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Lax pair

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3401: 2556: 3396:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}L&={\begin{pmatrix}g_{1}+h_{2}&g_{2}+h_{1}&g_{3}&h_{3}\\g_{2}+h_{1}&-g_{1}+h_{2}&h_{3}&-g_{3}\\g_{3}&h_{3}&-g_{1}-h_{2}&g_{2}-h_{1}\\h_{3}&-g_{3}&g_{2}-h_{1}&g_{1}+h_{2}\\\end{pmatrix}}\lambda ^{-1}\\&+{\begin{pmatrix}0&0&-l_{2}&-l_{1}\\0&0&l_{1}&-l_{2}\\l_{2}&-l_{1}&-2\lambda &-2l_{3}\\l_{1}&l_{2}&2l_{3}&2\lambda \\\end{pmatrix}},\\P&={\frac {-1}{2}}{\begin{pmatrix}0&-2l_{3}&l_{2}&l_{1}\\2l_{3}&0&-l_{1}&l_{2}\\-l_{2}&l_{1}&2\lambda &2l_{3}+\gamma \\-l_{1}&-l_{2}&-2l_{3}&-2\lambda \\\end{pmatrix}}.\end{aligned}}} 4296: 1564:, the Lax pair refers to matrices that satisfy the zero-curvature equation rather than the Lax equation. Furthermore, the zero-curvature representation makes the link between integrable systems and geometry manifest, culminating in 1989: 1260: 663: 2500: 815: 948: 1816: 3515: 2077: 2561: 1560:
Any PDE which admits a Lax-pair representation also admits a zero-curvature representation. In fact, the zero-curvature representation is more general and for other integrable PDEs, such as the
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The previous example used an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. Examples are also possible with finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces. These include
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A. Sergyeyev, New integrable (3+1)-dimensional systems and contact geometry, Lett. Math. Phys. 108 (2018), no. 2, 359-376,
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is then interpreted as the alternative expression in terms of isospectral evolution of these observables.
3537: 40: 826: 133: 44: 1991:. This differs from the conventional expression by some minus signs, which are ultimately unimportant. 1021: 1489: 4239: 3731: 3619: 3596: 1561: 4205: 4143: 3857: 2183: 2137: 1688: 4230: 4097: 3773: 3755: 3586: 3412: 1265: 1109: 32: 2524: 2505:
where all derivatives act on all objects to the right. This accounts for the infinite number of
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By the isospectral property, this curve is preserved under time translation. This is the
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Further examples of systems of equations that can be formulated as a Lax pair include:
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is generally known better, and to propagate the solution with the following formulas:
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Lax, P. (1968), "Integrals of nonlinear equations of evolution and solitary waves",
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The above property is the basis for the inverse scattering method. In this method,
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where the subscripts denote coordinate indices rather than derivatives. Often the
1984:{\displaystyle F_{\mu \nu }==-\partial _{\mu }A_{\nu }+\partial _{\nu }A_{\mu }+} 4190: 4180: 4087: 3889: 3623: 1580:
The zero-curvature equations are described by a pair of matrix-valued functions
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can be written in terms of these traces, the spectrum is preserved by the flow.
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are referred to as the Lax pair, and the connection as a Lax connection.
3743: 1568:'s programme to formulate known integrable systems as solutions to the 56: 3670:
Integrable systems : twistors, loop groups, and Riemann surfaces
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Integrable systems : twistors, loop groups, and Riemann surfaces
1255:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \psi }{\partial t}}(t,x)=P\psi (t,x)} 3718:
Bobenko, A. I.; Reyman, A. G.; Semenov-Tian-Shansky, M. A. (1989).
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If we instead enforce these, together with time independence of
658:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}U(t,s)=P(t)U(t,s),\quad U(s,s)=I,} 3830: 1397:
If the Lax matrix additionally depends on a complex parameter
2495:{\displaystyle P=-4\partial _{x}^{3}+6u\partial _{x}+3u_{x},} 810:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \psi }{\partial t}}=P\psi .} 715:, it is possible to solve the same problem at time 0, where 943:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\operatorname {tr} (L^{n})=0} 1818:
It is so called as it corresponds to the vanishing of the
1002:) which is to be determined. It is generally assumed that 1811:{\displaystyle \partial _{t}A_{x}-\partial _{x}A_{t}+=0.} 1720:
and its derivatives. The zero-curvature equation is then
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in a prescribed way, so this is a nonlinear equation for
3510:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}A(t)={\frac {i}{\hbar }},} 2072:{\displaystyle L\psi =\lambda \psi ,\psi _{t}+A\psi =0.} 3162: 2930: 2579: 67:
makes use of the Lax equations to solve such systems.
