919:. Since then there have been many disabilities that have been classified, which resulted in a true definition of "speech perception". The term 'speech perception' describes the process of interest that employs sub lexical contexts to the probe process. It consists of many different language and grammatical functions, such as: features, segments (phonemes), syllabic structure (unit of pronunciation), phonological word forms (how sounds are grouped together), grammatical features, morphemic (prefixes and suffixes), and semantic information (the meaning of the words). In the early years, they were more interested in the acoustics of speech. For instance, they were looking at the differences between /ba/ or /da/, but now research has been directed to the response in the brain from the stimuli. In recent years, there has been a model developed to create a sense of how speech perception works; this model is known as the dual stream model. This model has drastically changed from how psychologists look at perception. The first section of the dual stream model is the ventral pathway. This pathway incorporates middle temporal gyrus, inferior temporal sulcus and perhaps the
989:: Pure word deafness, or speech agnosia, is an impairment in which a person maintains the ability to hear, produce speech, and even read speech, yet they are unable to understand or properly perceive speech. These patients seem to have all of the skills necessary in order to properly process speech, yet they appear to have no experience associated with speech stimuli. Patients have reported, "I can hear you talking, but I can't translate it". Even though they are physically receiving and processing the stimuli of speech, without the ability to determine the meaning of the speech, they essentially are unable to perceive the speech at all. There are no known treatments that have been found, but from case studies and experiments it is known that speech agnosia is related to lesions in the left hemisphere or both, specifically right temporoparietal dysfunctions.
1196:. The tritone paradox is where a listener is presented with two computer-generated tones (such as C and F-Sharp) that are half an octave (or a tritone) apart and are then asked to determine whether the pitch of the sequence is descending or ascending. One such study, performed by Ms. Diana Deutsch, found that the listener's interpretation of ascending or descending pitch was influenced by the listener's language or dialect, showing variation between those raised in the south of England and those in California or from those in Vietnam and those in California whose native language was English. A second study, performed in 2006 on a group of English speakers and 3 groups of East Asian students at University of Southern California, discovered that English speakers who had begun musical training at or before age 5 had an 8% chance of having perfect pitch.
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the underlying category. Vocal-tract-size differences result in formant-frequency variation across speakers; therefore a listener has to adjust his/her perceptual system to the acoustic characteristics of a particular speaker. This may be accomplished by considering the ratios of formants rather than their absolute values. This process has been called vocal tract normalization (see Figure 3 for an example). Similarly, listeners are believed to adjust the perception of duration to the current tempo of the speech they are listening to – this has been referred to as speech rate normalization.
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listener's memory are compared with the incoming stimulus so that the stimulus can be categorized. Similarly, when recognizing a talker, all the memory traces of utterances produced by that talker are activated and the talker's identity is determined. Supporting this theory are several experiments reported by
Johnson that suggest that our signal identification is more accurate when we are familiar with the talker or when we have visual representation of the talker's gender. When the talker is unpredictable or the sex misidentified, the error rate in word-identification is much higher.
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left hemisphere. However, utilizing technologies such as fMRI machines, research has shown that two regions of the brain traditionally considered exclusively to process speech, Broca's and
Wernicke's areas, also become active during musical activities such as listening to a sequence of musical chords. Other studies, such as one performed by Marques et al. in 2006 showed that 8-year-olds who were given six months of musical training showed an increase in both their pitch detection performance and their electrophysiological measures when made to listen to an unknown foreign language.
1398:'s as perceived by a listener fall within one category (voiced alveolar plosive) and that is because "linguistic representations are abstract, canonical, phonetic segments or the gestures that underlie these segments". When describing units of perception, Liberman later abandoned articulatory movements and proceeded to the neural commands to the articulators and even later to intended articulatory gestures, thus "the neural representation of the utterance that determines the speaker's production is the distal object the listener perceives". The theory is closely related to the
1129:, affect speech perception to some extent. Expressive aphasia causes moderate difficulties for language understanding. The effect of receptive aphasia on understanding is much more severe. It is agreed upon, that aphasics suffer from perceptual deficits. They usually cannot fully distinguish place of articulation and voicing. As for other features, the difficulties vary. It has not yet been proven whether low-level speech-perception skills are affected in aphasia sufferers or whether their difficulties are caused by higher-level impairment alone.
