131:
414:
449:
428:
2562:
2415:
5298:
1516:
31:
261:, a process where the angle of reflection is dependent on the arrangement of the atoms in the gelatin. The holographic gratings can have up to 6000 lines/mm and can be up to twice as efficient in collecting light as blazed gratings. Because they are sealed between two sheets of glass, the holographic gratings are very versatile, potentially lasting decades before needing replacement.
1301:, a galaxy in the Virgo Cluster, has a large portion of its stars rotating in the opposite direction as the other portion. It is believed that the galaxy is the combination of two smaller galaxies that were rotating in opposite directions to each other. Bright stars in galaxies can also help determine the distance to a galaxy, which may be a more accurate method than
191:
1036:
5310:
2480:. For objects surrounded by gas, such as comets and planets with atmospheres, further emission and absorption happens at specific wavelengths in the gas, imprinting the spectrum of the gas on that of the solid object. In the case of worlds with thick atmospheres or complete cloud or haze cover (such as the four
1454:
Dust and molecules in the interstellar medium not only obscures photometry, but also causes absorption lines in spectroscopy. Their spectral features are generated by transitions of component electrons between different energy levels, or by rotational or vibrational spectra. Detection usually occurs
1383:
noticed that many nebulae showed only emission lines rather than a full spectrum like stars. From the work of
Kirchhoff, he concluded that nebulae must contain "enormous masses of luminous gas or vapour." However, there were several emission lines that could not be linked to any terrestrial element,
1370:
difficult. Reflection nebulae, as their name suggest, reflect the light of nearby stars. Their spectra are the same as the stars surrounding them, though the light is bluer; shorter wavelengths scatter better than longer wavelengths. Emission nebulae emit light at specific wavelengths depending on
1277:
In the 1950s, strong radio sources were found to be associated with very dim, very red objects. When the first spectrum of one of these objects was taken there were absorption lines at wavelengths where none were expected. It was soon realised that what was observed was a normal galactic spectrum,
4316:
Ellis, Richard S.; McLure, Ross J.; Dunlop, James S.; Robertson, Brant E.; Ono, Yoshiaki; Schenker, Matthew A.; Koekemoer, Anton; Bowler, Rebecca A. A.; Ouchi, Masami; Rogers, Alexander B.; Curtis-Lake, Emma; Schneider, Evan; Charlot, Stephane; Stark, Daniel P.; Furlanetto, Steven R.; Cirasuolo,
248:
The limitation to a blazed grating is the width of the mirrors, which can only be ground a finite amount before focus is lost; the maximum is around 1000 lines/mm. In order to overcome this limitation holographic gratings were developed. Volume phase holographic gratings use a thin film of
1261:
in 1937 found that the galaxies in a cluster were moving much faster than seemed to be possible from the mass of the cluster inferred from the visible light. Zwicky hypothesized that there must be a great deal of non-luminous matter in the galaxy clusters, which became known as
230:
The resolution of a prism is limited by its size; a larger prism will provide a more detailed spectrum, but the increase in mass makes it unsuitable for highly detailed work. This issue was resolved in the early 1900s with the development of high-quality reflection gratings by
244:
which utilizes a large number of parallel mirrors, the small portion of light can be focused and visualized. These new spectroscopes were more detailed than a prism, required less light, and could be focused on a specific region of the spectrum by tilting the grating.
239:
in Ottawa, Canada. Light striking a mirror will reflect at the same angle, however a small portion of the light will be refracted at a different angle; this is dependent upon the indices of refraction of the materials and the wavelength of the light. By creating a
1975:
3575:
Romanowsky, Aaron J.; Douglas, Nigel G.; Arnaboldi, Magda; Kuijken, Konrad; Merrifield, Michael R.; Napolitano, Nicola R.; Capaccioli, Massimo; Freeman, Kenneth C. (19 September 2003). "A Dearth of Dark Matter in
Ordinary Elliptical Galaxies".
2430:. These two stars, when viewed through a spectrometer, will show a composite spectrum: the spectrum of each star will be added together. This composite spectrum becomes easier to detect when the stars are of similar luminosity and of different
358:
to observe 200 MHz solar radiation. Two incident beams, one directly from the sun and the other reflected from the sea surface, generated the necessary interference. The first multi-receiver interferometer was built in the same year by
2071:
2149:
1629:
101:
can reveal many properties of stars, such as their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance and luminosity. Spectroscopy can show the velocity of motion towards or away from the observer by measuring the
2401:
This motion can cause confusion when looking at a solar or galactic spectrum, because the expected redshift based on the simple Hubble law will be obscured by the peculiar motion. For example, the shape and size of the
210:
used his skills as a glassmaker to create very pure prisms, which allowed him to observe 574 dark lines in a seemingly continuous spectrum. Soon after this, he combined telescope and prism to observe the spectrum of
1720:
was blueshifted, meaning it was moving towards the Milky Way. He recorded the spectra of 20 other galaxies — all but four of which were redshifted — and was able to calculate their velocities relative to the Earth.
2225:
481:, hot gases emit light at specific wavelengths, and hot solid objects surrounded by cooler gases show a near-continuous spectrum with dark lines corresponding to the emission lines of the gases. By comparing the
2524:
Asteroids can be classified into three major types according to their spectra. The original categories were created by Clark R. Chapman, David
Morrison, and Ben Zellner in 1975, and further expanded by
2448:
of the system determines the magnitude of the observed shift: if the observer is looking perpendicular to the orbital plane there will be no observed radial velocity. For example, a person looking at a
2396:
319:. He built a radio antenna to look at potential sources of interference for transatlantic radio transmissions. One of the sources of noise discovered came not from Earth, but from the center of the
182:
light is absorbed by atmospheric water and carbon dioxide, so while the equipment is similar to that used in optical spectroscopy, satellites are required to record much of the infrared spectrum.
1133:. By measuring the peak wavelength of a star, the surface temperature can be determined. For example, if the peak wavelength of a star is 502 nm the corresponding temperature will be 5772
2549:
are 'metallic'. There are other classifications for unusual asteroids. C- and S-type asteroids are the most common asteroids. In 2002 the Tholen classification was further "evolved" into the
2317:
1419:. When the atom transitions between these two states, it releases an emission or absorption line of 21 cm. This line is within the radio range and allows for very precise measurements:
296:
scale of a spectrum can be calibrated as a function of wavelength by comparison with an observation of a standard star with corrections for atmospheric absorption of light; this is known as
2272:. The larger the value of z, the more redshifted the light and the farther away the object is from the Earth. As of January 2013, the largest galaxy redshift of z~12 was found using the
1027:; Population I stars are the youngest stars and have the highest metal content (the Sun is a Pop I star), while Population III stars are the oldest stars with a very low metal content.
1023:
of each spectral line in an emission spectrum, both the elements present in a star and their relative abundances can be determined. Using this information stars can be categorized into
5129:
4738:
Lisse, C. M.; Dennerl, K.; Englhauser, J.; Harden, M.; Marshall, F. E.; Mumma, M. J.; Petre, R.; Pye, J. P.; Ricketts, M. J.; Schmitt, J.; Trumper, J.; West, R. G. (11 October 1996).
4185:
Johansson, LE; Andersson, C; Ellder, J; Friberg, P; Hjalmarson, A; Hoglund, B; Irvine, WM; Olofsson, H; Rydbeck, G (1984). "Spectral scan of Orion A and IRC+10216 from 72 to 91 GHz".
1202:
1097:
1559:. The wavelength of redshifted light is longer, appearing redder than the source. Conversely, the wavelength of blueshifted light is shorter, appearing bluer than the source light:
1455:
in radio, microwave, or infrared portions of the spectrum. The chemical reactions that form these molecules can happen in cold, diffuse clouds or in dense regions illuminated with
1266:. Since his discovery, astronomers have determined that a large portion of galaxies (and most of the universe) is made up of dark matter. In 2003, however, four galaxies (NGC 821,
1885:
469:
Newton used a prism to split white light into a spectrum of color, and
Fraunhofer's high-quality prisms allowed scientists to see dark lines of an unknown origin. In the 1850s,
2573:
The spectra of comets consist of a reflected solar spectrum from the dusty clouds surrounding the comet, as well as emission lines from gaseous atoms and molecules excited to
1403:
Not all emission nebulae are found around or near stars where solar heating causes ionisation. The majority of gaseous emission nebulae are formed of neutral hydrogen. In the
4802:
3475:
1659:
2516:, as well as Earth-like planets. Using spectroscopy, compounds such as alkali metals, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane have all been discovered.
