211:
348:
328:. Such a procedure allows for comparisons to be made in real-terms and across different localities, which is especially pertinent when national-level inequalities are mostly influenced by regional disparities in income and cost of living. However, the level of disaggregation (granularity of geo-spatial units considered) and the number of localities selected for comparison varies across academic studies. For instance, geographic sub-groups can be considered at the state level, as an urban/rural divide, or even within-component (differences between households belonging to the same group or community). Typical
250:. This includes limited access to both healthcare, as well as quality and nutritious food. Such impacts compound over time, leaving individuals to become more susceptible to future health problems and illnesses. For instance, the spatial patterns of such environmental factors and hospital accessibility can impact
363:
In particular, an inherent difficulty in comparing urban and rural regions is the vast disparity in quality and variety of goods and services enjoyed by the typical household in either type of community. Furthermore, differences in disposable income and composition of spending pose further challenges
359:
The availability and reliability of local data remains a barrier to accurate estimation in academic studies. The typical limitations of econometric studies may also impact the soundness of empirical results and conclusions. As such, there remains no unified theory within economic geography to provide
118:
found between cities and rural areas. In particular, the clustering of agriculture activities versus manufacturing activities informs much of the urban-rural wage gap, as industrial jobs tend to earn higher wages than their counterparts in the agricultural sector. The rate at which this clustering of
311:
There remains no academic consensus on whether trends in spatial inequalities over time are causes of region-based differences in income, or rather the symptoms of other socio-economic disparities. Furthermore, the complex and intertwined relationships between geographical features, urbanization,
302:
have been observed to actually have increases in poverty rates and income inequality, in spite of nation-wide benefits of economic growth being realized, as urban-rural gaps tend to widen. Additionally, migration patterns from rural to urban areas in developing nations are observed to be a labor
131:
suggests that manufacturing tends to form the "core" of an industrial cluster, with agricultural activity tending to take place on the "periphery" of such urban formations. This affects the organizational set-up of linkages throughout supply chains, as agricultural goods and resources (directly
194:, which in turn impacts the region's ability to continue engaging in future crop production. In addition, in the face of erratic weather patterns, global warming, and climate change, these challenges have been exacerbated by distorted rainfall patterns and increasingly frequent crop failures.
234:
Regions with access to strong transportation networks (including highways, railways, airports etc.) are more likely to benefit from external trade in comparison to remote regions. As transportation costs and logistics inform much of the clustering of economic activity within a region, the
242:
conditions and the well-being of workers, and thus their choices with respect to selecting regions/ communities to live in. As such, city planning and the provision of public infrastructure and services remains essential to public policy considerations for rapidly urbanizing communities.
261:
Furthermore, as families of similar incomes tend to cluster, further segregation of socio-economic classes is propagated by schooling environments. This adversely effects the opportunities available to children from low-income backgrounds, and reduces the ability for
206:
determined geographical features of the area directly determines the region's ability to produce traditional agricultural goods and exports. Therefore, such externally determined geographical and climate features informs the composition of employment in the
153:
Population concentration and the clustering of particular industries also allows for the pooling of workers, which results in local business needs and workers' specific skillsets becoming better aligned. Such specialization also allows for
507:
76:
are traditionally considered to be motivating factors for migration patterns between urban cities and rural areas. This, in turn, impacts the concentration of specific industries and sectors within a given area, as well as the
379:, these summary statistics do not allow for the decomposition of inequality into multiple dimensions, and thus are insufficient for the multi-faceted analysis required to study spatially dependent inequalities.
1148:
Chakravorty, Sanjoy (2003 a), “Industrial
Location in Post-reform India: Patterns of Inter-regional Divergence and Intra-regional Convergence”, Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 120–52.
174:
Natural resource availability affects industry prevalence, as economic activities which are heavily dependent on specific natural resources tend to cluster around suitable geographical regions and climates.
150:(indirect benefits gained from third-party activities) afforded by such urbanization (and the mechanisms by which they occur) remain to be of interest for academic studies and public policy considerations.
201:
theory suggests that an over-reliance of employment on abundance of natural resources (including forestry, fossil fuels, mineral deposits, etc.) can lead to instability and volatile prices. However, the
235:
geographical concentration of particular industries informs the extent to which particular physical infrastructures must be developed and invested in to support the needs of specific localities.
190:
and modern implements needed for efficient farming. Such unsustainable farming practices have led to natural resource depreciation over time, including lower quality of soil and higher rates of
738:
Elbers, C.; Lanjouw, P.; Mistiaen, J.; Ă–zler, B.; Simler, K. R. (2005). "Are
Neighbours Equal? Estimating Local Inequality in Three Developing Countries". In Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (eds.).
