, part of the job of a newspaper editor is to determine the treatment of the article. They do this by deciding how to express the ideas and how to arrange the sentences to make sure that they are easily understandable for the intended audience. In the case of cinema, the
508:, are codes. Within each language, it is possible to distinguish between specialized codes, like the technical vocabulary used by physicists or neurologists. But there are also non-linguistic codes, like the ones involved, in music, dance, or visual art. Every message is expressed in some form of code. The choice of the appropriate code is central for ensuring that the receiver can understand the message and that it has the intended effect on them.
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communication". He identifies four basic components: source, message, channel, and receiver. The source is the party that wants to communicate an idea. They have to encode this idea in the form of a message. The message contains the information to be transmitted. The channel is the means used to send the message. The receiver is the audience for whom the message is intended. They have to decode it to understand it.
443:
discussed, and how the contents are encoded and decoded. For example, there is a difference in how one talks to superiors and to peers. The communication styles of people with distinct social-cultural backgrounds can differ a lot. For example, Americans, Indonesians, Japanese, and
Germans may differ both in what content they talk about and how they express them. In cases of big social or
220:
However, the source may not always be conscious of their reasons for communicating. For example, a writer may believe their purpose is to write a technical report rather than to influence the behavior of the reader. Likewise, a teacher may think their purpose is to cover the syllabus rather than to affect the behavior of the students. This is similar to how the purpose of many ingrained
232:
delayed. An artist trying to entertain their audience intends an immediate effect while an employer giving instructions for the rest of the week intends to have a delayed effect on the employees' behavior. Messages can also produce unintended outcomes, such as when the intended receiver does not react as the source anticipated or when the message reaches unintended receivers.
252:, Bruce Westley, and Malcolm MacLean Jr. The Shannon–Weaver model was published in 1948 and is one of the earliest and most influential models of communication. It explains communication in terms of five basic components: a source, a transmitter, a channel, a receiver, and a destination. The source produces the message. To send the message, it has to be translated into a
655:
where communication is a dynamic process of messages going back and forth between the participants. Berlo mitigates this criticism by claiming that the simplified presentation implying a linear nature is used mainly for convenience. At the same time, he holds that real communication is not a linear process consisting of a fixed sequence of events.
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experience. If the message is outside the receiver's field of experience then they cannot reconstruct the sender's idea. This can happen when there are big cultural differences. Similar ideas are expressed in the SMCR model in the discussion of how attitudes, knowledge, and the social-cultural system of the participants shape communication.
496:, a code is a sign system to express information or a system of rules to convert information from one form into another. Berlo defines code as "any group of symbols that can be structured in a way that is meaningful to some person". A code consists of two parts: a set of elements (vocabulary) and a set of rules for combining them (
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choice of the right channel affects successful communication. For example, a classroom teacher has to decide which contents to present orally, by talking about them, and which ones to present visually through books. The choice also depends on the receiver whose decoding skills may be better for some channels than for others.
418:
unable to decode the message. For example, to be a good teacher, one needs to have an in-depth knowledge of the subject but at the same time be able to explain it to someone with little knowledge. Another aspect is knowledge of where the communication is taking place and how this situation might influence it.
519:. For written English, the most basic elements are letters, like the letters "f", "h", "i", and "s". Letters can be combined to form a group with a structure. Some of these groups correspond to words, like "fish", while others do not, like "hsif". Words are formed by arranging letters in the right way.
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Various criticisms of the SMCR model have been formulated. Many of them focus on the idea that it is "simple but effective" for some purposes but not complex enough to account for all forms of communication. Berlo himself also acknowledged this problem in retrospect. He argued that the SMCR model was
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skills. These skills are important for communication to succeed. They differ from communicator to communicator and also from situation to situation. For verbal communication, Berlo discusses the encoding skills of writing and speaking as well as the decoding skills of reading and listening. But there
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Hal Taylor criticizes Berlo's model by holding that it does not put enough emphasis on "the purposive nature of human communication". This criticism is based on the idea that the source usually intends to achieve some purpose by engaging in communication, like persuading the audience or getting them
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Another common objection is that Berlo assumes that effective communication will take place. In this regard, it is simply presupposed that source and receiver are sufficiently similar on the level of communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social-cultural system for communication to succeed.