3403:
2270:
1766:
1706:
1449:
1816:
1686:
3513:
3454:
3120:
2453:
from the side will see the animals moving toward and away from them, whereas if they look from directly above they will only be moving in the horizontal plane.
2250:
1868:
1840:
1789:
198:, incident light is separated into several diffraction orders which separate different wavelengths apart (red and blue lines), excepting the 0-th order (black).
5020:
4655:
Chapman, Clark R.; Morrison, David; Zellner, Ben (May 1975). "Surface properties of asteroids: A synthesis of polarimetry, radiometry, and spectrophotometry".
2444:; as they orbit around each other one star may be moving towards the Earth whilst the other moves away, causing a Doppler shift in the composite spectrum. The
1274:) were found to have little to no dark matter influencing the motion of the stars contained within them; the reason behind the lack of dark matter is unknown.
4317:
Michele (20 January 2013). "The
Abundance of Star-Forming Galaxies in the Redshift Range 8.5-12: New Results from the 2012 Hubble Ultra Deep Field Campaign".
1981:
1392:
determined in 1927 that the emission lines were from highly ionised oxygen (O). These emission lines could not be replicated in a laboratory because they are
4953:
4898:
4867:
2690:
4484:
4690:
Sekanina, Zdenek; Kracht, Rainer (3 Jun 2015). "Disintegration of Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) Shortly Before
Perihelion: Evidence From Independent Data Sets".
3241:
2079:
1712:, a blueshifted wavelength. A redshifted absorption or emission line will appear more towards the red end of the spectrum than a stationary line. In 1913
4862:
5235:
5053:
4915:
2735:"Bestimmung des Brechungs- und des Farben-Zerstreuungs – Vermögens verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf die Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernröhre"
1565:
1290:
in 1964. Quasars are now thought to be galaxies formed in the early years of our universe, with their extreme energy output powered by super-massive
5184:
5003:
2426:
are visual binaries, meaning they can be observed orbiting each other through a telescope. Some binary stars, however, are too close together to be
4847:
154:. While all spectroscopy looks at specific bands of the spectrum, different methods are required to acquire the signal depending on the frequency.
5124:
4926:
4827:
3152:
5070:
5048:
4795:
2418:
Two stars of different size orbiting the center of mass. The spectrum can be seen to split depending on the position and velocity of the stars.
5136:
5058:
4526:
3479:
3387:
3254:
4888:
2155:
227:; his company continued to manufacture and sell high-quality refracting telescopes based on his original designs until its closure in 1884.
4993:
4938:
1228:. Thus, when both luminosity and temperature are known (via direct measurement and calculation) the radius of a star can be determined.
5336:
1366:
nebulae. Absorption (or dark) nebulae are made of dust and gas in such quantities that they obscure the starlight behind them, making
2861:
5220:
4972:
4788:
4551:
4229:
4088:
3902:
3857:
3430:
3286:
3219:
3103:
2844:
2816:
2788:
2674:
2603:
4392:
4712:
5346:
5225:
5043:
4567:
Tessenyi, M.; Tinetti, G.; Savini, G.; Pascale, E. (November 2013). "Molecular detectability in exoplanetary emission spectra".
4105:
2337:
276:
were widely used to record spectra until electronic detectors were developed, and today optical spectrographs most often employ
5240:
5210:
5141:
5075:
4134:
Cami, J.; Bernard-Salas, J.; Peeters, E.; Malek, S. E. (22 July 2010). "Detection of C60 and C70 in a Young
Planetary Nebula".
2327:
Objects that are gravitationally bound will rotate around a common center of mass. For stellar bodies, this motion is known as
1492:
250:
2581:
was determined by spectroscopy due to the prominent emission lines of cyanogen (CN), as well as two- and three-carbon atoms (C
5169:
4960:
4857:
3690:
3302:
Pan, Liubin; Scannapieco, Evan; Scalo, Jon (1 October 2013). "Modeling the
Pollution of Pristine Gas in the Early Universe".
2476:
planets and asteroids, most of the emission is at infrared wavelengths we cannot see, but that are routinely measured with
4967:
4872:
3788:
Kudritzki, R.-P. (May 2010). "Dissecting galaxies with quantitative spectroscopy of the brightest stars in the
Universe".
2508:
in the rocks present for rocky bodies, or due to the elements and molecules present in the atmosphere. To date over 3,500
3483:
2593:
are neutralized. The cometary X-ray spectra therefore reflect the state of the solar wind rather than that of the comet.
2406:
has been a matter of great scientific scrutiny due to the very large peculiar velocities of the galaxies in the cluster.
5101:
4948:
4837:
2553:, expanding the number of categories from 14 to 26 to account for more precise spectroscopic analysis of the asteroids.
331:
captured the Sun's radio frequency using military radar receivers. Radio spectroscopy started with the discovery of the
138:. The atmosphere blocks some wavelengths but it is mostly transparent for visible light and a wide range of radio waves.
5257:
5096:
5065:
4998:
2282:
343:
1379:
In the early years of astronomical spectroscopy, scientists were puzzled by the spectrum of gaseous nebulae. In 1864
1016:
between 293.5 and 877.0 nm, yet only approximately 75% of these lines have been linked to elemental absorption.
1523:
Stars and interstellar gas are bound by gravity to form galaxies, and groups of galaxies can be bound by gravity in
5247:
5189:
5038:
4910:
1130:
376:
5252:
5015:
4893:
2694:
2445:
1536:
135:
66:
4492:
3260:
3127:
1107:
62:
4612:
Bus, S (July 2002). "Phase II of the Small Main-Belt
Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey A Feature-Based Taxonomy".
2331:
and can alter the Hubble Flow. Thus, an extra term for the peculiar motion needs to be added to Hubble's law:
1155:
1066:
496:, and the elements with which they are associated, appear in the following table. Designations from the early
106:. Spectroscopy is also used to study the physical properties of many other types of celestial objects such as
5314:
1970:{\displaystyle z={\frac {\lambda _{\mathrm {obsv} }-\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}{\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}}}
1384:
brightest among them lines at 495.9 nm and 500.7 nm. These lines were attributed to a new element,
142:
Astronomical spectroscopy is used to measure three major bands of radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum:
5146:
4842:
3895:
Astronomical spectroscopy : an introduction to the atomic and molecular physics of astronomical spectra
3178:
2550:
2530:
2276:, corresponding to an age of over 13 billion years (the universe is approximately 13.82 billion years old).
2273:
1729:: The further a galaxy is from the Earth, the faster it is moving away. Hubble's law can be generalised to:
482:
454:
119:
70:
4933:
4271:
2884:
2638:
2623:
2431:
1367:
1306:
969:
384:
5341:
5302:
5174:
4905:
4819:
4396:
1236:
293:
277:
232:
207:
130:
74:
1210:
996:
iron (Fe). Other unusual lines in the coronal spectrum are also caused by highly charged ions, such as
4751:
4664:
4621:
4586:
4453:
4336:
4194:
4143:
4037:
3982:
3927:
3807:
3760:
3719:
3650:
3595:
3547:
3321:
3156:
3058:
3007:
2943:
2876:
2746:
2613:
1148:
output in a given amount of time. Luminosity (L) can be related to the temperature (T) of a star by:
1055:
derived an expression relating the temperature (T) of a black body to its peak emission wavelength (λ
236:
2996:
Pawsey, Joseph; Payne-Scott, Ruby; McCready, Lindsay (1946). "Radio-Frequency Energy from the Sun".
5230:
4943:
4852:
3357:"On the relation between the radiating and absorbing powers of different bodies for light and heat"
2889:
1393:
1318:
478:
265:
2472:
all reflect light from their parent stars and emit their own light. For cooler objects, including
1637:
5278:
5215:
5194:
5010:
4988:
4921:
4832:
4767:
4691:
4637:
4576:
4352:
4326:
4167:
4053:
4027:
4000:
3951:
3943:
3823:
3797:
3619:
3585:
3397:
3337:
3311:
3074:
3031:
2902:
2618:
2427:
2422:
Just as planets can be gravitationally bound to stars, pairs of stars can orbit each other. Some
993:
368:
355:
347:
289:
273:
195:
82:
3211:
379:
the incoming signal, recovers both the spatial and frequency variation in flux. The result is a
2839:. Bellingham, Washington: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers. pp. 24, 28.