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economies refer to the benefits gained from such industrial clustering and city-formation. With the observed savings in transportation costs from this phenomenon being central to the study of
1188:
Lall, Somik V., Jun Koo and Sanjoy
Chakravorty (2003): “Diversity Matters: The Economic Geography of Industry Location in India”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3072, Washington DC.
1154:
Deichmann, Uwe; Somik V. Lall; Stephen J. Redding and
Anthony J. Venables (2008), “Industrial Location in Developing Countries”, The World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp 219–46.
1191:
Lall, Somik V. and Sanjoy
Chakravorty (2005), “Industrial Location and Spatial Inequality: Theory and Evidence from India”, Review of Development Economics, Vol.9, No. 1, pp. 47–68
182:
points towards the impact of such spatial inequities on the quality of natural resources available. Although employment in the northern regions of the nation is heavily reliant on the
339:
While nominal wages tend to be higher in cities and urban regions, the same is not necessarily true of real wages, as rising housing costs and expenses tend to offset these benefits.
85:
to quantify these disparities (particularly within a given nation, as opposed to across different nations), due to lack of region-specific datasets, the level of geographical
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Localities which have a heavy reliance on agricultural jobs require favorable climate conditions for crop production and harvesting. For instance, empirical evidence from
136:
to be realized, as different economic activities become concentrated in regions that are best suited for such work, and transportation costs can be reduced accordingly.
781:/ Justine Boulant, Monica Brezzi and Paolo Veneri. In Income Levels And Inequality in Metropolitan Areas A Comparative Approach in OECD Countries. OECD Publishing.
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when interacting with other communities and regions which are not as specialized, thus resulting in more geography-based disparities in economic activity.
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Social infrastructural components, which impact health and education standards (hospitals, schools, public libraries, etc.) additionally influence
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choices made by local governments, thus perpetuating spatially-based disparities. However, there remain significant challenges in carrying out
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outputted from agricultural processes) are then transported inwards towards the urbanized center of the region. Such patterns permit greater
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within a nation can first be nominally estimated from local datasets, and then subsequently adjusted to account for regional differences in
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and greater exchange of ideas, as similar firms can more easily and dynamically interact with one another. This can assist in gaining a
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1170:(2004): “The new economic geography: Past, present and the future”, Papers in Regional Science, Vol. 83, No. 1, pp. 139–164.
567:
676:
Aten, B.; Heston, A. (2005). "Regional Output
Differences in International Perspective". In Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (eds.).
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89:
required to reveal such trends, as well as the inherent differences in incomes and living costs across different communities.
966:"Urbanization and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from dynamic panel data analysis of selected urbanizing countries"
1185:(1991a), “Increasing Returns and Economic Geography”, The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 99, No. 3, pp. 483–499.
1207:
1014:"Spatial inequalities of COVID-19 mortality rate in relation to socioeconomic and environmental factors across England"
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to analyze the effects of density, industry location, or related variables on regional differences in output or costs.
1212:
1151:
Combes, Mayer and Thisse, Economic
Geography: The Integration of Regions and Nations (Princeton University Press 2009)
1160:(1996): “Economics of Agglomeration”, Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, Vol. 10, pp. 339–378.
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are thought to play a key role in influencing spatial inequality as well. In particular, economies undergoing rapid
398:
31:
563:
376:
713:
Rural-Urban
Migration in Developing Countries : A Survey of Theoretical Predictions and Empirical Findings.
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In particular, people living in regions with poor infrastructure and public services are at a greater risk of
49:) than rural areas, the cost-of-living and availability of skilled work correlates to regional divergences in
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321:
147:
791:
Israel, E.; Frenkel, A. (2018). "Social justice and spatial inequality: Toward a conceptual framework".
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218:
159:
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availability of infrastructure, and access to public resources further complicates empirical research.
26:
distribution of income and resources across geographical regions. Attributable to local differences in
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Commission on Growth and
Development Working Paper;No. 16. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank.
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271:
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Whilst jobs located in urban areas tend to have higher nominal wages (unadjusted for differences in
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and output. Additionally, the spatial component of public infrastructure affects access to quality
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with respect to a particular industry or sector, which can be especially beneficial for realizing
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Wei, Yehua Dennis (ed.) (2015), "Spatial
Inequality", Applied Geography, Vol.61, pp. 1-116.
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Income Levels And Inequality in Metropolitan Areas A Comparative Approach in OECD Countries
30:, geographical features (presence of mountains, coastlines, particular climates, etc.) and
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market adjustment to an increasing shift in importance from agriculture to manufacturing.
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mortgages becoming highly concentrated amongst particular neighborhoods and communities.