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The last is remarkable, as it implies that both the
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and the generalization to include an electric field
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Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 54–56. 4186:Spectral theory of ordinary differential equations 3509: 3395: 2542: 2494: 2406: 2353: 2302: 2218: 2172: 2126: 2091: 2071: 2011: 1983: 1810: 1712: 1677: 1645: 1536: 1507: 1474: 1409: 1381: 1343: 1314: 1292: 1254: 1178: 1158: 1136: 1098: 1078: 1045: 942: 882: 862: 831:The result can also be shown using the invariants 809: 758: 657: 537: 499: 403: 371: 317: 297: 277: 257: 233: 180: 111: 2134:can be used to define the connection components 1428: 703:In other words, to solve the eigenvalue problem 1685:dependence is through a single scalar function 3797:Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics 1475:{\displaystyle \det {\big (}wI-L(z){\big )}=0} 75:A Lax pair is a pair of matrices or operators 3842: 1461: 1433: 8: 1031: 1025: 3819:Scattering Theory for Automorphic Functions 500:{\displaystyle L(t)=U(t,s)L(s)U(t,s)^{-1},} 3877: 3849: 3835: 3827: 1053:The method then takes the following form: 863:{\displaystyle \operatorname {tr} (L^{n})} 672:denotes the identity matrix. Note that if 382:The core observation is that the matrices 3568:Integrable systems with contact Lax pairs 3470: 3440: 3438: 3361: 3343: 3328: 3305: 3282: 3270: 3253: 3241: 3221: 3204: 3192: 3180: 3157: 3142: 3103: 3088: 3076: 3062: 3033: 3018: 3004: 2989: 2965: 2950: 2925: 2906: 2888: 2875: 2863: 2850: 2838: 2823: 2809: 2796: 2784: 2771: 2756: 2744: 2730: 2715: 2703: 2690: 2675: 2662: 2648: 2636: 2624: 2611: 2599: 2586: 2574: 2560: 2558: 2529: 2528: 2526: 2483: 2467: 2448: 2443: 2425: 2392: 2387: 2372: 2327: 2321: 2288: 2275: 2256: 2250: 2207: 2194: 2185: 2161: 2148: 2139: 2107: 2084: 2048: 2024: 2004: 1999:For an eigensolution to the Lax operator 1972: 1959: 1943: 1933: 1920: 1910: 1891: 1878: 1865: 1852: 1833: 1827: 1793: 1780: 1764: 1754: 1741: 1731: 1725: 1690: 1658: 1619: 1591: 1585: 1520: 1499: 1495: 1494: 1491: 1460: 1459: 1432: 1431: 1426: 1402: 1356: 1327: 1307: 1267: 1193: 1191: 1171: 1151: 1111: 1091: 1062: 1023: 925: 897: 895: 875: 851: 836: 775: 773: 727: 558: 556: 515: 485: 419: 387: 364: 310: 290: 270: 250: 196: 137: 135: 80: 4139:Group algebra of a locally compact group 2313:can be reformulated as the Lax equation 39:is a pair of time-dependent matrices or 3635: 3475: 958:Link with the inverse scattering method 950:due to the Lax equation, and since the 759:{\displaystyle \lambda (t)=\lambda (0)} 3724:Communications in Mathematical Physics 3607:Lagrange, Euler, and Kovalevskaya tops 2407:{\displaystyle L=-\partial _{x}^{2}+u} 1646:{\displaystyle A_{x}(x,t),A_{t}(x,t),} 1548:. Such curves appear in the theory of 2303:{\displaystyle u_{t}=6uu_{x}-u_{xxx}} 990:)) and depend on an unknown function 119:dependent on time, acting on a fixed 7: 3823:, (1976) Princeton University Press. 3592:Modified Korteweg–de Vries equation 3695:Solitons, instantons, and twistors 2464: 2440: 2384: 1930: 1907: 1875: 1849: 1751: 1728: 1322:in the scattering region, compute 1204: 1196: 1037: 786: 778: 245:. Often, as in the example below, 181:{\displaystyle {\frac {dL}{dt}}=,} 25: 1046:{\displaystyle \|x\|\to \infty .} 4295: 4294: 4221:Topological quantum field theory 1508:{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}} 3626:can be understood as solitons. 3572:Kadomtsev–Petviashvili equation 3559:non-linear Schrödinger equation 1146:In the scattering region where 1018:in the scattering region where 766: (no change in spectrum), 627: 51:. Lax pairs were introduced by 3501: 3498: 3492: 3480: 3464: 3458: 2534: 2348: 2336: 2213: 2187: 2167: 2141: 2121: 2109: 1978: 1952: 1897: 1845: 1799: 1773: 1707: 1695: 1672: 1660: 1637: 1625: 1609: 1597: 1456: 1450: 1373: 1361: 1338: 1332: 1284: 1272: 1249: 1237: 1225: 1213: 1128: 1116: 1073: 1067: 1034: 931: 918: 857: 844: 753: 747: 738: 732: 643: 631: 621: 609: 603: 597: 588: 576: 532: 520: 482: 469: 463: 457: 451: 439: 430: 424: 398: 392: 333:It can then be shown that the 210: 198: 172: 160: 106: 100: 91: 85: 1: 4017:Uniform boundedness principle 2219:{\displaystyle (A_{x},A_{t})} 2173:{\displaystyle (A_{x},A_{t})} 1713:{\displaystyle \varphi (x,t)} 1556:Zero-curvature representation 411:are all similar by virtue of 43:that satisfy a corresponding 821:Through principal invariants 65:inverse scattering transform 3672:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3647:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3612:Belinski–Zakharov transform 1293:{\displaystyle \psi (0,x).