941:
Not all of the elements in the Sun were immediately identified. Two examples are listed below:
5179:
5106:
5080:
4547:
4522:
4225:
4202:
4159:
4084:
4080:
4073:
3898:
3853:
3686:
3611:
3426:
3418:
3383:
3282:
3250:
3215:
3099:
3023:
2840:
2812:
2784:
2734:
2670:
2608:
2561:
2328:
2255:
1735:
1691:
1440:, though the exact number and position of the spiral arms is the subject of ongoing research.
1389:
1359:
660:
486:
437:
433:
328:
312:
297:
257:. This wave pattern sets up a reflection pattern similar to the blazed gratings but utilizing
3093:
1547:
The motion of stellar objects can be determined by looking at their spectrum. Because of the
1250:
look similar to stellar spectra, as they consist of the combined light of billions of stars.
4759:
4672:
4629:
4594:
4461:
4344:
4198:
4151:
4045:
3990:
3935:
3815:
3768:
3727:
3658:
3603:
3555:
3356:
3329:
3066:
3015:
2998:
2951:
2894:
2754:
1717:
1460:
1297:
The properties of a galaxy can also be determined by analyzing the stars found within them.
1044:
1020:
973:
493:
470:
383:
whose third axis is frequency. For this work, Ryle and Hewish were jointly awarded the 1974
351:
206:
first used a simple prism to observe the refractive properties of light. In the early 1800s
143:
35:
2934:
Oke, J. B.; Gunn, J. E. (1983). "Secondary standard stars for absolute spectrophotometry".
1794:
1664:
448:
413:
4418:
2910:
2590:
2566:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2526:
2441:
1819:
1524:
1380:
1363:
985:
396:
372:
308:
175:
174:. Radio signals have much longer wavelengths than optical signals, and require the use of
171:
86:
78:
27:
Study of astronomy using spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
3850:
Stars, nebulae, and the interstellar medium : observational physics and astrophysics
2719:
Opticks: Or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light
1726:
4755:
4668:
4625:
4590:
4457:
4340:
4147:
4041:
3986:
3931:
3811:
3764:
3723:
3654:
3599:
3551:
3325:
3062:
3011:
2947:
2880:
2750:
2066:{\displaystyle z={\frac {f_{\mathrm {emit} }-f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}{f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}}}
477:
described the phenomena behind these dark lines. Hot solid objects produce light with a
427:
4716:
4018:
Efremov, Yu. N. (22 February 2011). "On the spiral structure of the Milky Way Galaxy".
3204:
2628:
2414:
2235:
1853:
1825:
1774:
1548:
1429:
The intensity of the 21 cm line gives the density and number of atoms in the cloud
1408:
1254:
1145:
989:
950:
946:
258:
254:
241:
103:
90:
17:
3333:
5330:
4771:
4676:
4348:
4109:
3955:
3827:
3623:
3341:
2862:"Volume-phase holographic gratings and their potential for astronomical applications"
2403:
1713:
1437:
1397:
1287:
497:
474:
364:
332:
324:
285:
43:
4740:"Discovery of X-ray and Extreme Ultraviolet Emission from Comet C/Hyakutake 1996 B2"
4356:
4171:
4057:
2906:
2144:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {\lambda _{\mathrm {obsv} }}{\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}}}
4811:
4641:
4004:
3505:
3446:
3078:
3035:
2633:
2574:
2493:
2481:
2477:
2473:
1722:
1404:
1400:
ions to decay via forbidden line emission rather than collisions with other atoms.
1324:
1258:
1052:
1005:
977:
269:
203:
58:
39:
1515:
4763:
4598:
2970:
2577:
by sunlight and/or chemical reactions. For example, the chemical composition of
2513:
2437:
2423:
1624:{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda -\lambda _{0}}{\lambda _{0}}}={\frac {v_{0}}{c}}}
1532:
1456:
1355:
1267:
1263:
1024:
360:
281:
167:
30:
4370:
4245:
3361:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
1436:
Using this information, the shape of the Milky Way has been determined to be a
371:
to analyze interferometer data. The aperture synthesis process, which involves
4049:
2860:
Barden, S.C.; Arns, J.A.; Colburn, W.S. (July 1998). d'Odorico, Sandro (ed.).
2717:
1488:
1291:
1232:
1141:
1051:, a material that emits electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths. In 1894
1048:
224:
147:
4294:
2758:
1725:
would later use this information, as well as his own observations, to define
4155:
3749:"Cospatial counterrotating stellar disks in the Virgo E7/S0 galaxy NGC 4550"
3607:
3423:
Engineering thermofluids: thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer
2589:). Nearby comets can even be seen in X-ray as solar wind ions flying to the
2578:
2542:
2509:
1708:
is the observed wavelength. Note that v<0 corresponds to λ<λ
1552:
1528:
1464:
757:
692:
517:
380:
320:
316:
54:
4633:
4206:
4163:
3819:
3615:
3027:
249:
dichromated gelatin on a glass surface, which is subsequently exposed to a
190:
3639:"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects"
166:) absorb light with wavelengths under 300 nm, meaning that X-ray and
3590:
2465:
2450:
2279:
The Doppler effect and Hubble's law can be combined to form the equation
1556:
1500:
1412:
1396:; the low density of a nebula (one atom per cubic centimetre) allows for
1385:
1344:
1340:
1328:
1302:
1298:
1271:
981:
902:
586:
179:
4108:. Goddard Space Flight Center Astrochemistry Laboratory. Archived from
2505:
1476:
1283:
1035:
1001:
834:
4440:
Yasuda, Naoki; Fukugita, Masataka; Okamura, Sadanori (February 1997).
3947:
3897:(. ed.). London: Imperial College Press. pp. 46–47, 99–100.
3732:
3707:
2898:
2220:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {f_{\mathrm {emit} }}{f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}}}
984:, as it was only found in the corona. It was not until the 1930s that
3995:
3970:
3070:
3019:
2496:), the spectrum is mostly or completely due to the atmosphere alone.
2489:
2461:
1416:
1348:
1336:
1332:
1247:
1134:
997:
962:
926:
647:
616:
528:
489:
of known gases, the chemical composition of stars can be determined.
115:
111:
107:
4739:
4696:
4466:
4442:"Study of the Virgo Cluster Using the B-Band Tully-Fisher Relation"
4441:
4079:(12. . ed.). Sausalito, Calif.: Univ. Science Books. pp.
3939:
3918:
Hirsh, Richard F (June 1979). "The Riddle of the Gaseous Nebulae".
3773:
3748:
3663:
3638:
3560:
3535:
2955:
1012:
To date more than 20 000 absorption lines have been listed for the
4581:
4331:
4032:
3802:
3747:
Rubin, Vera C.; Graham, J. A.; Kenney, Jeffrey D. P. (July 1992).
3316:
2560:
2485:
2469:
2413:
1514:
1496:
1323:
The interstellar medium is matter that occupies the space between
1034:
1004:, the high ionization being due to the extreme temperature of the
212:
189:
155:
151:
129:
29:
4521:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. pp. 507–513.
3049:
Ryle, M.; Vonberg, D. D. (1946). "Solar Radiation on 175 Mc./s".
2504:
The reflected light of a planet contains absorption bands due to
3281:(4. ed.). Fort Worth : Saunders College Publ. p. 322.
1504:
676:
220:
216:
94:
4784:
4780:
3095:
Beyond southern skies: radio astronomy and the Parkes telescope
2811:. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing. pp. 127, 143.
134:
Opacity of the Earth's atmosphere for different wavelengths of
4246:"Hubble Pinpoints Furthest Protocluster of Galaxies Ever Seen"
3447:"2022 CODATA Value: Wien wavelength displacement law constant"
1013:
992:
discovered that the spectral line at 530.3 nm was due to
1535:, almost all galaxies are moving away from Earth due to the
980:
during an eclipse. This "new" element was incorrectly named
961:) which Lockyer determined to be a new element. He named it
1335:, and smaller quantities of other ionized elements such as
953:
independently observed a line next to the sodium doublet (D
3382:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7, 221.