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A lot of criticism of the SMCR model focuses on its description of communication as a one-way flow of information that starts with a source and ends with a receiver. In this regard, the model lacks a feedback loop. While it may be sufficient for some types of communication, there are many situations
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Source and receiver are usually individual persons, such as an employee reporting their progress to the employer. But groups of people can also take these roles, as when two nations enter into trade negotiations. Communication usually happens between distinct entities. Intrapersonal communication is
417:
matters for making the message interesting and understandable to them. If the source knows much more than the receiver, there is always a danger of encoding the message in an overly technical vocabulary. The result can be that it is not understandable to a poorly informed receiver since they may be
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The communication skills required for successful communication are different for source and receiver. For the source, this includes the ability to express oneself or to encode the message in an accessible way. Communication starts with a specific purpose and encoding skills are necessary to express
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Each of the four main components is characterized by parts that influence the communicative process. Berlo's main interest in discussing them is to study the conditions of the fidelity of communication. For Berlo, every communication is motivated by a goal the source intends to achieve and fidelity
302:
Despite the emphasis on only four basic components, Berlo initially identifies a total of six components. The two additional components are encoder and decoder. The encoder is responsible for translating the idea into a message and the decoder is responsible for translating the message back into an
260:
may interfere with the signal and distort it. Once the signal reaches the receiver, it is translated back into a message and made available to the destination. When making a landline phone call, the person calling is the source and their telephone is the transmitter. The wire is the channel and the
565:
For Berlo, the term "channel" has a wide meaning. It refers both to the vehicle of an idea and to the carrier of this vehicle. But it also includes the processes that transfer the idea into the vehicle and then back into an idea. Berlo explains the channel in analogy to getting from one shore of a
207:
may be and is used in communication". Berlo sees communication as a dynamic process that does not consist of a fixed sequence of events with a clearly defined beginning, middle, or end. But he acknowledges that the structure of language makes it necessary to describe communication in such a linear
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as two separate aspects. The same characteristics apply to both source and receiver but play different roles for them. How the communication takes place and what meaning is attached to the message depends on these factors. Generally speaking, the more the factors of source and receiver match each
211:
Berlo holds that the goal of all forms of communication is to influence the behavior of the audience. In this regard, he rejects the idea that other goals, like informing the receiver or entertaining them, are equally important. He argues that these distinctions are not exclusive. This means that
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The source is presented with many choices when formulating the message. They concern the elements and the structure of both code and content. They include choosing which code to use, which information to express, and how to express it. The treatment corresponds to how the source decides in these
298:
The SMCR model is usually described as a linear transmission model of communication. Its main focus is to identify the basic parts of communication and to show how their characteristics shape the communicative process. In this regard, Berlo understands his model as "a model of the ingredients of
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is a special case: the source and the receiver is the same person. In such cases, the source tries to influence itself, like a poet who writes poetry in secret in order to emotionally affect themselves. However, the more common goal is to influence others. The intended effect can be immediate or
81:
of the receiver. The source tries to achieve this by formulating a communicative intention and encoding it in the form of a message. The message is sent to the receiver using a channel and has to be decoded so they can understand it and react to it. The efficiency or fidelity of communication is
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The transmission is not restricted to one channel and may use several channels simultaneously. For example, a speaker may use their hands to give visual clues to the audience. This tends to increase the effectiveness of communication by promoting the receiver's understanding of the subject. The
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is the vehicle corresponding to the boat, and the air is the vehicle carrier corresponding to the water. Berlo identifies the term channel with all of these components but puts the main emphasis on the vehicle and the vehicle carrier. This takes the form of a discussion of the sensory processes
479:
Berlo distinguishes between message and meaning. For him, communication is about the transmission of messages. Meaning, on the other hand, is personal to each participant and is relevant for the stages of en- and decoding. What meaning they associate with the message depends on various factors,
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The social-cultural system affects the purpose for which one communicates, the receiver and channel one chooses, what kind of content one transmits, and the words one selects to express this content. Such factors can influence how communicators behave, what guidelines they follow, what is being
219:
For Berlo, communication is just one way to achieve this in relation to other people that are part of the environment: "we communicate to influence". For this reason, understanding communication involves understanding the source's goal, i.e. what reaction they intend to provoke in the audience.