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Policy Research Working Paper; No. 3915. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank.
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due to variations in natural resource composition and abundance, foreign trade and
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jobs occurs provides a partial explanation as to why different communities undergo
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mortgages becoming highly concentrated to specific neighborhoods and geographies.
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Spatial Inequality and Economic Development : Theories, Facts, and Policies.
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591:"Industrial Location and Spatial Inequality: Theory and Evidence from India"
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1113:"Spatial inequalities: across states or between rural and urban areas?".
34:, such inequality remains central to public policy discussions regarding
935:"Redlining Revisited: Mortgage Lending Patterns in Sacramento 1930–2004"
203:
191:
913:
Tanaka, Tomomi; Nuamah, Camille; Geiger, Michael (December 14, 2018).
1176:"Geographies of Digital Exclusion: Data and Inequality (open access)"
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Ahimah-Agyakwah, S.; Nketiah-Amponsah, E.; Agyire-Tettey, F. (2022).
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and productivity is a significant factor affecting the difference in
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Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (2005). Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (eds.).
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278:- a racially discriminatory historical practice, which resulted in
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in the United States is an example of spatial inequality, whereby
179:
841:
Krugman, P. (1991). "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography".
392: – Distribution of income or wealth between different groups
503:"Infrastructure inequality is a characteristic of urbanization"
501:
Pandey, Bhartendu; Brelsford, Christa; Seto, Karen C. (2022).
401: – Urban development in locations generating cost savings
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a broadly accepted causal explanation for spatial inequality.
274:. An example of this phenomenon in the United States includes
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infection, spread, and mortality rates within a nation.
711:“Lall, Somik V.; Selod, Harris; Shalizi, Zmarak. 2006.
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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
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https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/28050
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https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/8669
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International Journal of Urban and Regional Research
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
416: – Systemic denial of services to some areas
123:at different rates. From this, the theory of the
1066:"Urban inequalities in the 21st century economy"
440: – Improving quality of life in rural areas
434: – Process of population movement to cities
508:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
65:, which directly impacts economic well-being).
777:Boulant, Brezzi, M., & Veneri, P. (2016).
290:As different communities may not have similar
8:
1117:. OECD Publishing. 2017. pp. 141–142.
881:National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER)
742:. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–60.
680:. Oxford University Press. pp. 15–36.
170:Natural resources and geographical features
98:Urbanization and economies of agglomeration
562:Romero, Jessie and Schwartzman, Felipe F.
472:. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–12.
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1123:10.1787/eco_surveys-ind-2017-8-en
1115:OECD Economic Surveys: India 2017
1012:Sun, Y.; Hu, X.; Xie, J. (2021).
332:studies will then design and use
1018:Science of the Total Environment
951:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00873.x
610:10.1111/j.1467-9361.2005.00263.x
568:Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond
1064:Nijman, J.; Wei, Y. D. (2020).
1030:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143595
598:Review of Development Economics
564:Inequality in and across Cities
57:and education (key elements of
970:Cogent Economics & Finance
933:Hernandez, Jesus (June 2009).
407: – net benefits to agents
221:lending practices resulted in
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983:10.1080/23322039.2022.2109282
422: – Microeconomic concept
186:, there is limited access to
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843:Journal of Political Economy
793:Progress in Human Geography
748:10.1093/0199278636.003.0003
686:10.1093/0199278636.003.0002
566:. October 2018, No. 18-10.
478:10.1093/0199278636.003.0001
364:to comparative approaches.
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399:Economies of agglomeration
32:economies of agglomeration
877:"Agglomeration Economics"
377:income inequality metrics
248:poor health and wellbeing
102:The relationship between
805:10.1177/0309132517702969
719:License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.”
657:License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
522:10.1073/pnas.2119890119
316:Output and productivity
230:Regional Infrastructure
219:racially discriminatory
976:(1): Article 2109282.
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322:distribution of income
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148:positive externalities
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292:comparative advantage
266:needed to escape the
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160:comparative advantage
351:Map of countries by
343:Empirical challenges
300:trade liberalization
272:generational poverty
156:knowledge spillovers
1208:Economic inequality
649:Kim, Sukkoo. 2008.
515:(15): e2119890119.
390:Economic Inequality
184:agricultural sector
36:economic inequality
20:Spatial inequality
1213:Regional economics
1076:: Article 102188.
1024:: Article 143595.
375:remain as popular
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254:outcomes, such as
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144:economic geography
134:economies of scale
104:population density
83:empirical research
68:Variation in both
1132:978-92-64-26935-4
1070:Applied Geography
890:978-0-226-29789-7
438:Rural Development
334:regression models
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