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study by
Patricia K. Kuhl, Feng-Ming Tsao, and Huei-Mei Liu, it was discovered that if infants are spoken to and interacted with by a native speaker of Mandarin Chinese, they can actually be conditioned to retain their ability to distinguish different speech sounds within Mandarin that are very different from speech sounds found within the English language. Thus proving that given the right conditions, it is possible to prevent infants' loss of the ability to distinguish speech sounds in languages other than those found in the native language.
1145:) and the duration of using an implant. There are differences between children with congenital and acquired deafness. Postlingually deaf children have better results than the prelingually deaf and adapt to a cochlear implant faster. In both children with cochlear implants and normal hearing, vowels and voice onset time becomes prevalent in development before the ability to discriminate the place of articulation. Several months following implantation, children with cochlear implants can normalize speech perception.
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prosody—elements that distinguish an individual voice". There is no known treatment; however, there is a case report of an epileptic woman who began to experience phonagnosia along with other impairments. Her EEG and MRI results showed "a right cortical parietal T2-hyperintense lesion without gadolinium enhancement and with discrete impairment of water molecule diffusion". So although no treatment has been discovered, phonagnosia can be correlated to postictal parietal cortical dysfunction.
923:. The ventral pathway shows phonological representations to the lexical or conceptual representations, which is the meaning of the words. The second section of the dual stream model is the dorsal pathway. This pathway includes the sylvian parietotemporal, inferior frontal gyrus, anterior insula, and premotor cortex. Its primary function is to take the sensory or phonological stimuli and transfer it into an articulatory-motor representation (formation of speech).
743:), which are important for recognition of speech sounds, will vary in their absolute values across individuals (see Figure 3 for an illustration of this). Research shows that infants at the age of 7.5 months cannot recognize information presented by speakers of different genders; however by the age of 10.5 months, they can detect the similarities. Dialect and foreign accent can also cause variation, as can the social characteristics of the speaker and listener.
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to understand unknown speakers and sounds. The perceptual abilities of children that received an implant after the age of two are significantly better than of those who were implanted in adulthood. A number of factors have been shown to influence perceptual performance, specifically: duration of deafness prior to implantation, age of onset of deafness, age at implantation (such age effects may be related to the
1545:. Through the research in these categories it has been found that there may not be a specific speech mode but instead one for auditory codes that require complicated auditory processing. Also it seems that modularity is learned in perceptual systems. Despite this the evidence and counter-evidence for the speech mode hypothesis is still unclear and needs further research.
676:), this linearity is difficult to see in the physical speech signal (see Figure 2 for an example). Speech sounds do not strictly follow one another, rather, they overlap. A speech sound is influenced by the ones that precede and the ones that follow. This influence can even be exerted at a distance of two or more segments (and across syllable- and word-boundaries).
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sentences where target words only differed in a single phoneme (bay/day/gay, for example) whose quality changed along a continuum. When put into different sentences that each naturally led to one interpretation, listeners tended to judge ambiguous words according to the meaning of the whole sentence . That is, higher-level language processes connected with
1216:, analyzes whether "the perceptual experience of listening to speech differs in phenomenal character" with regards to understanding the language being heard. He argues that an individual's experience when hearing a language they comprehend, as opposed to their experience when hearing a language they have no knowledge of, displays a difference in
1025:. Infants learn to contrast different vowel phonemes of their native language by approximately 6 months of age. The native consonantal contrasts are acquired by 11 or 12 months of age. Some researchers have proposed that infants may be able to learn the sound categories of their native language through passive listening, using a process called
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1370:. Listeners were asked to identify which sound they heard and to discriminate between two different sounds. The results of the experiment showed that listeners grouped sounds into discrete categories, even though the sounds they were hearing were varying continuously. Based on these results, they proposed the notion of
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The exemplar-based approaches claim listeners store information for both word- and talker-recognition. According to this theory, particular instances of speech sounds are stored in the memory of a listener. In the process of speech perception, the remembered instances of e.g. a syllable stored in the
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Neurophysiological methods rely on utilizing information stemming from more direct and not necessarily conscious (pre-attentative) processes. Subjects are presented with speech stimuli in different types of tasks and the responses of the brain are measured. The brain itself can be more sensitive than
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Computational modeling has also been used to simulate how speech may be processed by the brain to produce behaviors that are observed. Computer models have been used to address several questions in speech perception, including how the sound signal itself is processed to extract the acoustic cues used