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plays a central role in this regard and was influential for Berlo. The field of experience of a person is their mental frame of reference and includes past life experiences as well as attitudes, values, and beliefs. Communication is only possible if the message is located within both fields of
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and the content's structure is how these assertions are arranged, i.e. the order in which they are presented. The content is the information expressed in the message while the code is the way how it is expressed. The same content can often be expressed through different forms, for example, by
216:, or to entertain, as in the case of entertainment programs on television, are attempts to influence the behavior of the audience. Berlo gives a biological argument for this position by holding that " basic purpose is to alter the relationship between our own organism and the environment".
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and culture. It contrasts with the other factors (communication skills, attitudes, knowledge) since it is not just a mental factor: it depends not only on the person but also on their wider relations. It includes background beliefs and values common in this culture and ideas about
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used. For a newspaper article, the elements are the letters and words it contains. The structure of the message concerns the way these elements are arranged or to their order. Many interpreters talk of five main features by counting elements and structure as separate factors.
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and familiarity the communicators have with the subject matter and to what they know of each other. Without any knowledge, one cannot communicate and communication is very ineffective if the communicators' understanding is severely limited. For the source, knowledge about the
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in 1954. For
Schramm, communication starts with an idea in the mind of the source. This idea is then encoded into a message and sent to the receiver. The receiver then has to decode and interpret the message to reproduce the original idea. The concept of fields of
120:
expressed in the message. The treatment consists of the source's choices on the level of code and content when formulating the message. Each of these attributes can be analyzed based on the elements it uses and based on how they are combined to form a structure.
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is a positive or negative stance the communicators take toward the topic of the communication, themselves, each other, or other relevant things. Berlo defines attitude as "some predisposition, some tendency, some desire to either approach or avoid" an entity.
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including their past life experiences, their communication skills, their knowledge, and their culture. For this reason, they may associate different meanings with the message. For example, the source might think that the meaning of their message is of utmost
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translating it from one code into another. The source is responsible for selecting the appropriate content to communicate to the audience. This depends both on the communicative purpose of the source and on which content is useful to the receiver.
144:. It has been criticized for oversimplifying communication. For example, as a linear transmission model, it does not include the discussion of feedback loops found in many later models. Another common objection is that the SMCR model fails to take
467:, the content, and the treatment. Each of these factors can be analyzed from two perspectives: based on the elements they use and based on the structure of how these elements are connected to each other. The elements of a message are the
93:, and social-cultural system. Communication skills determine how good the communicators are at encoding and decoding messages. Attitudes affect whether they like or dislike the topic and each other. Knowledge includes how well they
224:, communicational and otherwise, is to affect the environment even though the agent is often not aware of it while performing them. Berlo acknowledges such cases and understands them as forms of misperception or inefficiency.
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an exception where the same person acts as source and receiver. Berlo discusses several aspects of sender and receiver that affect communication. He organizes them into four categories: communication skills, attitudes,
391:
He discusses three types of attitudes: the attitude the communicators have toward themselves, each other, and the subject matter. Various aspects of someone's personality belong to the attitude toward oneself like
167:. Some theorists also refer to it as the sender–message–channel–receiver model. Its exact formulation is usually attributed to Berlo but models with similar components were already proposed earlier, such as the
261:
person receiving the phone call is the destination. Their telephone is the receiver. Berlo made slight adjustments to many of the basic components of the
Shannon–Weaver model to include them in his own model.
128:
used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. Depending on the message, some channels are more useful than others. It is often advantageous to use several channels simultaneously.
371:
are also many non-verbal communication skills, like the encoding skills of drawing and gesturing. Berlo sees thought or reasoning as an additional communication skill relevant both to encoding and decoding.
607:. He discusses factors influencing the behavior of the communicators and the outcome of the communication, like the image source and receiver have of each other. Another application focuses on
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to perform a certain action. Berlo himself acknowledges the role of a purpose guiding communication but his model does not include an separate component corresponding to this factor.