} 1137:{\displaystyle \psi (0,x).} 4352: 4160:Invariant subspace problem 3817:P. Lax and R.S. Phillips, 3577:Korteweg–de Vries equation 2543:{\displaystyle {\vec {h}}} 2241:Korteweg–de Vries equation 2235:Korteweg–de Vries equation 1995:Lax pair to zero-curvature 1417:(as is the case for, say, 824: 4290: 3880: 3785:10.1007/s11005-017-1013-4 3693:Dunajski, Maciej (2010). 1570:anti-self-dual Yang–Mills 952:characteristic polynomial 349:. The matrices/operators 112:{\displaystyle L(t),P(t)} 4129:Spectrum of a C*-algebra 3614:, in general relativity. 2416:Sturm–Liouville operator 2092:{\displaystyle \lambda } 1822:, which in this case is 1099:{\displaystyle \lambda } 1057:Compute the spectrum of 4336:Exactly solvable models 4226:Noncommutative geometry 3668:Hitchin, N. J. (1999). 3643:Hitchin, N. J. (1999). 3564:Davey–Stewartson system 1576:Zero-curvature equation 1382:{\displaystyle u(t,x).} 1262:with initial condition 545:is the solution of the 337:and more generally the 4321:Differential equations 4282:Tomita–Takesaki theory 4257:Approximation property 4201:Calculus of variations 3809:10.1002/cpa.3160210503 3557:One-dimensional cubic 3511: 3426:without explicit time 3397: 2544: 2496: 2408: 2355: 2354:{\displaystyle L_{t}=} 2304: 2220: 2174: 2128: 2093: 2073: 2013: 1985: 1812: 1714: 1679: 1647: 1538: 1509: 1476: 1411: 1383: 1345: 1316: 1294: 1256: 1180: 1160: 1138: 1100: 1080: 1047: 944: 884: 864: 811: 760: 659: 539: 538:{\displaystyle U(t,s)} 501: 405: 373: 319: 299: 279: 259: 235: 234:{\displaystyle =PL-LP} 182: 113: 4277:Banach–Mazur distance 4240:Generalized functions 3553:Benjamin–Ono equation 3512: 3430:dependence satisfies 3398: 2545: 2509:of the KdV equation. 2497: 2409: 2356: 2305: 2221: 2175: 2129: 2127:{\displaystyle (L,P)} 2094: 2074: 2014: 1986: 1813: 1715: 1680: 1678:{\displaystyle (x,t)} 1648: 1539: 1510: 1477: 1412: 1384: 1346: 1317: 1315:{\displaystyle \psi } 1295: 1257: 1181: 1179:{\displaystyle \psi } 1161: 1139: 1101: 1081: 1048: 1010:) is known, and that 945: 885: 865: 827:Invariants of tensors 812: 761: 660: 540: 502: 406: 374: 320: 300: 280: 260: 236: 183: 114: 45:differential equation 4022:Kakutani fixed-point 4007:Riesz representation 3620:Schwarzschild metric 3597:Sine-Gordon equation 3437: 2557: 2525: 2424: 2371: 2320: 2249: 2184: 2138: 2106: 2083: 2023: 2003: 1826: 1724: 1689: 1657: 1584: 1562:sine-Gordon equation 1537:{\displaystyle w,z.} 1519: 1490: 1425: 1401: 1355: 1344:{\displaystyle L(t)} 1326: 1306: 1266: 1190: 1170: 1166:is known, propagate 1150: 1110: 1090: 1079:{\displaystyle L(0)} 1061: 1022: 894: 874: 835: 772: 726: 555: 514: 418: 404:{\displaystyle L(t)} 386: 363: 329:Isospectral property 309: 289: 269: 249: 195: 134: 79: 4206:Functional calculus 4165:Mahler's conjecture 4144:Von Neumann algebra 3858:Functional analysis 3736:1989CMaPh.122..321B 3538:Schrödinger picture 2453: 2397: 1572:(ASDYM) equations. 1014:does not depend on 345:are independent of 31:, in the theory of 4231:Riemann hypothesis 3930:Topological vector 3744:10.1007/BF01257419 3587:Marchenko equation 3507: 3413:Heisenberg picture 3407:Heisenberg picture 3393: 3391: 3380: 3119: 2896: 2540: 2492: 2439: 2404: 2383: 2351: 2300: 2216: 2170: 2124: 2089: 2069: 2009: 1981: 1808: 1710: 1675: 1643: 1534: 1505: 1472: 1407: 1379: 1341: 1312: 1290: 1252: 1176: 1156: 1134: 1096: 1076: 1043: 940: 880: 860: 807: 756: 655: 535: 497: 401: 369: 315: 295: 275: 255: 231: 178: 109: 33:integrable systems 4326:Automorphic forms 4308: 4307: 4211:Integral operator 3988: 3987: 3704:978-0-19-857063-9 3478: 3453: 3417:quantum mechanics 3155: 2537: 2012:{\displaystyle L} 1515:with coordinates 1410:{\displaystyle z} 1211: 1186:in time by using 1159:{\displaystyle P} 910: 890:. These satisfy 883:{\displaystyle n} 793: 571: 372:{\displaystyle t} 318:{\displaystyle t} 305:as a function of 298:{\displaystyle L} 278:{\displaystyle L} 258:{\displaystyle P} 155: 123:, and satisfying 16:(Redirected from 4343: 4298: 4297: 4216:Jones polynomial 4134:Operator