2391:{\displaystyle v_{\text{total}}=H_{0}d+v_{\mathrm {pec} }}
1845:
Redshift (z) can be expressed by the following equations:
1347:, and ices. Clouds of the dust and gas are referred to as
976:
independently observed a novel green emission line in the
965:, but it wasn't until 1895 the element was found on Earth.
4075:
The physical universe : an introduction to astronomy
202:
Physicists have been looking at the solar spectrum since
170:
spectroscopy require the use of a satellite telescope or
4491:. Australia Telescope National Facility. Archived from
3510:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
3451:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
1339:. The other 1% is dust particles, thought to be mainly
1153:
1064:
3536:"On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae"
2340:
2285:
2258:
2238:
2158:
2082:
1984:
1888:
1856:
1828:
1797:
1777:
1738:
1694:
1667:
1640:
1568:
1415:
has either the same spin or the opposite spin of the
1158:
1069:
4546:. New York, New York, USA: Oxford University Press.
3637:
Matthews, Thomas A.; Sandage, Allan R. (July 1963).
2693:. California Institute of Technology. Archived from
5266:
5203:
5162:
5155:
5117:
5089:
5031:
4981:
4881:
4818:
4371:"Hubble census finds galaxies at redshifts 9 to 12"
3877:. London: William Wesley and Son. pp. 114–115.
4517:Gray, Richard O.; Christopher J. Corbally (2009).
4072:
3203:
2390:
2311:
2264:
2244:
2219:
2143:
2065:
1969:
1862:
1834:
1810:
1783:
1760:
1700:
1680:
1653:
1623:
1196:
1091:
280:(CCDs). The wavelength scale of a spectrum can be
3685:. Singapore: World Scientific. pp. 235–246.
3210:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.
3179:"Press Release: The 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics"
2312:{\displaystyle z={\frac {v_{\text{Hubble}}}{c}}}
1450:List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
4715:. Comet ISON Observing Campaign. Archived from
4512:
4510:
1209:where R is the radius of the star and σ is the
4479:
4477:
3506:"2022 CODATA Value: Stefan–Boltzmann constant"
2512:have been discovered. These include so-called
1432:The temperature of the cloud can be calculated
4796:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3837:
3202:Jenkins, Francis A.; Harvey E. White (1957).
1487:CO; to entire classes of large molecule e.g.
1327:in a galaxy. 99% of this matter is gaseous –
272:can be recorded by a detector. Historically,
8:
4868:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
4129:
4127:
3875:The Scientific Papers of Sir William Huggins
3402:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3277:Gregory, Stephen A.; Michael Zeilik (1998).
3121:"A Chronological History of Radio Astronomy"
3098:. University of Cambridge. pp. 42, 43.
2232:In these equations, frequency is denoted by
4446:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
4393:"Planck reveals an almost perfect universe"
4224:. Bristol : Inst. of Physics. p. 116.
3888:
3886:
3884:
3378:Nahar, Anil K. Pradhan, Sultana N. (2010).
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
1039:Black body curves for various temperatures.
5159:
4863:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
4803:
4789:
4781:
4542:Goody, Richard M.; Yung, Yuk Ling (1989).
4489:Australia Telescope Outreach and Education
3676:
3674:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3197:
3195:
1423:Velocity of the cloud can be measured via
5236:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
4916:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
4695:
4580:
4465:
4330:
4031:
3994:
3801:
3772:
3731:
3662:
3589:
3559:
3315:
3279:Introductory astronomy & astrophysics
2888:
2802:
2800:
2783:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2375:
2374:
2358:
2345:
2339:
2298:
2292:
2284:
2257:
2237:
2199:
2198:
2178:
2177:
2171:
2157:
2123:
2122:
2102:
2101:
2095:
2081:
2045:
2044:
2023:
2022:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1983:
1949:
1948:
1927:
1926:
1903:
1902:
1895:
1887:
1855:
1827:
1802:
1796:
1776:
1749:
1737:
1693:
1672:
1666:
1645:
1639:
1610:
1604:
1593:
1582:
1569:
1567:
1459:light. Most known compounds in space are
1278:but highly red shifted. These were named
1188:
1175:
1157:
1074:
1068:
5004:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
4544:Atmospheric Radiation: Theoretical Basis
3852:. Bristol: A. Hilger. pp. 265–277.
2871:. Optical Astronomical Instrumentation.
2722:. London: Royal Society. pp. 13–19.
2660:
2658:
2656:
2654:
1847:
1197:{\displaystyle L=4\pi R^{2}\sigma T^{4}}
1092:{\displaystyle \lambda _{\text{max}}T=b}
746:
506:
3243:Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology
2650:
3683:Physics : imagination and reality
3395:
2830:
2828:
1354:There are three main types of nebula:
315:in the early 1930s, while working for
3971:"The Origin of the Nebulium Spectrum"
3480:Australia Telescope National Facility
2529:in 1984. In what is now known as the
1551:, objects moving towards someone are
1527:. With the exception of stars in the
7:
5309:
4421:. Swinburne University of Technology
4297:. California Institute of Technology
3380:Atomic astrophysics and spectroscopy
2975:National Radio Astronomy Observatory
1463:, ranging from small molecules e.g.
2669:. Weinheim: Wiley VCH. p. 69.
2537:are made of carbonaceous material,
1688:is the velocity of the object, and
2691:"Cool Cosmos – Infrared Astronomy"
2440:can be also detected due to their
2382:
2379:
2376:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1791:is the velocity (or Hubble Flow),
1424:
1407:neutral hydrogen has two possible
457:(continuum plus discrete spectrum)
25:
5221:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
4973:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
2809:Optical Astronomical Spectroscopy
2604:Atomic and molecular astrophysics
2319:, where c is the speed of light.
5308:
5297:
5296:
5226:Dual-polarization interferometry
4220:Millar, TJ; DA Williams (1993).
3419:"§ 2.1 Blackbody radiation"
1493:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
447:
426:
412:
5241:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
5216:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
5211:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
4519:Stellar spectral classification
4222:Dust and chemistry in astronomy
3969:Bowen, I. S. (1 October 1927).
3249:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 61.
363:and Vonberg. In 1960, Ryle and
356:single antenna atop a sea cliff
97:and other celestial objects. A
5170:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
4858:Vibrational circular dichroism
3482:. 12 July 2004. Archived from
2977:. Associated Universities, Inc
2457:Planets, asteroids, and comets
1555:, and objects moving away are
1144:of a star is a measure of the
1:
4968:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
4873:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
3873:Huggins, Sir William (1899).
377:discrete Fourier transforming
311:was founded with the work of
284:by observing the spectrum of
268:by the grating or prism in a
34:The Star-Spectroscope of the
5102:Inelastic neutron scattering
4764:10.1126/science.274.5285.205
4677:10.1016/0019-1035(75)90191-8
4599:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.08.022
3367:(130). Taylor & Francis.
2075:
1881:
1842:is the distance from Earth.
1654:{\displaystyle \lambda _{0}}
1371:their chemical composition.
1112:Wien's displacement constant
354:and Lindsay McCready used a
346:was pioneered in 1946, when
223:, and various stars such as
5163:Data collection, processing
5039:Photoelectron/photoemission
4713:"Why does ISON look green?"
3893:Tennyson, Jonathan (2005).
3534:Zwicky, F. (October 1937).
3334:10.1088/0004-637X/775/2/111
3153:"How Radio Telescopes Work"
2733:Fraunhofer, Joseph (1817).
1661:is the emitted wavelength,
1543:Doppler effect and redshift
1280:quasi-stellar radio sources
1108:constant of proportionality
367:published the technique of
333:21-centimeter H I line
288:of known wavelength from a
5363:
5248:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
5190:Time-resolved spectroscopy
4349:10.1088/2041-8205/763/1/L7
4187:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3355:G. Kirchhoff (July 1860).
1447:
1316:
1230:
1213:constant, with a value of
1129:. This equation is called
745:
505:
500:are shown in parentheses.