69:, and receiver. Source and receiver are usually distinct persons but can also be groups and, in some cases, the same entity acts both as source and receiver. Berlo discusses both
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This means that the SMCR model fails to properly address the effects of noise and other barriers that may inhibit the transmission of the message or distort it along the way.
566:
river to the other. The boat is the vehicle and the water is the vehicle carrier. Additionally, docks are needed on both sides to enter and leave the boat. In the case of
463:
Berlo understands the message as a physical product of the source, like a speech, a written letter, or a painting. He holds that the message has three main factors: the
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and intrapersonal communication in the context of organizations and management. It can be used, for example, to analyze employee behavior to identify and resolve
651:
not intended as a comprehensive model of communication and may be better understood as an audiovisual tool to recall the main elements of communication.
124:
The remaining main component is the channel. It is the medium and process of how the message is transmitted. Berlo discusses it primarily in terms of the
244:
In the
Shannon–Weaver model of communication, the transmitter translates the message into a signal and the receiver translates it back into a message.
89:
Each of the four main components has several key attributes. Source and receiver share the same four attributes: communication skills, attitudes,
459:
The message has code, content, and treatment as its main factors, each of which can be analyzed based on its elements or based on its structure.
248:
Berlo's model was influenced by earlier models like the
Shannon–Weaver model and Schramm's model. Other influences include models developed by
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The content of a message is what was selected by the source to express their communicative purpose. The elements of the content are single
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The source–message–channel–receiver model of communication consists of four components, each of which is characterized by several aspects.
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Berlo understands the channel in terms of the five senses used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting.
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Both source and receiver are characterized by four features: communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social-cultural system.
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is based on things that source and receiver have in common. He understands communication in a very wide sense that includes
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as one of the steps of the receiver. Gerhard
Maletzke applied the SMCR model to mass communication in his 1978 book
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349:, and social-cultural system. Some theorists identify five features by talking about the social system and the
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means that the source gets what they want. Fidelity is also called effectiveness and is the opposite of noise.
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Schramm's model of communication is another significant influence on Berlo's model. It was first published by
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In
Schramm's model, communication is only possible if the fields of experience of sender and receiver overlap.
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and other barriers to communication seriously and simply assumes that communication attempts are successful.
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435:. Within a culture, these aspects are also determined by the person's position within society, like their
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problems. A similar application uses the SMCR model to analyze humorous messages at the workplace.
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The SMCR model influenced the development of later models, often in the form of extensions to it.
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The
Psychology of Fraud, Persuasion and Scam Techniques: Understanding What Makes Us Vulnerable
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Berlo uses the term "social-cultural system" to talk about the agent's position in their
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For spoken language, the basic elements are sounds. They are grouped together to form
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has a similar task in deciding how to translate the
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2510:. Headquarters, Department of the Army. p. 24.
1592:
1590:
906:
904:
902:
900:
212:even attempts to inform, as in the case of regular
2389:. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 11–44.
2161:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 261.
1636:
575:involved in communication. They correspond to the
2425:Handbook of Research on International Advertising
2199:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 81.
1326:
2808:. University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing.
1783:
2616:. University of Illinois Press. pp. 3–26.
2311:Communication Skills for Business Professionals
2138:Halder, Santoshi; Saha, Sanju (10 March 2023).
1130:
804:
2448:. SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 1588–1589.
2368:Visual Literacy: A Spectrum of Visual Learning
2140:The Routledge Handbook of Education Technology
1561:
1206:
199:or the use of color in advertisements besides
2614:The Process and Effects of Mass Communication
2556:Encyclopedia of Communication and Information
1294:
8:
2631:Scott, Craig; Lewis, Laurie (6 March 2017).
1831:
1799:
2408:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 211.
2275:. Cambridge University Press. p. 112.
2085:. Pearson Higher Education AU. p. 10.
1470:
1442:
1402:
1254:
1040:
2404:Nwankwo, Sonny; Aiyeku, Joseph F. (2002).
1891:Bettinghaus, Erwin P. (1 September 2000).