algebra 3878: 3851: 3844: 3837: 3828: 3811: 3787: 3770: 3764: 3763: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3640: 3544:Further examples 3531: 3523: 3516: 3514: 3513: 3508: 3479: 3471: 3454: 3452: 3441: 3429: 3425: 3402: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3392: 3385: 3384: 3366: 3365: 3348: 3347: 3333: 3332: 3310: 3309: 3287: 3286: 3275: 3274: 3258: 3257: 3246: 3245: 3226: 3225: 3209: 3208: 3197: 3196: 3185: 3184: 3156: 3151: 3143: 3124: 3123: 3108: 3107: 3093: 3092: 3081: 3080: 3067: 3066: 3038: 3037: 3023: 3022: 3009: 3008: 2994: 2993: 2970: 2969: 2955: 2954: 2918: 2914: 2913: 2901: 2900: 2893: 2892: 2880: 2879: 2868: 2867: 2855: 2854: 2843: 2842: 2828: 2827: 2814: 2813: 2801: 2800: 2789: 2788: 2776: 2775: 2761: 2760: 2749: 2748: 2735: 2734: 2720: 2719: 2708: 2707: 2695: 2694: 2680: 2679: 2667: 2666: 2653: 2652: 2641: 2640: 2629: 2628: 2616: 2615: 2604: 2603: 2591: 2590: 2549: 2547: 2546: 2541: 2539: 2538: 2530: 2519:Kovalevskaya top 2513:Kovalevskaya top 2501: 2499: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2487: 2472: 2471: 2452: 2447: 2413: 2411: 2410: 2405: 2396: 2391: 2360: 2358: 2357: 2352: 2332: 2331: 2309: 2307: 2306: 2301: 2299: 2298: 2280: 2279: 2261: 2260: 2225: 2223: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2211: 2199: 2198: 2179: 2177: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2165: 2153: 2152: 2133: 2131: 2130: 2125: 2098: 2096: 2095: 2090: 2078: 2076: 2075: 2070: 2053: 2052: 2018: 2016: 2015: 2010: 1990: 1988: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1976: 1964: 1963: 1948: 1947: 1938: 1937: 1925: 1924: 1915: 1914: 1896: 1895: 1883: 1882: 1870: 1869: 1857: 1856: 1841: 1840: 1820:curvature tensor 1817: 1815: 1814: 1809: 1798: 1797: 1785: 1784: 1769: 1768: 1759: 1758: 1746: 1745: 1736: 1735: 1719: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1684: 1682: 1681: 1676: 1652: 1650: 1649: 1644: 1624: 1623: 1596: 1595: 1543: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1514: 1512: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1481: 1479: 1478: 1473: 1465: 1464: 1437: 1436: 1421:), the equation 1416: 1414: 1413: 1408: 1388: 1386: 1385: 1380: 1350: 1348: 1347: 1342: 1321: 1319: 1318: 1313: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1291: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1212: 1210: 1202: 1194: 1185: 1183: 1182: 1177: 1165: 1163: 1162: 1157: 1143: 1141: 1140: 1135: 1105: 1103: 1102: 1097: 1085: 1083: 1082: 1077: 1052: 1050: 1049: 1044: 972:functional space 949: 947: 946: 941: 930: 929: 911: 909: 898: 889: 887: 886: 881: 869: 867: 866: 861: 856: 855: 816: 814: 813: 808: 794: 792: 784: 776: 765: 763: 762: 757: 664: 662: 661: 656: 572: 570: 559: 544: 542: 541: 536: 506: 504: 503: 498: 493: 492: 410: 408: 407: 402: 378: 376: 375: 370: 324: 322: 321: 316: 304: 302: 301: 296: 284: 282: 281: 276: 264: 262: 261: 256: 240: 238: 237: 232: 187: 185: 184: 179: 156: 154: 146: 138: 118: 116: 115: 110: 61:continuous media 21: 4351: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4331:Spectral theory 4311: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4286: 4250:Advanced topics 4245: 4169: 4148: 4107: 4073:Hilbert–Schmidt 4046: 4037:Gelfand–Naimark 3984: 3934: 3869: 3855: 3794: 3791: 3790: 3771: 3767: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3705: 3692: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3642: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3546: 3534:Planck constant 3529: 3521: 3445: 3435: 3434: 3427: 3423: 3409: 3390: 3389: 3379: 3378: 3367: 3357: 3349: 3339: 3334: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3301: 3296: 3288: 3278: 3276: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3249: 3247: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3200: 3198: 3188: 3186: 3176: 3168: 3158: 3144: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3118: 3117: 3109: 3099: 3094: 3084: 3082: 3072: 3069: 3068: 3058: 3050: 3039: 3029: 3024: 3014: 3011: 3010: 3000: 2995: 2985: 2983: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2961: 2956: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2926: 2916: 2915: 2902: 2895: 2894: 2884: 2871: 2869: 2859: 2846: 2844: 2834: 2829: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2805: 2792: 2790: 2780: 2767: 2762: 2752: 2750: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2726: 