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Speech perception has also been analyzed through sinewave speech, a form of synthetic speech where the human voice is replaced by sine waves that mimic the frequencies and amplitudes present in the original speech. When subjects are first presented with this speech, the sinewave speech is interpreted
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One of the fundamental problems in the study of speech is how to deal with noise. This is shown by the difficulty in recognizing human speech that computer recognition systems have. While they can do well at recognizing speech if trained on a specific speaker's voice and under quiet conditions, these
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If day-old babies are presented with their mother's voice speaking normally, abnormally (in monotone), and a stranger's voice, they react only to their mother's voice speaking normally. When a human and a non-human sound is played, babies turn their head only to the source of human sound. It has been
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Another basic experiment compared recognition of naturally spoken words within a phrase versus the same words in isolation, finding that perception accuracy usually drops in the latter condition. To probe the influence of semantic knowledge on perception, Garnes and Bond (1976) similarly used carrier
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Bundles of these features uniquely identify speech segments (phonemes, syllables, words). These segments are part of the lexicon stored in the listener's memory. Its units are activated in the process of lexical access and mapped on the original signal to find out whether they match. If not, another
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as a relation between phonological features and auditory properties. According to this view, listeners are inspecting the incoming signal for the so-called acoustic landmarks which are particular events in the spectrum carrying information about gestures which produced them. Since these gestures are
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Languages differ in their phonemic inventories. Naturally, this creates difficulties when a foreign language is encountered. For example, if two foreign-language sounds are assimilated to a single mother-tongue category the difference between them will be very difficult to discern. A classic example
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It may be the case that it is not necessary and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for example. After obtaining at least a fundamental piece of information about phonemic structure of the perceived entity from the acoustic signal,
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The conclusion to make from both the identification and the discrimination test is that listeners will have different sensitivity to the same relative increase in VOT depending on whether or not the boundary between categories was crossed. Similar perceptual adjustment is attested for other acoustic
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Despite the great variety of different speakers and different conditions, listeners perceive vowels and consonants as constant categories. It has been proposed that this is achieved by means of the perceptual normalization process in which listeners filter out the noise (i.e. variation) to arrive at
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The resulting acoustic structure of concrete speech productions depends on the physical and psychological properties of individual speakers. Men, women, and children generally produce voices having different pitch. Because speakers have vocal tracts of different sizes (due to sex and age especially)
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value corresponding to how likely it is that a sound belongs to a particular speech category. Thus, when perceiving a speech signal our decision about what we actually hear is based on the relative goodness of the match between the stimulus information and values of particular prototypes. The final
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proposes that people remember speech sounds in a probabilistic, or graded, way. It suggests that people remember descriptions of the perceptual units of language, called prototypes. Within each prototype various features may combine. However, features are not just binary (true or false), there is a
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data, Liberman and colleagues worked out the motor theory of speech perception, where "the complicated articulatory encoding was assumed to be decoded in the perception of speech by the same processes that are involved in production" (this is referred to as analysis-by-synthesis). For instance, the
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restores access to the acoustic signal in individuals with sensorineural hearing loss. The acoustic information conveyed by an implant is usually sufficient for implant users to properly recognize speech of people they know even without visual clues. For cochlear implant users, it is more difficult
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are actual vocal tract movements, or gestures, and not abstract phonemes or (as in the Motor Theory) events that are causally antecedent to these movements, i.e. intended gestures. Listeners perceive gestures not by means of a specialized decoder (as in the Motor Theory) but because information in
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The exemplar models have to face several objections, two of which are (1) insufficient memory capacity to store every utterance ever heard and, concerning the ability to produce what was heard, (2) whether also the talker's own articulatory gestures are stored or computed when producing utterances
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is an emerging field related to the study of speech perception. Originally it was theorized that the neural signals for music were processed in a specialized "module" in the right hemisphere of the brain. Conversely, the neural signals for language were to be processed by a similar "module" in the