1752:
1684:
1486:
16:Linear transmission model of communication
2671:Silverthorne, Colin P. (1 January 2005).
2370:. Educational Technology. pp. 90–1.
2180:. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). p. 8.
1501:
997:
618:Bette Ann Stead applies Berlo's model to
2491:. Pearson Education India. p. 166.
2406:Dynamics of Marketing in African Nations
2294:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 3.
2142:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 93–94.
2104:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 31.
1914:. Pearson Education India. p. 105.
500:). For example, languages like English,
2827:. Oxford University Press. p. 70.
2752:"A Model for the Communication Process"
2427:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 26.
1988:A Dictionary of Media and Communication
1969:A Dictionary of Media and Communication
1912:Effective Communication and Soft Skills
1736:
1668:
1545:
1370:
1190:
1118:
942:
926:
789:Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport 2015
677:
433:what kinds of behavior are unacceptable
2576:Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology
2442:Pande, Navodita (2020). "SMCR Model".
2102:When Communication Became a Discipline
2066:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 270.
1933:. SAGE Publications. pp. 177–80.
1529:
1275:
1238:
1102:
1081:
1056:
887:
733:
136:, communication at the workplace, and
2218:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 54.
2100:Eadie, William F. (5 November 2021).
2028:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 49.
1952:. University of Alberta. p. 91.
1857:. CFSC Consortium, Inc. p. 381.
1767:
1724:
1712:
1624:
1612:
1517:
1458:
1430:
1418:
1354:
1342:
1222:
1169:
1146:
1013:
982:
970:
958:
910:
820:
772:
717:
603:. He sees communication as a form of
595:extended the SMCR model by including
140:. It also influenced many subsequent
39:sender–message–channel–receiver model
31:source–message–channel–receiver model
7:
2423:Okazaki, Shintaro (1 January 2012).
2330:Encyclopedia of Communication Theory
2271:Johnson, J. David (1 October 2009).
1815:
1596:
1310:
1002:1.1 Communication: History and Forms
601:The Psychology of Mass Communication
2735:. Cengage Learning. pp. 18–9.
2534:Rogers, Everett M. (11 June 1986).
2256:. Libraries Unlimited. p. 30.
1387:Cotterman, Forsberg & Mooz 2005
702:Tengan, Aigbavboa & Thwala 2021
183:Nature and purpose of communication
2664:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x
2538:. Simon and Schuster. p. 89.
2332:. SAGE Publications. p. 176.
2043:Dove, Martina (29 December 2020).
640:intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
404:As a factor of communication, the
104:The attributes of the message are
14:
2696:The Academy of Management Journal
2347:Mannan, Zahed (20 October 2013).
2123:. Cengage Learning. p. 140.
2081:Dwyer, Judith (15 October 2012).
1637:Helen, Caroline & Karen 2009
328:
319:
37:. It is also referred to as the
2805:Communication in the Real World
2597:. Lexington Books. p. 11.
2195:Hood, Lucy (26 November 2013).
2313:. Cambridge University Press.
2214:Huebsch, J. C. (20 May 2014).
2119:Gibson, Pattie (28 May 2013).
1895:. Information Age Publishing.
1876:. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
620:content theories of motivation
1:
2652:Bell System Technical Journal
2290:Lane, LeRoy L. (3 May 2005).
2121:The World of Customer Service
1327:Chesebro & Bertelsen 1998
1086:1. Basic Communication Models
286:Overview and basic components
1929:Blythe, Jim (5 March 2009).
1784:Salkind & Rasmussen 2008
165:The Process of Communication
55:The Process of Communication
49:. It was first published by
2506:Pollock, C. Daniel (1976).
2273:Managing Knowledge Networks
2233:Jandt, Fred Edmund (2010).
1131:Chandler & Munday 2011a
805:Harrington & Terry 2008
632:Maslow's hierarchy of needs
229:Intrapersonal communication
2891:
2593:Schnell, James A. (2001).
2366:Moore, David Mike (1994).
2252:Januszewski, Alan (2001).
1562:Chandler & Munday 2011
1207:Littlejohn & Foss 2009
1197:, How communication works.