2721: 2711: 2709: 2699: 2686: 2681: 2671: 2658: 2655: 2654: 2644: 2642: 2632: 2630: 2620: 2607: 2605: 2595: 2582: 2575: 2567: 2555: 2554: 2523: 2522: 2515: 2507:first integrals 2479: 2463: 2422: 2421: 2369: 2368: 2323: 2318: 2317: 2284: 2271: 2252: 2247: 2246: 2237: 2232: 2203: 2190: 2182: 2181: 2157: 2144: 2136: 2135: 2104: 2103: 2081: 2080: 2044: 2021: 2020: 2001: 2000: 1997: 1968: 1955: 1939: 1929: 1916: 1906: 1887: 1874: 1861: 1848: 1829: 1824: 1823: 1789: 1776: 1760: 1750: 1737: 1727: 1722: 1721: 1687: 1686: 1655: 1654: 1615: 1587: 1582: 1581: 1578: 1558: 1550:Hitchin systems 1517: 1516: 1493: 1488: 1487: 1484:algebraic curve 1423: 1422: 1399: 1398: 1395: 1353: 1352: 1324: 1323: 1304: 1303: 1264: 1263: 1203: 1195: 1188: 1187: 1168: 1167: 1148: 1147: 1108: 1107: 1088: 1087: 1059: 1058: 1020: 1019: 960: 921: 902: 892: 891: 872: 871: 847: 833: 832: 829: 823: 785: 777: 770: 769: 724: 723: 563: 553: 552: 512: 511: 481: 416: 415: 384: 383: 361: 360: 353:are said to be 331: 307: 306: 287: 286: 267: 266: 247: 246: 193: 192: 147: 139: 132: 131: 77: 76: 73: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4349: 4347: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4313: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4302: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4285: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4267:Choquet theory 4264: 4259: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4243: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4167: 4162: 4156: 4154: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4119:Banach algebra 4115: 4113: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4044: 4042:Banach–Alaoglu 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3998: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3983: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3970:Locally convex 3967: 3953: 3948: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3935: 3933: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3871: 3870: 3856: 3854: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3815: 3803:(5): 467–490, 3789: 3788: 3765: 3730:(2): 321–354. 3710: 3703: 3685: 3678: 3660: 3653: 3634: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3616: 3615: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3566: 3561: 3555: 3545: 3542: 3518: 3517: 3506: 3503: 3500: 3497: 3494: 3491: 3488: 3485: 3482: 3477: 3474: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3444: 3408: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3388: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3353: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3320: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3213: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3163: 3161: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3130: 3127: 3122: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3043: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2738: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2580: 2578: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2563: 2562: 2536: 2533: 2514: 2511: 2503: 2502: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2459: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2419: 2403: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2362: 2361: 2350: 2347: 2344: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2311: 2310: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2259: 2255: 2236: 2233: 2231: 2228: 2215: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2169: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2088: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2008: 1996: 1993: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1951: 1946: 1942: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1844: 1839: 1836: 1832: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1772: 1767: 1763: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1734: 1730: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1577: 1574: 1557: 1554: 1546:spectral curve 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1502: 1497: 1471: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1406: 1394: 1393:Spectral curve 1391: 1390: 1389: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1340: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1311: 