402:Stars and their properties
394:
5337:Astronomical spectroscopy
5292:
5274:Astronomical spectroscopy
5253:Photothermal spectroscopy
4319:The Astrophysical Journal
4295:"Extragalactic Redshifts"
4106:"The Interstellar Medium"
4050:10.1134/S1063772911020016
3790:Astronomische Nachrichten
3753:The Astrophysical Journal
3643:The Astrophysical Journal
3540:The Astrophysical Journal
3425:. Springer. p. 568.
3304:The Astrophysical Journal
3092:Robertson, Peter (1992).
2936:The Astrophysical Journal
2781:The analysis of starlight
2665:Foukal, Peter V. (2004).
1850:Calculation of redshift,
1537:expansion of the universe
1253:Doppler shift studies of
162:) and molecular oxygen (O
136:electromagnetic radiation
67:electromagnetic radiation
51:Astronomical spectroscopy
4250:ESA/Hubble Press Release
3708:"Gravitational collapse"
3417:Mahmoud Massoud (2005).
2779:Hearnshaw, J.B. (1986).
2759:10.1002/andp.18170560706
2265:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1761:{\displaystyle v=H_{0}d}
1701:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1531:and the galaxies in the
1375:Gaseous emission nebulae
968:In 1869 the astronomers
176:antennas or radio dishes
172:rocket mounted detectors
57:using the techniques of
5347:Observational astronomy
5258:Pump–probe spectroscopy
5147:Ferromagnetic resonance
4939:Laser-induced breakdown
4485:"Types of Binary Stars"
4199:1984A&A...130..227J
4156:10.1126/science.1192035
3706:Chiu, Hong-Yee (1964).
3608:10.1126/science.1087441
2835:Ball, David W. (2001).
2274:Hubble Ultra-Deep Field
1047:proposed the idea of a
323:, in the constellation
18:Spectroscopic astronomy
4954:Glow-discharge optical
4934:Raman optical activity
4848:Rotational–vibrational
4634:10.1006/icar.2002.6856
4071:Shu, Frank H. (1982).
3848:Kitchin, C.R. (1987).
3820:10.1002/asna.200911342
3681:Wallace, P.R. (1991).
3206:Fundamentals of Optics
2837:Basics of Spectroscopy
2807:Kitchin, C.R. (1995).
2716:Newton, Isaac (1705).
2639:Telluric contamination
2624:Photometry (astronomy)
2570:
2438:Spectroscopic binaries
2419:
2392:
2313:
2266:
2246:
2221:
2145:
2067:
1971:
1864:
1836:
1812:
1785:
1762:
1702:
1682:
1655:
1625:
1520:
1519:Redshift and blueshift
1511:Motion in the universe
1198:
1146:electromagnetic energy
1093:
1040:
970:Charles Augustus Young
385:Nobel Prize in Physics
278:charge-coupled devices
199:
139:
120:active galactic nuclei
47:
5175:Hyperspectral imaging
3476:"Luminosity of Stars"
3240:Morison, Ian (2008).
2564:
2531:Tholen classification
2417:
2393:
2314:
2267:
2247:
2222:
2146:
2068:
1972:
1865:
1837:
1813:
1811:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
1786:
1763:
1703:
1683:
1681:{\displaystyle v_{0}}
1656:
1626:
1518:
1237:Magnitude (astronomy)
1199:
1094:
1038:
208:Joseph von Fraunhofer
193:
133:
38:in 1898. Designed by
33:
4927:Coherent anti-Stokes
4882:UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"
4274:. Cornell University
2614:Gunn-Peterson trough
2565:Optical spectrum of
2551:SMASS classification
2338:
2283:
2256:
2236:
2156:
2080:
1982:
1886:
1854:
1826:
1795:
1775:
1736:
1692:
1665:
1638:
1566:
1156:
1067:
1031:Temperature and size
344:Radio interferometry
339:Radio interferometry
237:Dominion Observatory
186:Optical spectroscopy
5231:Hadron spectroscopy
5021:Conversion electron
4982:X-ray and Gamma ray
4889:Ultraviolet–visible
4756:1996Sci...274..205L
4669:1975Icar...25..104C
4626:2002Icar..158..146B
4591:2013Icar..226.1654T
4458:1997ApJS..108..417Y
4419:"Peculiar Velocity"
4341:2013ApJ...763L...7E
4148:2010Sci...329.1180C
4142:(5996): 1180–1182.
4042:2011ARep...55..108E
3987:1927Natur.120..473B
3932:1979Isis...70..197H
3812:2010AN....331..459K
3765:1992ApJ...394L...9R
3724:1964PhT....17e..21C
3655:1963ApJ...138...30M
3600:2003Sci...301.1696R
3584:(5640): 1696–1698.
3552:1937ApJ....86..217Z
3326:2013ApJ...775..111P
3063:1946Natur.158..339R
3012:1946Natur.157..158P
2948:1983ApJ...266..713O
2881:1998SPIE.3355..866B
2751:1817AnP....56..264F
1878:Based on frequency
1875:Based on wavelength
1871:
1319:Interstellar medium
1313:Interstellar medium
1025:stellar populations
479:continuous spectrum
465:Chemical properties
419:Continuous spectrum
274:photographic plates
42:and constructed by
5279:Force spectroscopy
5204:Measured phenomena
5195:Video spectroscopy
4899:Cold vapour atomic
4719:on 3 December 2013
4495:on 8 December 2013
4104:Hudson, Reggie L.
3159:on 3 December 2013
2739:Annalen der Physik
2697:on 11 October 2018
2667:Solar Astrophysics
2619:Lyman-alpha forest
2571:
2541:consist mainly of
2420:
2388:
2309:
2262:
2252:and wavelength by
2242:
2217:
2141:
2063:
1967:
1860:
1848:
1832:
1808:
1781:
1758:
1698:
1678:
1651:
1621:
1521:
1194:
1089:
1041:
391:X-ray spectroscopy
369:aperture synthesis
348:Joseph Lade Pawsey
304:Radio spectroscopy
290:gas-discharge lamp
200:
196:reflection grating
140:
48:
5324:
5323:
5288:
5287:
5180:Spectrophotometry
5107:Neutron spin echo
5081:Beta spectroscopy
4994:Energy-dispersive
4750:(5285): 205–209.
4711:Knight, Matthew.
4528:978-0-691-12510-7
4020:Astronomy Reports
3733:10.1063/1.3051610
3389:978-0-521-82536-8
3256:978-0-470-03333-3
3057:(4010): 339–340.
3006:(3980): 158–159.
2899:10.1117/12.316806
2609:Emission spectrum
2348:
2329:peculiar velocity
2307:
2301:
2245:{\displaystyle f}
2230:
2229:
2215:
2139:
2061:
1965:
1863:{\displaystyle z}
1835:{\displaystyle d}
1784:{\displaystyle v}
1619:
1599:
1444:Complex molecules
1077:
1019:By analyzing the
939:
938:
935:
934:
743:
742:
438:discrete spectrum
298:spectrophotometry
259:Bragg diffraction
16:(Redirected from
5354:
5312:
5311:
5300:
5299:
5160:
5071:phenomenological
4820:Vibrational (IR)
4805:
4798:
4791:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4735:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4708:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4609:
4603:
4602:
4584:
4575:(2): 1654–1672.
4564:
4558:
4557:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4514:
4505:
4504:
4502:
4500:
4481:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4437:
4431:
4430:
4428:
4426:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4367:
4361:
4360:
4334:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4270:Haynes, Martha.