1135:Shannon and Weaver's model
587:Influence and applications
236:Relation to earlier models
2787:. Routledge. p. 94.
2690:Stead, Bette Ann (1972).
2675:. NYU Press. p. 99.
2635:. John Wiley & Sons.
2519:. Routledge. p. 20.
2047:. Routledge. p. 62.
1931:Key Concepts in Marketing
1910:Bhatnagar, Nitin (2011).
1295:Nwankwo & Aiyeku 2002
33:is a linear transmission
2536:Communication Technology
1872:Berlo, David K. (1960).
1832:Powell & Powell 2015
193:non-verbal communication
175:. For this reason, term
75:non-verbal communication
2823:Zaharna, R. S. (2022).
2750:Taylor, Hal R. (1962).
1853:Agunga, Robert (2006).
1255:Carney & Lymer 2015
1151:Models Of Communication
142:communication theorists
2489:Educational Technology
2487:Pathak, R. P. (2012).
1753:Scott & Lewis 2017
1685:Halder & Saha 2023
1487:Halder & Saha 2023
562:
460:
422:Social-cultural system
295:
269:
245:
161:model of communication
35:model of communication
26:
2858:Communication studies
2578:. SAGE. p. 634.
2454:10.4135/9781483375519
1345:, pp. 30–31, 41.
560:
458:
293:
267:
243:
116:. The content is the
24:
2868:Conceptual modelling
2863:Communication theory
2237:. SAGE. p. 41.
494:communication theory
445:cultural differences
358:Communication skills
201:verbal communication
187:According to Berlo,
169:Shannon–Weaver model
2873:Human communication
1697:Dowling et al. 2020
1121:, pp. 379–423.
634:, lower and higher
622:, like the ones by
364:communication skill
311:Source and receiver
2216:Communication 2000
2009:. Guilford Press.
1653:Lawson et al. 2019
1578:Lawson et al. 2019
628:Frederick Herzberg
568:oral communication
563:
461:
296:
270:
246:
134:mass communication
27:
2604:978-0-7391-0147-6
2526:978-1-317-48426-4
2498:978-81-317-5429-0
2434:978-1-78100-104-2
2415:978-1-56720-399-8
2358:978-0-495-56764-6
2320:978-1-108-59441-7
2301:978-1-59752-168-0
2282:978-1-139-48223-3
2244:978-1-4129-7010-5
2187:978-0-335-22355-8
2168:978-0-7817-6757-6
2149:978-1-000-59526-0
2111:978-1-4985-7216-3
2073:978-0-7303-6916-5
2054:978-1-000-33402-9
2035:978-0-471-74674-4
2016:978-1-57230-419-2
1921:978-93-325-0129-4
1902:978-1-60752-954-5
1800:Silverthorne 2005
1715:, pp. 63–69.
1687:, pp. 93–94.
1627:, pp. 54–56.
1615:, pp. 57–59.
1520:, pp. 49–50.
1461:, pp. 48–49.
1433:, pp. 45–48.
1016:, pp. 15–18.
163:in his 1960 book
53:in his 1960 book
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250:Theodore Newcomb
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630:. According to
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2702:(3): 389–394.
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2015:
2002:
1996:
1990:. OUP Oxford.
1983:
1977:
1971:. OUP Oxford.
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624:Abraham Maslow
613:human resource
609:human behavior
597:interpretation
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543:movie director
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1630:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
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1531:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1489:, p. 93.
1488:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1424:
1421:, p. 45.
1420:
1415:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1376:
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1296:
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1228:
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1196:
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1187:
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1027:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1003:
999:
994:
992:
988:
985:, p. 13.
984:
979:
976:
973:, p. 12.
972:
967:
964:
961:, p. 11.
960:
955:
952:
948:
944:
939:
936:
932:
928:
923:
920:
916:
912:
907:
905:
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832:
830:
826:
822:
817:
814:
810:
806:
801:
798:
794:
790:
785:
782:
779:, SMCR Model.