1300: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1201: 1198: 1175: 1155: 1144: 1133: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1095: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1033: 1030: 1027: 959: 956: 939: 936: 933: 928: 924: 920: 917: 914: 908: 905: 901: 879: 859: 854: 850: 846: 843: 840: 822: 819: 818: 817: 806: 803: 800: 797: 791: 788: 783: 780: 767: 755: 752: 749: 746: 743: 740: 737: 734: 731: 666: 665: 654: 651: 648: 645: 642: 639: 636: 633: 630: 626: 623: 620: 617: 614: 611: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 590: 587: 584: 581: 578: 575: 569: 566: 562: 547:Cauchy problem 534: 531: 528: 525: 522: 519: 508: 507: 496: 491: 488: 484: 480: 477: 474: 471: 468: 465: 462: 459: 456: 453: 450: 447: 444: 441: 438: 435: 432: 429: 426: 423: 400: 397: 394: 391: 368: 330: 327: 314: 294: 274: 254: 230: 227: 224: 221: 218: 215: 212: 209: 206: 203: 200: 189: 188: 177: 174: 171: 168: 165: 162: 159: 153: 150: 145: 142: 125:Lax's equation 108: 105: 102: 99: 96: 93: 90: 87: 84: 72: 69: 24: 18:Spectral curve 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4348: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4301: 4293: 4292: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4272:Weak topology 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4248: 4241: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4196:Index theorem 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4153:Open problems 4151: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4049: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3995: 3991: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3943: 3941: 3937: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3882: 3879: 3876: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3847: 3845: 3840: 3838: 3833: 3832: 3829: 3822: 3820: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3792: 3786: 3782: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3711: 3706: 3700: 3696: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3679:9780198504214 3675: 3671: 3664: 3661: 3656: 3650: 3646: 3639: 3636: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3582:KdV hierarchy 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3535: 3527: 3504: 3495: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3472: 3467: 3461: 3455: 3449: 3446: 3442: 3433: 3432: 3431: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3386: 3381: 3375: 3372: 3369: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3311: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3290: 3283: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3254: 3250: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3229: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3205: 3201: 3193: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3170: 3165: 3159: 3152: 3148: 3145: 3139: 3137: 3132: 3125: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3052: 3047: 3044: 3041: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3015: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2990: 2986: 2980: 2975: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2927: 2922: 2920: 2910: 2907: 2903: 2897: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2876: 2872: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2824: 2820: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2757: 2753: 2745: 2741: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2716: 2712: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2649: 2645: 2637: 2633: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2576: 2571: 2569: 2564: 2553: 2552: 2551: 2531: 2520: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2489: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2473: 2468: 2460: 2457: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2436: 2433: 2430: 2427: 2420: 2417: 2401: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2333: 2328: 2324: 2316: 2315: 2314: 2295: 2292: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2257: 2253: 2245: 2244: 2243: 2242: 2234: 2229: 2227: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2102:The Lax pair 2100: 2086: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2006: 1994: 1992: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1949: 1944: 1940: 1934: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1911: 