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In tests of the ability to discriminate between two sounds with varying VOT values but having a constant VOT distance from each other (20 ms for instance), listeners are likely to perform at chance level if both sounds fall within the same category and at nearly 100% level if each sound falls in a
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The research and application of speech perception must deal with several problems which result from what has been termed the lack of invariance. Reliable constant relations between a phoneme of a language and its acoustic manifestation in speech are difficult to find. There are several reasons for
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It has also been discovered that even though infants' ability to distinguish between the different phonetic properties of various languages begins to decline around the age of nine months, it is possible to reverse this process by exposing them to a new language in a sufficient way. In a research
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to the stimulation the sucking rate decreases and levels off. Then, a new stimulus is played to the baby. If the baby perceives the newly introduced stimulus as different from the background stimulus the sucking rate will show an increase. The sucking-rate and the head-turn method are some of the
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One of the techniques used to examine how infants perceive speech, besides the head-turn procedure mentioned above, is measuring their sucking rate. In such an experiment, a baby is sucking a special nipple while presented with sounds. First, the baby's normal sucking rate is established. Then a
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by being able to detect very small differences between speech sounds. They can discriminate all possible speech contrasts (phonemes). Gradually, as they are exposed to their native language, their perception becomes language-specific, i.e. they learn how to ignore the differences within phonemic
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At first glance, the solution to the problem of how we perceive speech seems deceptively simple. If one could identify stretches of the acoustic waveform that correspond to units of perception, then the path from sound to meaning would be clear. However, this correspondence or mapping has proven
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events in the signal; for example, vowels are typically marked by higher frequency of the first formant, consonants can be specified as discontinuities in the signal and have lower amplitudes in lower and middle regions of the spectrum. These acoustic features result from articulation. In fact,
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Best (1995) proposed a
Perceptual Assimilation Model which describes possible cross-language category assimilation patterns and predicts their consequences. Flege (1995) formulated a Speech Learning Model which combines several hypotheses about second-language (L2) speech acquisition and which
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One important factor that causes variation is differing speech rate. Many phonemic contrasts are constituted by temporal characteristics (short vs. long vowels or consonants, affricates vs. fricatives, plosives vs. glides, voiced vs. voiceless plosives, etc.) and they are certainly affected by
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One acoustic aspect of the speech signal may cue different linguistically relevant dimensions. For example, the duration of a vowel in
English can indicate whether or not the vowel is stressed, or whether it is in a syllable closed by a voiced or a voiceless consonant, and in some cases (like
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The theory has been criticized in terms of not being able to "provide an account of just how acoustic signals are translated into intended gestures" by listeners. Furthermore, it is unclear how indexical information (e.g. talker-identity) is encoded/decoded along with linguistically relevant
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Landmarks are analyzed to determine certain articulatory events (gestures) which are connected with them. In the next stage, acoustic cues are extracted from the signal in the vicinity of the landmarks by means of mental measuring of certain parameters such as frequencies of spectral peaks,
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Without the necessity of taking an active part in the test, even infants can be tested; this feature is crucial in research into acquisition processes. The possibility to observe low-level auditory processes independently from the higher-level ones makes it possible to address long-standing
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it appears to be through behavioral responses. For example, the subject may not show sensitivity to the difference between two speech sounds in a discrimination test, but brain responses may reveal sensitivity to these differences. Methods used to measure neural responses to speech include
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is associated with the inability to recognize any familiar voices. In these cases, speech stimuli can be heard and even understood but the association of the speech to a certain voice is lost. This can be due to "abnormal processing of complex vocal properties (timbre, articulation, and
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In a classic experiment, Richard M. Warren (1970) replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. Perceptually, his subjects restored the missing speech sound without any difficulty and could not accurately identify which phoneme had been disturbed, a phenomenon known as the
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If a subject who is a monolingual native
English speaker is presented with a stimulus of speech in German, the string of phonemes will appear as mere sounds and will produce a very different experience than if exactly the same stimulus was presented to a subject who speaks German.