778:
774:
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
759:
757:
755:
753:
751:
749:
747:
743:
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410:understanding
407:
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189:communication
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100:
96:
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87:
85:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
59:communication
56:
52:
48:
47:Berlo's model
44:
40:
36:
32:
23:
19:
2824:
2804:
2784:
2759:
2755:
2732:
2699:
2695:
2672:
2655:
2651:
2632:
2613:
2594:
2575:
2555:
2535:
2516:
2507:
2488:
2444:
2424:
2405:
2386:
2367:
2348:
2329:
2310:
2291:
2272:
2253:
2234:
2215:
2196:
2177:
2158:
2139:
2120:
2101:
2082:
2063:
2044:
2025:
2006:
1987:
1968:
1949:
1930:
1911:
1892:
1873:
1854:
1827:
1811:
1795:
1779:
1748:
1737:Huebsch 2014
1732:
1720:
1708:
1692:
1680:
1669:Okazaki 2012
1664:
1648:
1632:
1620:
1608:
1573:
1557:
1546:Johnson 2009
1541:
1525:
1513:
1482:
1466:
1454:
1438:
1426:
1414:
1398:
1382:
1371:Schnell 2001
1366:
1350:
1338:
1322:
1306:
1250:
1234:
1218:
1202:
1191:Schramm 1960
1142:
1126:
1119:Shannon 1948
1114:
1052:
1009:
978:
966:
954:
943:Pollock 1976
938:
927:Zaharna 2022
922:
823:, p. 2.
816:
800:
784:
729:
713:
661:
657:
653:
649:
617:
600:
590:
581:
564:
539:
526:
510:
491:
478:
462:
441:
437:social class
425:
405:
403:
390:
384:
382:
373:
363:
361:
343:
305:
301:
297:
271:
247:
226:
218:
210:
186:
176:
164:
155:
131:
123:
103:
101:background.
88:
86:the source.
54:
46:
42:
38:
30:
28:
18:
2762:(3): 8–10.
2756:STWP Review
1770:, pp.
1580:, pp.
1530:Pathak 2012
1473:, pp.
1276:Agunga 2006
1241:, pp.
1239:Blythe 2009
1193:, pp.
1172:, pp.
1103:Mannan 2013
1082:Narula 2006
1057:Rogers 1986
890:, pp.
888:Taylor 1962
791:, pp.
775:, pp.
734:Gibson 2013
577:five senses
362:For Berlo,
157:David Berlo
126:five senses
118:information
110:sign system
51:David Berlo
2847:Categories
1834:, p.
1818:, p.
1802:, p.
1786:, p.
1768:Stead 1972
1739:, p.
1725:Berlo 1960
1713:Berlo 1960
1699:, p.
1671:, p.
1655:, p.
1639:, p.
1625:Berlo 1960
1613:Berlo 1960
1599:, p.
1548:, p.
1532:, p.
1518:Berlo 1960
1504:, p.
1459:Berlo 1960
1445:, p.
1431:Berlo 1960
1419:Berlo 1960
1405:, p.
1389:, p.
1373:, p.
1357:, p.
1355:Eadie 2021
1343:Berlo 1960
1329:, p.
1313:, p.
1297:, p.
1278:, p.
1257:, p.
1225:, p.
1223:Dwyer 2012
1209:, p.
1170:Moore 1994
1147:Ruben 2001
1105:, p.
1059:, p.
1043:, p.
1014:Berlo 1960
983:Berlo 1960
971:Berlo 1960
959:Berlo 1960
945:, p.
929:, p.
913:, p.
911:Jandt 2010
821:Berlo 1960
807:, p.
773:Pande 2020
736:, p.
720:, p.
718:Dwyer 2012
704:, p.