1903: 1900: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1879: 1871: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1842: 1837: 1834: 1830: 1821: 1805: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1777: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1755: 1747: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1692: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1640: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1592: 1588: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1500: 1485: 1469: 1466: 1453: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1438: 1420: 1404: 1392: 1376: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1358: 1335: 1329: 1309: 1301: 1287: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1269: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1234: 1231: 1228: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1207: 1199: 1173: 1153: 1145: 1131: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1113: 1093: 1070: 1064: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1040: 1028: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 957: 955: 953: 937: 934: 926: 922: 915: 912: 906: 903: 899: 877: 852: 848: 841: 838: 828: 820: 804: 801: 798: 795: 789: 781: 768: 750: 744: 741: 735: 729: 722: 721: 720: 718: 714: 710: 706: 701: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 652: 649: 646: 640: 637: 634: 628: 624: 618: 615: 612: 606: 600: 594: 591: 585: 582: 579: 573: 567: 564: 560: 551: 550: 549: 548: 529: 526: 523: 517: 494: 489: 486: 478: 475: 472: 466: 460: 454: 448: 445: 442: 436: 433: 427: 421: 414: 413: 412: 395: 389: 380: 366: 358: 357: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 328: 326: 312: 292: 272: 252: 244: 228: 225: 222: 219: 216: 213: 207: 204: 201: 175: 169: 166: 163: 157: 151: 148: 143: 140: 130: 129: 128: 126: 122: 121:Hilbert space 103: 97: 94: 88: 82: 70: 68: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 47:, called the 46: 42: 38: 34: 30: 19: 4262:Balanced set 4236:Distribution 4174:Applications 4027:Krein–Milman 4012:Closed graph 3818: 3800: 3796: 3768: 3727: 3723: 3713: 3694: 3688: 3669: 3663: 3644: 3638: 3617: 3602:Toda lattice 3547: 3532:the reduced 3519: 3410: 2516: 2504: 2363: 2312: 2238: 2101: 1998: 1579: 1559: 1545: 1396: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 967: 963: 961: 830: 716: 712: 708: 704: 702: 693: 689: 685: 682:skew-adjoint 677: 673: 669: 667: 509: 381: 354: 350: 346: 342: 332: 190: 124: 74: 49:Lax equation 48: 36: 26: 4191:Heat kernel 4181:Hardy space 4088:Trace class 4002:Hahn–Banach 3964:Topological 3624:Kerr metric 3526:Hamiltonian 1482:defines an 1419:sine-Gordon 356:isospectral 335:eigenvalues 265:depends on 55:to discuss 29:mathematics 4315:Categories 4124:C*-algebra 3939:Properties 3654:0198504217 3630:References 3421:observable 2019:, one has 825:See also: 696:) will be 243:commutator 71:Definition 4098:Unbounded 4093:Transpose 4051:Operators 3980:Separable 3975:Reflexive 3960:Algebraic 3946:Barrelled 3778:1401.2122 3760:121752578 3752:0010-3616 3476:ℏ 3376:λ 3370:− 3352:− 3337:− 3322:− 3315:γ 3294:λ 3264:− 3235:− 3171:− 3146:− 3115:λ 3053:− 3048:λ 3042:− 3027:− 2998:− 2959:− 2944:− 2908:− 2904:λ 2857:− 2832:− 2803:− 2778:− 2765:− 2724:− 2684:− 2535:→ 2465:∂ 2441:∂ 2434:− 2385:∂ 2381:− 2282:− 2087:λ 2061:ψ 2046:ψ 2039:ψ 2036:λ 2030:ψ 1974:ν 1961:μ 1945:μ 1935:ν 1931:∂ 1922:ν 1912:μ 1908:∂ 1904:− 1893:ν 1885:− 1880:ν 1876:∂ 1867:μ 1859:− 1854:μ 1850:∂ 1838:ν 1835:μ 1752:∂ 1748:− 1729:∂ 1693:φ 1445:− 1310:ψ 1270:ψ 1235:ψ 1205:∂ 1200:ψ 1197:∂ 1174:ψ 1114:ψ 1094:λ 1086:, giving 1038:∞ 1035:→ 1032:‖ 1026:‖ 1006:(0,  970:act on a 916:⁡ 842:⁡ 802:ψ 787:∂ 782:ψ 779:∂ 745:λ 730:λ 487:− 223:− 53:Peter Lax 41:operators 4300:Category 4112:Algebras 3994:Theorems 3951:Complete 3920:Schwartz 3866:glossary 3622:and the 2230:Examples 1302:Knowing 870:for any 711:at time 379:varies. 339:spectrum 57:solitons 37:Lax pair 4103:Unitary 4083:Nuclear 4068:Compact 4063:Bounded 4058:Adjoint 4032:Min–max 3925:Sobolev 3910:Nuclear 3900:Hilbert 3895:FrĂ©chet 3860: ( 3813:archive 3732:Bibcode 3411:In the 1351:and/or 998:,  986:,  698:unitary 692:,  241:is the 4078:Normal 3915:Orlicz 3905:Hölder 3885:Banach 3874:Spaces 3862:topics 3758:  3750:  3701:  3676:  3651:  974:(thus 668:where 510:where 191:where 63:. The 3890:Besov 3774:arXiv 3756:S2CID 3520:with 3419:, an 2364:with 680:) is 4238:(or 3956:Dual 3748:ISSN 3699:ISBN 3674:ISBN 3649:ISBN 3528:and 3524:the 2239:The 1566:Ward 1106:and 966:and 35:, a 3805:doi 3781:doi 3740:doi 3728:122 3415:of 2414:(a 1486:in 1429:det 359:as 341:of 59:in 27:In 4317:: 3864:– 3801:21 3799:, 3754:. 