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1021:; infants must learn which differences are distinctive in their native language uses, and which are not). As infants learn how to sort incoming speech sounds into categories, ignoring irrelevant differences and reinforcing the contrastive ones, their perception becomes
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systems often do poorly in more realistic listening situations where humans would understand speech with relative ease. To emulate processing patterns that would be held in the brain under normal conditions, prior knowledge is a key neural factor, since a robust
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Research in how people with language or hearing impairment perceive speech is not only intended to discover possible treatments. It can provide insight into the principles underlying non-impaired speech perception. Two areas of research can serve as an example:
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predicts, in simple words, that an L2 sound that is not too similar to a native-language (L1) sound will be easier to acquire than an L2 sound that is relatively similar to an L1 sound (because it will be perceived as more obviously "different" by the learner).
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attempt with a different candidate pattern is made. In this iterative fashion, listeners thus reconstruct the articulatory events which were necessary to produce the perceived speech signal. This can be therefore described as analysis-by-synthesis.
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is "the loss or diminution of the ability to recognize familiar objects or stimuli usually as a result of brain damage". There are several different kinds of agnosia that affect every one of our senses, but the two most common related to speech are
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listeners can compensate for missing or noise-masked phonemes using their knowledge of the spoken language. Compensatory mechanisms might even operate at the sentence level such as in learned songs, phrases and verses, an effect backed-up by
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caused by damage to the brain. Different parts of language processing are impacted depending on the area of the brain that is damaged, and aphasia is further classified based on the location of injury or constellation of symptoms. Damage to
543:.) After processing the initial auditory signal, speech sounds are further processed to extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. This speech information can then be used for higher-level language processes, such as word recognition.
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Exemplar models of speech perception differ from the four theories mentioned above which suppose that there is no connection between word- and talker-recognition and that the variation across talkers is "noise" to be filtered out.
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Because the speech signal is not linear, there is a problem of segmentation. It is difficult to delimit a stretch of speech signal as belonging to a single perceptual unit. As an example, the acoustic properties of the phoneme
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the acoustic signal specifies the gestures that form it. By claiming that the actual articulatory gestures that produce different speech sounds are themselves the units of speech perception, the theory bypasses the problem of
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simply does not exist in this model. The acoustic properties of the landmarks constitute the basis for establishing the distinctive features. Bundles of them uniquely specify phonetic segments (phonemes, syllables, words).
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More recent research using different tasks and methods suggests that listeners are highly sensitive to acoustic differences within a single phonetic category, contrary to a strict categorical account of speech perception.
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If a specific aspect of the acoustic waveform indicated one linguistic unit, a series of tests using speech synthesizers would be sufficient to determine such a cue or cues. However, there are two significant obstacles:
730:. Another major source of variation is articulatory carefulness vs. sloppiness which is typical for connected speech (articulatory "undershoot" is obviously reflected in the acoustic properties of the sounds produced).
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Behavioral experiments are based on an active role of a participant, i.e. subjects are presented with stimuli and asked to make conscious decisions about them. This can take the form of an identification test, a
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He also examines how speech perception changes when one learning a language. If a subject with no knowledge of the
Japanese language was presented with a stimulus of Japanese speech, and then was given the exact
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The next processing stage comprises acoustic-cues consolidation and derivation of distinctive features. These are binary categories related to articulation (for example , , for vowels; , , or for consonants.
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as random noises. But when the subjects are informed that the stimuli actually is speech and are told what is being said, "a distinctive, nearly immediate shift occurs" to how the sinewave speech is perceived.
532:. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. Speech perception research has applications in building
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Behavioral responses may reflect late, conscious processes and be affected by other systems such as orthography, and thus they may mask speaker's ability to recognize sounds based on lower-level acoustic
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Marques, C et al. (2007). Musicians detect pitch violation in foreign language better than nonmusicians: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. "Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience, 19", 1453-1463.
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of speech perception are the articulatory gestures underlying speech. Listeners make sense of the speech signal by referring to them. The model belongs to those referred to as analysis-by-synthesis.
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Iverson, P., Kuhl, P.K., Akahane-Yamada, R., Diesh, E., Thokura, Y., Kettermann, A., Siebert, C. (2003). "A perceptual interference account of acquisition difficulties for non-native phonemes".