4267:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4256:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4131:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4117:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4078:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4035:
4015:
4009:
4008:
3998:
3996:10.1038/120473a0
3966:
3960:
3959:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3890:
3879:
3878:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3845:
3832:
3831:
3805:
3785:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3678:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3593:
3591:astro-ph/0308518
3572:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3486:on 9 August 2014
3472:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3414:
3408:
3407:
3401:
3393:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3352:
3346:
3345:
3319:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3259:. Archived from
3248:
3237:
3226:
3225:
3209:
3199:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3155:. Archived from
3149:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3132:
3126:. Archived from
3125:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3071:10.1038/158339b0
3046:
3040:
3039:
3020:10.1038/157158a0
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2921:
2915:
2909:. Archived from
2892:
2866:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2832:
2823:
2822:
2804:
2795:
2794:
2776:
2763:
2762:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2662:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2385:
2363:
2362:
2350:
2349:
2346:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2308:
2303:
2302:
2299:
2293:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2251:
2249:
2248:
2243:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2172:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2136:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2096:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2014:
2013:
2012:
1992:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1896:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1753:
1718:Andromeda Galaxy
1707:
1705:
1704:
1699:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1676:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1649:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1615:
1614:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1570:
1307:standard candles
1270:, NGC 4494, and
1227:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1211:Stefan–Boltzmann
1204:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1193:
1192:
1180:
1179:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1045:Gustav Kirchhoff
1021:equivalent width
974:William Harkness
747:
507:
503:
502:
494:Fraunhofer lines
487:emission spectra
485:of the Sun with
483:absorption lines
471:Gustav Kirchhoff
455:Absorption lines
451:
430:
416:
352:Ruby Payne-Scott
242:"blazed" grating
99:stellar spectrum
53:is the study of
36:Lick Observatory
21:
5362:
5361:
5357:
5356:
5355:
5353:
5352:
5351:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5284:
5262:
5199:
5151:
5113:
5085:
5027:
4977:
4877:
4838:Resonance Raman
4814:
4809:
4779:
4737:
4736:
4732:
4722:
4720:
4710:
4709:
4705:
4689:
4688:
4684:
4654:
4653:
4649:
4611:
4610:
4606:
4566:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4516:
4515:
4508:
4498:
4496:
4483:
4482:
4475:
4439:
4438:
4434:
4424:
4422:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4402:
4400:
4399:. 21 March 2013
4391:
4390:
4386:
4376:
4374:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4315:
4314:
4310:
4300:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4287:
4277:
4275:
4269:
4268:
4264:
4254:
4252:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4232:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4184:
4183:
4179:
4133:
4132:
4125:
4115:
4113:
4112:on 13 July 2013
4103:
4102:
4098:
4091:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4017:
4016:
4012:
3968:
3967:
3963:
3917:
3916:
3912:
3905:
3892:
3891:
3882:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3860:
3847:
3846:
3835:
3787:
3786:
3782:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3680:
3679:
3672:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3574:
3573:
3569:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3519:
3517:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3489:
3487:
3474:
3473:
3469:
3460:
3458:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3416:
3415:
3411:
3394:
3390:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3301:
3300:
3296:
3289:
3276:
3275:
3271:
3263:
3257:
3246:
3239:
3238:
3229:
3222:
3201:
3200:
3193:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3162:
3160:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3123:
3118:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3048:
3047:
3043:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2980:
2978:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2864:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2834:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2806:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2778:
2777:
2766:
2732:
2731:
2727:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2700:
2698:
2689:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2664:
2663:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2599:
2588:
2584:
2567:Comet Hyakutake
2559:
2527:David J. Tholen
2522:
2502:
2459:
2442:radial velocity
2412:
2370:
2354:
2341:
2336:
2335:
2325:
2323:Peculiar motion
2294:
2281:
2280:
2254:
2253:
2234:
2233:
2194:
2173:
2154:
2153:
2118:
2097:
2078:
2077:
2040:
2018:
1994:
1993:
1980:
1979:
1944:
1922:
1898:
1897:
1884:
1883:
1852:
1851:
1824:
1823:
1820:Hubble Constant
1798:
1793:
1792:
1773:
1772:
1745:
1734:
1733:
1716:determined the
1711:
1690:
1689:
1668:
1663:
1662:
1641:
1636:
1635:
1606:
1589:
1578:
1571:
1564:
1563:
1545:
1525:galaxy clusters
1513:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1452:
1446:
1394:forbidden lines
1381:William Huggins
1377:
1321:
1315:
1255:galaxy clusters
1246:The spectra of
1244:
1239:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1184:
1171:
1154:
1152:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1058:
1033:
986:Walter Grotrian
960:
956:
733:
719:
705:
689:
673:
643:
629:
613:
602:
575:
561:
547:
532:
467:
462:
461:
460:
459:
458:
452:
443:
442:
441:
431:
422:
421:
420:
417:
404:
399:
397:X-ray astronomy
393:
373:autocorrelating
341:
309:Radio astronomy
306:
188:
165:
161:
128:
61:to measure the
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5360:
5358:
5350:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5329:
5328:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5318:
5306:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5285:
5283:
5282:
5276:
5270:
5268:
5264:
5263:
5261:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5244:
5243:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5207:
5205:
5201:
5200:
5198:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5166:
5164:
5157:
5153:
5152:
5150:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5133:
5132:
5121:
5119:
5115:
5114:
5112:
5111:
5110:
5109:
5099:
5093:
5091:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5062:
5061:
5056:
5054:Angle-resolved
5051:
5046:
5035:
5033:
5029:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5024:
5023:
5013:
5008:
5007:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4985:
4983:
4979:
4978:
4976:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4964:
4963:
4958:
4957:
4956:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4919:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4891:
4885:
4883:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4824:
4822:
4816:
4815:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4800:
4793:
4785:
4778:
4777:
4730:
4703:
4682:
4663:(1): 104–130.
4647:
4620:(1): 146–177.
4604:
4559:
4552:
4534:
4527:
4506:
4473:
4467:10.1086/312960
4452:(2): 417–448.
4432:
4410:
4384:
4362:
4308:
4293:Huchra, John.
4285:
4272:"Hubble's Law"
4262:
4237:
4230:
4212:
4177:
4123:
4096:
4089:
4063:
4026:(2): 108–122.
4010:
3961:
3940:10.1086/352195
3926:(2): 162–212.
3910:
3903:
3880:
3865:
3858:
3833:
3796:(5): 459–473.
3780:
3774:10.1086/186460
3739:
3698:
3691:
3670:
3664:10.1086/147615
3629:
3567:
3561:10.1086/143864
3526:
3497:
3467:
3438:
3431:
3409:
3388:
3370:
3347:
3294:
3287:
3269:
3266:on 2013-10-29.
3255:
3227:
3220:
3191:
3170:
3144:
3119:W. E. Howard.
3111:
3104:
3084:
3041:
2988:
2961:
2956:10.1086/160817
2926:
2890:10.1.1.25.5736
2852:
2845:
2824:
2817:
2796:
2789:
2764:
2745:(7): 282–287.
2725:
2708:
2682:
2675:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2586:
2582:
2558:
2555:
2521:
2518:
2501:
2498:
2458:
2455:
2432:spectral class
2411:
2408:
2399:
2398:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2344:
2324:
2321:
2306:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2261:
2241:
2228:
2227:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2197:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2151:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2100:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2074:
2073:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2043:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1977:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1947:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1901:
1894:
1891:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1859:
1831:
1805:
1801:
1780:
1769:
1768:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1709:
1697:
1675:
1671:
1648:
1644:
1632:
1631:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1549:Doppler effect
1544:
1541:
1512:
1509:
1484:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1448:Main article:
1445:
1442:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1376:
1373:
1317:Main article:
1314:
1311:
1243:
1240:
1207:
1206:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1101:
1100:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1073:
1056:
1032:
1029:
1010:
1009:
994:highly ionized
966:
958:
954:
951:Pierre Janssen
947:Norman Lockyer
937:
936:
933:
932:
929:
924:
920:
919:
916:
913:
909:
908:
905:
900:
896:
895:
892:
889:
885:
884:
881:
878:
874:
873:
870:
867:
863:
862:
859:
856:
852:
851:
848:
845:
841:
840:
837:
832:
828:
827:
824:
821:
817:
816:
813:
810:
806:
805:
802:
799:
795:
794:
791:
788:
784:
783:
780:
777:
773:
772:
769:
766:
762:
761:
754:
751:
744:
741:
740:
737:
734:
731:
727:
726:
723:
720:
717:
713:
712:
709:
706:
703:
699:
698:
695:
690:
687:
683:
682:
679:
674:
671:
667:
666:
663:
658:
654:
653:
650:
645:
641:
637:
636:
633:
630:
627:
623:
622:
619:
614:
611:
607:
606:
603:
600:
597:
593:
592:
589:
584:
580:
579:
576:
573:
570:
566:
565:
562:
559:
556:
552:
551:
548:
545:
542:
538:
537:
534:
530:
526:
522:
521:
514:
511:
466:
463:
453:
446:
445:
444:
434:Emission lines
432:
425:
424:
423:
418:
411:
410:
409:
408:
407:
403:
400:
395:Main article:
392:
389:
340:
337:
305:
302:
286:emission lines
255:interferometer
253:created by an
187:
184:
163:
159:
127:
124:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5359:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5334:
5332:
5317:
5316:
5307:
5305:
5304:
5295:
5294:
5291:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5271:
5269:
5265:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5208:
5206:
5202:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5161:
5158:
5154:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5131:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5123:
5122:
5120:
5116:
5108:
5105:
5104:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5088:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5030:
5022:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4987:
4986:
4984:
4980:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4962:
4959:
4955:
4952:
4951:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4928:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4911:Near-infrared
4909:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4886:
4884:
4880:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4806:
4801:
4799:
4794:
4792:
4787:
4786:
4783:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4734:
4731:
4718:
4714:
4707:
4704:
4698:
4693:
4686:
4683:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4651:
4648:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4608:
4605:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4563:
4560:
4555:
4553:0-19-505134-3
4549:
4545:
4538:
4535:
4530:
4524:
4520:
4513:
4511:
4507:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4480:
4478:
4474:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4436:
4433:
4420:
4414:
4411:
4398:
4394:
4388:
4385:
4372:
4366:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4312:
4309:
4296:
4289:
4286:
4273:
4266:
4263:
4251:
4247:
4241:
4238:
4233:
4231:0-7503-0271-2
4227:
4223:
4216:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4181:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4130:
4128:
4124:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4097:
4092:
4090:0-935702-05-9
4086:
4082:
4077:
4076:
4067:
4064:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4014:
4011:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3981:(3022): 473.