3746:. 3738:. 3726:. 3722:. 2550:. 2418:), 2067:0. 1806:0. 1552:. 978:= 913:tr 839:tr 709:λψ 707:= 705:Lψ 700:. 684:, 325:. 127:: 4242:) 3966:) 3962:/ 3958:( 3868:) 3850:e 3843:t 3836:v 3807:: 3783:: 3776:: 3762:. 3742:: 3734:: 3707:. 3682:. 3657:. 3530:ħ 3522:H 3505:, 3502:] 3499:) 3496:t 3493:( 3490:A 3487:, 3484:H 3481:[ 3473:i 3468:= 3465:) 3462:t 3459:( 3456:A 3450:t 3447:d 3443:d 3428:t 3424:A 3387:. 3382:) 3373:2 3363:3 3359:l 3355:2 3345:2 3341:l 3330:1 3326:l 3312:+ 3307:3 3303:l 3299:2 3291:2 3284:1 3280:l 3272:2 3268:l 3255:2 3251:l 3243:1 3239:l 3230:0 3223:3 3219:l 3215:2 3206:1 3202:l 3194:2 3190:l 3182:3 3178:l 3174:2 3166:0 3160:( 3153:2 3149:1 3140:= 3133:P 3126:, 3121:) 3112:2 3105:3 3101:l 3097:2 3090:2 3086:l 3078:1 3074:l 3064:3 3060:l 3056:2 3045:2 3035:1 3031:l 3020:2 3016:l 3006:2 3002:l 2991:1 2987:l 2981:0 2976:0 2967:1 2963:l 2952:2 2948:l 2939:0 2934:0 2928:( 2923:+ 2911:1 2898:) 2890:2 2886:h 2882:+ 2877:1 2873:g 2865:1 2861:h 2852:2 2848:g 2840:3 2836:g 2825:3 2821:h 2811:1 2807:h 2798:2 2794:g 2786:2 2782:h 2773:1 2769:g 2758:3 2754:h 2746:3 2742:g 2732:3 2728:g 2717:3 2713:h 2705:2 2701:h 2697:+ 2692:1 2688:g 2677:1 2673:h 2669:+ 2664:2 2660:g 2650:3 2646:h 2638:3 2634:g 2626:1 2622:h 2618:+ 2613:2 2609:g 2601:2 2597:h 2593:+ 2588:1 2584:g 2577:( 2572:= 2565:L 2532:h 2490:, 2485:x 2481:u 2477:3 2474:+ 2469:x 2461:u 2458:6 2455:+ 2450:3 2445:x 2437:4 2431:= 2428:P 2402:u 2399:+ 2394:2 2389:x 2378:= 2375:L 2349:] 2346:L 2343:, 2340:P 2337:[ 2334:= 2329:t 2325:L 2296:x 2293:x 2290:x 2286:u 2277:x 2273:u 2269:u 2266:6 2263:= 2258:t 2254:u 2214:) 2209:t 2205:A 2201:, 2196:x 2192:A 2188:( 2168:) 2163:t 2159:A 2155:, 2150:x 2146:A 2142:( 2122:) 2119:P 2116:, 2113:L 2110:( 2064:= 2058:A 2055:+ 2050:t 2042:, 2033:= 2027:L 2007:L 1979:] 1970:A 1966:, 1957:A 1953:[ 1950:+ 1941:A 1927:+ 1918:A 1901:= 1898:] 1889:A 1872:, 1863:A 1846:[ 1843:= 1831:F 1803:= 1800:] 1795:t 1791:A 1787:, 1782:x 1778:A 1774:[ 1771:+ 1766:t 1762:A 1756:x 1743:x 1739:A 1733:t 1708:) 1705:t 1702:, 1699:x 1696:( 1673:) 1670:t 1667:, 1664:x 1661:( 1641:, 1638:) 1635:t 1632:, 1629:x 1626:( 1621:t 1617:A 1613:, 1610:) 1607:t 1604:, 1601:x 1598:( 1593:x 1589:A 1532:. 1529:z 1526:, 1523:w 1501:2 1496:C 1470:0 1467:= 1462:) 1457:) 1454:z 1451:( 1448:L 1442:I 1439:w 1434:( 1405:z 1377:. 1374:) 1371:x 1368:, 1365:t 1362:( 1359:u 1339:) 1336:t 1333:( 1330:L 1288:. 1285:) 1282:x 1279:, 1276:0 1273:( 1250:) 1247:x 1244:, 1241:t 1238:( 1232:P 1229:= 1226:) 1223:x 1220:, 1217:t 1214:( 1208:t 1154:P 1132:. 1129:) 1126:x 1123:, 1120:0 1117:( 1074:) 1071:0 1068:( 1065:L 1041:. 1029:x 1016:u 1012:P 1008:x 1004:u 1000:x 996:t 994:( 992:u 988:x 984:t 982:( 980:ψ 976:ψ 968:P 964:L 938:0 935:= 932:) 927:n 923:L 919:( 907:t 904:d 900:d 878:n 858:) 853:n 849:L 845:( 805:. 799:P 796:= 790:t 754:) 751:0 748:( 742:= 739:) 736:t 733:( 717:L 713:t 694:s 690:t 688:( 686:U 678:t 676:( 674:P 670:I 653:, 650:I 647:= 644:) 641:s 638:, 635:s 632:( 629:U 625:, 622:) 619:s 616:, 613:t 610:( 607:U 604:) 601:t 598:( 595:P 592:= 589:) 586:s 583:, 580:t 577:( 574:U 568:t 565:d 561:d 533:) 530:s 527:, 524:t 521:( 518:U 495:, 490:1 483:) 479:s 476:, 473:t 470:( 467:U 464:) 461:s 458:( 455:L 452:) 449:s 446:, 443:t 440:( 437:U 434:= 431:) 428:t 425:( 422:L 399:) 396:t 393:( 390:L 367:t 351:L 347:t 343:L 313:t 293:L 273:L 253:P 229:P 226:L 220:L 217:P 214:= 211:] 208:L 205:, 202:P 199:[ 176:, 173:] 170:L 167:, 164:P 161:[ 158:= 152:t 149:d 144:L 141:d 107:) 104:t 101:( 98:P 95:, 92:) 89:t 86:( 83:L 20:)

Index

Spectral curve
mathematics
integrable systems
operators
differential equation
Peter Lax
solitons
continuous media
inverse scattering transform
Hilbert space
commutator
eigenvalues
spectrum
isospectral
Cauchy problem
skew-adjoint
unitary
Invariants of tensors
characteristic polynomial
functional space
sine-Gordon
algebraic curve
Hitchin systems
sine-Gordon equation
Ward
anti-self-dual Yang–Mills
curvature tensor
Korteweg–de Vries equation
Sturm–Liouville operator
first integrals

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