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Speech mode hypothesis is the idea that the perception of speech requires the use of specialized mental processing. The speech mode hypothesis is a branch off of Fodor's modularity theory (see
1507:). Computer models of the fuzzy logical theory have been used to demonstrate that the theory's predictions of how speech sounds are categorized correspond to the behavior of human listeners.
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marking the boundary between voiced and voiceless plosives are different for labial, alveolar and velar plosives and they shift under stress or depending on the position within a syllable.
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with a clear boundary between the two categories. A two-alternative identification (or categorization) test will yield a discontinuous categorization function (see red curve in Figure 4).
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Categorical perception is involved in processes of perceptual differentiation. People perceive speech sounds categorically, that is to say, they are more likely to notice the differences
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Rocha, Sofia; Amorim, José Manuel; Machado, Álvaro
Alexandre; Ferreira, Carla Maria (2015-04-01). "Phonagnosia and Inability to Perceive Time Passage in Right Parietal Lobe Epilepsy".
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categories. The perceptual space between categories is therefore warped, the centers of categories (or "prototypes") working like a sieve or like magnets for incoming speech sounds.
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voiceless . Gradually, adding the same amount of VOT at a time, the plosive is eventually a strongly aspirated voiceless bilabial . (Such a continuum was used in an experiment by
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causes only limited and moreover systematic and thus predictable variation in the signal which the listener is able to deal with. Within this model therefore, what is called the
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or VOT. VOT is a primary cue signaling the difference between voiced and voiceless plosives, such as "b" and "p". Other cues differentiate sounds that are produced at different
622:) it can distinguish the identity of vowels. Some experts even argue that duration can help in distinguishing of what is traditionally called short and long vowels in English.
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Conversely, some research has revealed that, rather than music affecting our perception of speech, our native speech can affect our perception of music. One example is the
771:) rather than absolute values are plotted using the normalization procedure proposed by Syrdal and Gopal in 1986. Formant values are taken from Hillenbrand et al. (1995)
590:. The speech system must also combine these cues to determine the category of a specific speech sound. This is often thought of in terms of abstract representations of
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Csépe, V.; Osman-Sagi, J.; Molnar, M.; Gosy, M. (2001). "Impaired speech perception in aphasic patients: event-related potential and neuropsychological assessment".
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The methods used in speech perception research can be roughly divided into three groups: behavioral, computational, and, more recently, neurophysiological methods.
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The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of the sound signal and the process of audition. (For a complete description of the process of audition see
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theoretical issues such as whether or not humans possess a specialized module for perceiving speech or whether or not some complex acoustic invariance (see
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secondary articulatory movements may be used when enhancement of the landmarks is needed due to external conditions such as noise. Stevens claims that
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categories of the language (differences that may well be contrastive in other languages – for example, English distinguishes two voicing categories of
1519:). It utilizes a vertical processing mechanism where limited stimuli are processed by special-purpose areas of the brain that are stimuli specific.
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Best, C. T. (1995). "A direct realist view of cross-language speech perception: New
Directions in Research and Theory". In Winifred Strange (ed.).
1261:, similarity rating, etc. These types of experiments help to provide a basic description of how listeners perceive and categorize speech sounds.
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in a standard F1 by F2 plot (in Hz). The mismatch between male, female, and child values is apparent. In the right panel formant distances (in
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Iverson, P., Kuhl, P.K. (1995). "Mapping the perceptual magnet effect for speech using signal detection theory and multidimensional scaling".
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stimulus is played repeatedly. When the baby hears the stimulus for the first time the sucking rate increases but as the baby becomes
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In this model, the incoming acoustic signal is believed to be first processed to determine the so-called landmarks which are special
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of this situation is the observation that Japanese learners of English will have problems with identifying or distinguishing English
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The first ever hypothesis of speech perception was used with patients who acquired an auditory comprehension deficit, also known as
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Nygaard, L.C., Pisoni, D.B. (1995). "Speech Perception: New Directions in Research and Theory". In J.L. Miller; P.D. Eimas (eds.).
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hypothesis, which proposes the existence of a special-purpose module, which is supposed to be innate and probably human-specific.
2133:; Gopal, H.S. (1986). "A perceptual model of vowel recognition based on the auditory representation of American English vowels".