667:References
605:persuasion
547:screenplay
529:assertions
482:importance
279:experience
177:SMCR model
152:Background
138:psychology
95:understand
84:motivating
61:: source,
43:SMCR model
2768:2376-0761
2716:0001-4273
2480:213132710
1816:Lane 2005
1597:Dove 2020
1311:Hood 2013
777:1588–1589
672:Citations
646:Criticism
572:soundwave
536:Treatment
517:morphemes
406:knowledge
400:Knowledge
379:Attitudes
347:knowledge
214:education
91:knowledge
2776:43093688
513:phonemes
415:audience
385:attitude
368:thinking
205:meanings
114:language
99:cultural
79:behavior
1846:Sources
1772:389–394
1243:177–180
553:Channel
523:Content
506:Swahili
473:symbols
451:Message
428:society
408:is the
351:culture
112:like a
67:channel
63:message
2831:
2812:
2791:
2774:
2766:
2739:
2724:254868
2722:
2714:
2679:
2639:
2620:
2601:
2582:
2563:
2542:
2523:
2495:
2478:
2468:
2431:
2412:
2393:
2374:
2355:
2336:
2317:
2298:
2279:
2260:
2241:
2222:
2203:
2184:
2165:
2146:
2127:
2108:
2089:
2070:
2051:
2032:
2013:
1994:
1975:
1956:
1937:
1918:
1899:
1880:
1861:
498:syntax
254:signal
222:habits
71:verbal
45:, and
41:, the
2772:JSTOR
2720:JSTOR
2476:S2CID
1582:75–76
1174:90–91
793:18–19
636:needs
504:, or
469:signs
258:noise
208:way.
195:like
146:noise
2829:ISBN
2810:ISBN
2789:ISBN
2764:ISSN
2737:ISBN
2712:ISSN
2677:ISBN
2637:ISBN
2618:ISBN
2599:ISBN
2580:ISBN
2561:ISBN
2540:ISBN
2521:ISBN
2493:ISBN
2466:ISBN
2429:ISBN
2410:ISBN
2391:ISBN
2372:ISBN
2353:ISBN
2334:ISBN
2315:ISBN
2296:ISBN
2277:ISBN
2258:ISBN
2239:ISBN
2220:ISBN
2201:ISBN
2182:ISBN
2163:ISBN
2144:ISBN
2125:ISBN
2106:ISBN
2087:ISBN
2068:ISBN
2049:ISBN
2030:ISBN
2011:ISBN
1992:ISBN
1973:ISBN
1954:ISBN
1935:ISBN
1916:ISBN
1897:ISBN
1878:ISBN
1859:ISBN
1566:code
1475:30–1
1195:3–26
892:8–10
626:and
515:and
488:Code
471:and
465:code
171:and
106:code
73:and
29:The
2704:doi
2660:doi
2458:hdl
2450:doi
1788:634
1701:270
1550:112
1534:166
1506:105
1299:211
1280:381
1211:176
809:261
738:140
383:An
2849::
2770:.
2758:.
2754:.
2718:.
2710:.
2700:15
2698:.
2694:.
2656:27
2654:.
2559:.
2474:.
2464:.
2456:.
1836:20
1804:99
1760:^
1741:54
1673:26
1657:76
1601:62
1589:^
1564:,
1494:^
1447:30
1407:29
1391:49
1375:11
1359:31
1331:21
1315:81
1287:^
1266:^
1259:91
1227:10
1181:^
1158:^
1149:,
1133:,
1107:19
1093:^
1084:,
1068:^
1061:89
1045:30
1021:^
1000:,
990:^
947:24
931:70
915:41
899:^
828:^
745:^
722:11
706:94
680:^
65:,
2837:.
2818:.
2797:.
2778:.
2760:9
2745:.
2726:.
2706::
2685:.
2666:.
2662::
2645:.
2626:.
2607:.
2588:.
2569:.
2548:.
2529:.
2501:.
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2460::
2452::
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2247:.
2228:.
2209:.
2190:.
2171:.
2152:.
2133:.
2114:.
2095:.
2076:.
2057:.
2038:.
2019:.
2000:.
1981:.
1962:.
1943:.
1924:.
1905:.
1886:.
1867:.
1838:.
1822:.
1820:3
1806:.
1790:.
1774:.
1755:.
1743:.
1703:.
1675:.
1659:.
1643:.
1641:8
1603:.
1584:.
1568:.
1552:.
1536:.
1508:.
1477:.
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1409:.
1393:.
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1153:.
1137:.
1109:.
1088:.
1063:.
1047:.
1004:.
949:.
933:.
917:.
894:.
811:.
795:.
740:.
724:.
708:.
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