3980:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3914:
3911:
3906:
3904:1-86094-513-9
3900:
3896:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3869:
3866:
3861:
3859:0-85274-580-X
3855:
3851:
3844:
3842:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3781:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3743:
3740:
3734:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3712:Physics Today
3709:
3702:
3699:
3694:
3688:
3684:
3677:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3633:
3630:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3571:
3568:
3562:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3530:
3527:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3501:
3498:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3468:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3439:
3434:
3432:3-540-22292-8
3428:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3410:
3405:
3399:
3391:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3351:
3348:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3298:
3295:
3290:
3288:0-03-006228-4
3284:
3280:
3273:
3270:
3262:
3258:
3252:
3245:
3244:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3221:0-07-085346-0
3217:
3213:
3208:
3207:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3180:
3174:
3171:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3145:
3133:on 2012-07-14
3129:
3122:
3115:
3112:
3107:
3105:0-521-41408-3
3101:
3097:
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3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2992:
2989:
2976:
2972:
2971:"Karl Jansky"
2965:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2927:
2916:on 2010-07-28
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2856:
2853:
2848:
2846:0-8194-4104-X
2842:
2838:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2818:0-7503-0346-8
2814:
2810:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2790:0-521-39916-5
2786:
2782:
2775:
2773:
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2769:
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2748:
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2721:
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2709:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2676:3-527-40374-4
2672:
2668:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2655:
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2645:
2640:
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2607:
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2601:
2596:
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2568:
2563:
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2554:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2492:'s satellite
2491:
2487:
2483:
2482:giant planets
2479:
2478:spectrometers
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2447:
2446:orbital plane
2443:
2439:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2416:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2404:Virgo Cluster
2371:
2367:
2364:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2342:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2322:
2320:
2304:
2295:
2289:
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2277:
2275:
2259:
2239:
2195:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2152:
2119:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2076:
2041:
2019:
2015:
1995:
1988:
1985:
1978:
1945:
1923:
1919:
1899:
1892:
1889:
1882:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1857:
1846:
1843:
1829:
1821:
1803:
1799:
1778:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1714:Vesto Slipher
1695:
1673:
1669:
1646:
1642:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1601:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1579:
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1542:
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1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1478:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1451:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1438:spiral galaxy
1431:
1428:
1426:
1425:Doppler shift
1422:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1382:
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1357:
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1334:
1330:
1326:
1320:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1288:Hong-Yee Chiu
1285:
1281:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1226:10 W⋅m⋅K
1212:
1203:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1151:
1150:
1149:
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1132:
1113:
1109:
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1080:
1071:
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1028:
1026:
1022:
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1007:
1003:
999:
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987:
983:
979:
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948:
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928:
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922:
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910:
906:
904:
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890:
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868:
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849:
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830:
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539:
535:
533:
527:
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523:
519:
515:
512:
509:
508:
504:
501:
499:
498:Balmer Series
495:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
475:Robert Bunsen
472:
464:
456:
450:
439:
435:
429:
415:
406:
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398:
390:
388:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
365:Antony Hewish
362:
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318:
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303:
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283:
279:
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262:
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256:
252:
246:
243:
238:
234:
233:J.S. Plaskett
228:
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222:
218:
214:
209:
205:
197:
192:
185:
183:
181:
177:
173:
169:
157:
153:
149:
145:
144:visible light
137:
132:
125:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
104:Doppler shift
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
71:visible light
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
45:
44:John Brashear
41:
37:
32:
19:
5342:Spectroscopy
5313:
5301:
5281:(a misnomer)
5273:
5267:Applications
5185:Time-stretch
5076:paramagnetic
4894:Fluorescence
4812:Spectroscopy
4747:
4743:
4733:
4721:. Retrieved
4717:the original
4706:
4685:
4660:
4656:
4650:
4617:
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4568:
4562:
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4497:. Retrieved
4493:the original
4488:
4449:
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4435:
4423:. Retrieved
4413:
4401:. Retrieved
4387:
4375:. Retrieved
4365:
4322:
4318:
4311:
4299:. Retrieved
4288:
4276:. Retrieved
4265:
4253:. Retrieved
4249:
4240:
4221:
4215:
4190:
4186:
4180:
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4135:
4114:. Retrieved
4110:the original
4099:
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3919:
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3783:
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3742:
3718:(5): 21–34.
3715:
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3646:
3642:
3632:
3581:
3577:
3570:
3543:
3539:
3529:
3518:. Retrieved
3509:
3500:
3488:. Retrieved
3484:the original
3470:
3459:. Retrieved
3450:
3441:
3422:
3412:
3379:
3373:
3364:
3360:
3350:
3307:
3303:
3297:
3278:
3272:
3261:the original
3242:
3205:
3182:. Retrieved
3173:
3161:. Retrieved
3157:the original
3147:
3135:. Retrieved
3128:the original
3114:
3094:
3087:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3003:
2997:
2991:
2979:. Retrieved
2974:
2964:
2939:
2935:
2929:
2918:. Retrieved
2911:the original
2872:
2868:
2855:
2836:
2808:
2780:
2742:
2738:
2728:
2718:
2711:
2699:. Retrieved
2695:the original
2685:
2666:
2634:Spectrometer
2575:fluorescence
2572:
2523:
2514:Hot Jupiters
2503:
2474:Solar System
2460:
2436:
2424:binary stars
2421:
2410:Binary stars
2400:
2326:
2278:
2231:
1849:
1844:
1770:
1727:Hubble's law
1723:Edwin Hubble
1633:
1546:
1522:
1453:
1435:
1405:ground state
1402:
1378:
1353:
1325:star systems
1322:
1296:
1279:
1276:
1259:Fritz Zwicky
1252:
1245:
1208:
1139:
1111:
1103:
1102:
1053:Wilhelm Wien
1042:
1018:
1011:
1006:solar corona
978:Sun's corona
940:
756:Wavelength (
750:Designation
516:Wavelength (
510:Designation
491:
468:
405:
342:
307:
270:spectrograph
263:
251:wave pattern
247:
229:
204:Isaac Newton
201:
141:
98:
69:, including
59:spectroscopy
50:
49:
40:James Keeler
4853:Vibrational
4723:26 November
4697:1404.5968v6
4499:26 November
4425:26 November
4403:26 November
4377:26 November
4301:26 November
4278:26 November
4116:19 November
2875:: 866–876.
1553:blueshifted
1533:Local Group
1457:ultraviolet
1409:spin states
1292:black holes
1264:dark matter
1127:10 m⋅K
1114:, equal to
990:Bengt Edlén
361:Martin Ryle
327:. In 1942,
325:Sagittarius
313:Karl Jansky
168:ultraviolet
148:radio waves
89:waves that
75:ultraviolet
5331:Categories
5059:Two-photon
4961:absorption
4843:Rotational
4373:. NASA/ESA
4255:13 January
4193:: 227–56.