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contained in the speech sound signal which are used in speech perception to differentiate speech sounds belonging to different
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Uhler; Yoshinaga-Itano; Gabbard; Rothpletz; Jenkins (March 2011). "infant speech perception in young cochlear implant users".
1561:, which postulates that perception allows us to have direct awareness of the world because it involves direct recovery of the
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Three important experimental paradigms have evolved in the search to find evidence for the speech mode hypothesis. These are
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history may to an extent override the extreme masking effects involved in the complete absence of continuous speech signals.
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1029:. Others even claim that certain sound categories are innate, that is, they are genetically specified (see discussion about
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patterns consistent with the missed continuous speech fragments, despite the lack of all relevant bottom-up sensory input.
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Whether or not normalization actually takes place and what is its exact nature is a matter of theoretical controversy (see
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Hessler, Dorte; Jonkers, Bastiaanse (December 2010). "The influence of phonetic dimensions on aphasic speech perception".
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Figure 2: A spectrogram of the phrase "I owe you". There are no clearly distinguishable boundaries between speech sounds.
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Hillenbrand, J., Getty, L.A., Clark, M.J., Wheeler, K. (1995). "Acoustic characteristics of American English vowels".
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848:.) In this continuum of, for example, seven sounds, native English listeners will identify the first three sounds as
2931:"Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning"
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It is not easy to identify what acoustic cues listeners are sensitive to when perceiving a particular speech sound:
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Hillenbrand, J.M., Clark, M.J., Nearey, T.M. (2001). "Effects of consonant environment on vowel formant patterns".
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536:, in improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners, and in foreign-language teaching.
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limited by the capacities of humans' articulators and listeners are sensitive to their auditory correlates, the
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Flege, J. (1995). "Second language speech learning: Theory, findings and problems". In Winifred Strange (ed.).
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decision is based on multiple features or sources of information, even visual information (this explains the
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Massaro, D.W. (1989). "Testing between the TRACE Model and the Fuzzy Logical Model of Speech perception".
3736:
2518:"Restoration and Efficiency of the Neural Processing of Continuous Speech Are Promoted by Prior Knowledge"
1664:
Klatt, D.H. (1976). "Linguistic uses of segmental duration in English: Acoustic and perceptual evidence".
1538:
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Figure 1: Spectrograms of syllables "dee" (top), "dah" (middle), and "doo" (bottom) showing how the onset
406:
165:
116:
2418:
Garnes, S., Bond, Z.S. (1976). "The relationship between acoustic information and semantic expectation".
563:
are highlighted by red dotted lines; transitions are the bending beginnings of the formant trajectories.)
4423:
4388:
4168:
4153:
3950:
3649:
3587:
3025:
2881:
2840:"Neural Attunement Processes in Infants during the Acquisition of a Language-Specific Phonemic Contrast"
2294:
2015:
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594:. These representations can then be combined for use in word recognition and other language processes.
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One linguistic unit can be cued by several acoustic properties. For example, in a classic experiment,
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2142:
1979:
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832:, i.e. it has a negative VOT. Then, increasing the VOT, it reaches zero, i.e. the plosive is a plain
784:
521:
276:
97:
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in speech, and how speech information is used for higher-level processes, such as word recognition.
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is a phenomenon not specific to speech perception only; it exists in other types of perception too.
4418:
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differ depending on the following vowel (see Figure 1) but they are all interpreted as the phoneme
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that define perceptually the consonant differ depending on the identity of the following vowel. (
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2003:
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Strong version – listening to speech engages specialized speech mechanisms for perceiving speech.
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121:
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81:
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Neurophysiological methods were introduced into speech perception research for several reasons:
1046:
more traditional, behavioral methods for studying speech perception. Among the new methods (see
945:
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4342:
4319:
4292:
4287:
4272:
4245:
4190:
4158:
4061:
4026:
3938:
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Oden, G.C., Massaro, D.W. (1978). "Integration of featural information in speech perception".
3895:
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1995:
1913:
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955:
Aphasia with impaired speech perception typically shows lesions or damage located in the left
949:
916:
710:
304:
238:
170:
160:
130:
2178:
The Acoustics of Speech Communication: Fundamentals, Speech Perception Theory, and Technology
1346:
Some of the earliest work in the study of how humans perceive speech sounds was conducted by
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1987:
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may interact with basic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of speech sounds.