3692:997150930X
3520:2024-05-18
3516:. May 2024
3461:2024-05-18
3457:. May 2024
3310:(2): 111.
3184:2 December
3163:2 December
3137:2 December
2981:24 October
2969:Ghigo, F.
2920:2019-09-12
2869:Proc. SPIE
2701:23 October
2646:References
2579:Comet ISON
2510:exoplanets
1557:redshifted
1507:material.
1499:, such as
1489:fullerenes
1398:metastable
1368:photometry
1360:reflection
1356:absorption
1233:Luminosity
1231:See also:
1142:luminosity
1131:Wien's Law
1049:black body
492:The major
282:calibrated
225:Betelgeuse
126:Background
5137:Terahertz
5118:Radiowave
5016:Mössbauer
4772:122700701
4582:1308.4986
4332:1211.6804
4325:(1): L7.
4033:1011.4576
3956:123234614
3828:119211740
3803:1002.5039
3624:120137872
3398:cite book
3342:119233184
3317:1306.4663
2885:CiteSeerX
2543:silicates
2520:Asteroids
2466:asteroids
2260:λ
2120:λ
2099:λ
2016:−
1946:λ
1924:λ
1920:−
1900:λ
1696:λ
1643:λ
1591:λ
1580:λ
1576:−
1573:λ
1529:Milky Way
1503:or other
1465:acetylene
1390:Ira Bowen
1345:silicates
1182:σ
1169:π
1072:λ
652:587.5618
335:in 1951.
321:Milky Way
317:Bell Labs
266:dispersed
55:astronomy
5303:Category
5032:Electron
4999:Emission
4949:emission
4906:Vibronic
4357:17883532
4207:11541988
4172:33588270
4164:20651118
4058:55372968
3616:12947033
3028:21015114
2907:17445305
2597:See also
2506:minerals
2451:carousel
2428:resolved
1501:graphite
1413:electron
1388:, until
1386:nebulium
1364:emission
1341:graphite
1329:hydrogen
1303:parallax
1299:NGC 4550
1272:NGC 4697
1268:NGC 3379
1248:galaxies
1242:Galaxies
1043:In 1860
982:coronium
945:In 1868
931:299.444
918:302.108
907:336.112
894:358.121
883:382.044
872:393.368
861:396.847
850:410.175
839:430.774
826:430.790
815:434.047
809:G' (Hγ)
804:438.355
793:466.814
782:486.134
771:495.761
753:Element
739:516.733
725:516.891
711:517.270
697:518.362
681:527.039
665:546.073
635:588.995
621:589.592
605:627.661
591:656.281
578:686.719
564:759.370
550:822.696
536:898.765
513:Element
381:3D image
180:Infrared
116:galaxies
83:infrared
63:spectrum
5315:Commons
5142:ESR/EPR
5090:Nucleon
4918:(REMPI)
4752:Bibcode
4744:Science
4665:Bibcode
4642:4880578
4622:Bibcode
4587:Bibcode
4454:Bibcode
4337:Bibcode
4195:Bibcode
4144:Bibcode
4136:Science
4081:232–234
4038:Bibcode
4005:4066813
3983:Bibcode
3928:Bibcode
3808:Bibcode
3761:Bibcode
3720:Bibcode
3651:Bibcode
3596:Bibcode
3578:Science
3548:Bibcode
3546:: 217.
3322:Bibcode
3212:430–437
3079:4097569
3059:Bibcode
3036:4056021
3008:Bibcode
2944:Bibcode
2942:: 713.
2877:Bibcode
2747:Bibcode
2547:X-types
2539:S-types
2535:C-types
2500:Planets
2462:Planets
1818:is the
1477:acetone
1461:organic
1349:nebulae
1284:quasars
1135:kelvins
1110:called
1002:calcium
844:h (Hδ)
776:F (Hβ)
583:C (Hα)
235:at the
194:With a
112:nebulae
108:planets
91:radiate
5156:Others
4944:Atomic
4770:
4657:Icarus
4640:
4614:Icarus
4569:Icarus
4550:
4525:
4355:
4228:
4205:
4170:
4162:
4087:
4056:
4003:
3975:Nature
3954:
3948:230787
3946:
3901:
3856:
3826:
3759:: L9.
3689:
3649:: 30.
3622:
3614:
3490:2 July
3429:
3386:
3340:
3285:
3253:
3218:
3102:
3077:
3051:Nature
3034:
3026:
2999:Nature
2905:
2887:
2843:
2815:
2787:
2673:
2557:Comets
2545:, and
2533:, the
2490:Saturn
2488:, and
2470:comets
2468:, and
2300:Hubble
1822:, and
1771:where
1634:where
1497:solids
1417:proton
1411:: the
1362:, and
1337:oxygen
1333:helium
998:nickel
963:Helium
329:JS Hey
292:. The
264:Light
215:, the
152:X-rays
150:, and
118:, and
5097:Alpha
5066:Auger
5044:X-ray
5011:Gamma
4989:X-ray
4922:Raman
4833:Raman
4828:FT-IR
4768:S2CID
4692:arXiv
4638:S2CID
4577:arXiv
4353:S2CID
4327:arXiv
4168:S2CID
4054:S2CID
4028:arXiv
4001:S2CID
3952:S2CID
3944:JSTOR
3824:S2CID
3798:arXiv
3620:S2CID
3586:arXiv
3338:S2CID
3312:arXiv
3264:(PDF)
3247:(PDF)
3131:(PDF)
3124:(PDF)
3075:S2CID
3032:S2CID
2914:(PDF)
2903:S2CID
2865:(PDF)
2629:Prism
2585:and C
2494:Titan
2486:Venus
2347:total
1505:sooty
1495:; to
1286:, by
1282:, or
1215:5.670
1116:2.897
1106:is a
957:and D
644:or d
213:Venus
156:Ozone
95:stars
93:from
87:radio
79:X-ray
4725:2013
4548:ISBN
4523:ISBN
4501:2013
4427:2013
4405:2013
4379:2013
4303:2013
4280:2013
4257:2012
4226:ISBN
4203:PMID
4160:PMID
4118:2013
4085:ISBN
3920:Isis
3899:ISBN
3854:ISBN
3687:ISBN
3612:PMID
3514:NIST
3492:2012
3455:NIST
3427:ISBN
3404:link
3384:ISBN
3283:ISBN
3251:ISBN
3216:ISBN
3186:2013
3165:2013
3139:2013
3100:ISBN
3024:PMID
2983:2013
2873:3355
2841:ISBN
2813:ISBN
2785:ISBN
2703:2013
2671:ISBN
2591:coma
1491:and
1475:and
1235:and
1140:The
1000:and
988:and
972:and
949:and
473:and
375:and
294:flux
221:Mars
217:Moon
85:and
5125:NMR
4760:doi
4748:274
4673:doi
4630:doi
4618:158
4595:doi
4573:226
4462:doi
4450:108
4397:ESA
4345:doi
4323:763
4191:130
4152:doi
4140:329
4046:doi
3991:doi
3979:120
3936:doi
3816:doi
3794:331
3769:doi
3757:394
3728:doi
3659:doi
3647:138
3604:doi
3582:301
3556:doi
3330:doi
3308:775
3067:doi
3055:158
3016:doi
3004:157
2952:doi
2940:266
2895:doi
2755:doi
1479:(CH
1305:or
1257:by
1222:...
1220:419
1217:374
1123:...
1121:955
1118:771
1076:max
1059:):
1057:max
1014:Sun
915:Fe
891:Fe
880:Fe
869:Ca
858:Ca
823:Fe
801:Fe
790:Fe
768:Fe
736:Mg
722:Fe
708:Mg
632:Na
65:of
5333::
5130:2D
5049:UV
4766:.
4758:.
4746:.
4742:.
4671:.
4661:25
4659:.
4636:.
4628:.
4616:.
4593:.
4585:.
4571:.
4509:^
4487:.
4476:^
4460:.
4448:.
4444:.
4395:.
4351:.
4343:.
4335:.
4321:.
4248:.
4201:.
4189:.
4166:.
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