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155:
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4352:
4297:
4267:
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4195:
2449:"Contributions of semantic and facial information to perception of nonsibilant fricatives"
1777:
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1562:
1415:
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271:
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extremely difficult to find, even after some forty-five years of research on the problem.
3834:
2946:
2380:
2270:
2146:
1983:
1837:
1760:
1677:
3816:"Toward a model of lexical access based on acoustic landmarks and distinctive features"
3195:"Speech patterns heard early in life influence later perception of the tritone paradox"
2864:
2839:
2544:
2517:
1558:
1459:
1347:
976:
685:
626:
3126:
3001:
2965:
2930:
2764:
2747:
2467:
2176:
Strange, W. (1999). "Perception of vowels: Dynamic constancy". In J.M. Pickett (ed.).
4438:
4307:
4185:
4180:
3979:
3891:
3750:
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3460:
3299:
3265:
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2703:
2584:
2230:
2113:
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1018:
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904:
396:
370:
344:
324:
3607:
Liberman, A.M., Cooper, F.S., Shankweiler, D.P., & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1967).
3573:
3476:
3419:
3142:
2689:
2600:
2404:
2007:
1925:
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705:
Phonetic environment affects the acoustic properties of speech sounds. For example,
17:
4250:
3907:
3315:
2855:
2643:
1565:
of the event that is perceived. For speech perception, the theory asserts that the
1554:
1121:
affects both the expression and reception of language. Both two most common types,
963:. Lexical and semantic difficulties are common, and comprehension may be affected.
837:
727:
365:
329:
4073:
3770:
3766:
3693:
3608:
3538:
3062:
Speech perception and linguistic experience: Theoretical and methodological issues
3047:
Speech perception and linguistic experience: Theoretical and methodological issues
3017:
2614:
Hickok G, Poeppel D (May 2007). "The cortical organization of speech processing".
2329:
1929:
1782:
1074:
speech (second-language speech perception). The latter falls within the domain of
883:. Therefore, the process of speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional.
3981:
Neurolinguistics: An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing and its Disorders
2673:
2388:
4227:
4200:
4163:
2728:
2055:
1499:
996:
980:
571:
517:
360:
228:
3934:
1909:
1220:
which he defines as "aspects of what an experience is like" for an individual.
4237:
3514:
3497:
3388:"Neurological Evidence in Support of a Specialized Phonetic Processing Module"
2130:
1482:
768:
529:
525:
3213:
2811:
2592:
2534:
1809:
Fowler, C.A. (1995). "Speech production". In J.L. Miller; P.D. Eimas (eds.).
4383:
4368:
4205:
4148:
4135:
2955:
1354:. Using a speech synthesizer, they constructed speech sounds that varied in
1042:
896:
669:
513:
509:
300:
289:
218:
213:
203:
89:
4065:
4044:
Randy L. Diehl; Andrew J. Lotto; Lori L. Holt (2004). "Speech perception".
3850:
3565:
3523:
3468:
3411:
3403:
3134:
3096:
3009:
2974:
2873:
2819:
2681:
2635:
2553:
2485:
2092:
Hay, Jennifer; Drager, Katie (2010). "Stuffed toys and speech perception".
2063:
1853:
35:
4030:
3899:
3758:
3635:
3539:"The discrimination of speech sounds within and across phoneme boundaries"
3307:
2773:
2396:
2286:
2162:
2105:
1999:
1917:
1707:
Halle, M., Mohanan, K.P. (1985). "Segmental phonology of modern English".
1526:
Weak version – listening to speech engages previous knowledge of language.
805:
Figure 4: Example identification (red) and discrimination (blue) functions
4393:
4302:
3942:
2037:"The role of talker-specific information in word segmentation by infants"
1811:
Handbook of Perception and Cognition: Speech, Language, and Communication
1693:
1637:
Handbook of Perception and Cognition: Speech, Language, and Communication
1390:
may vary in its acoustic details across different phonetic contexts (see
1161:
1037:
suggested that auditory learning begins already in the pre-natal period.
1014:
740:
665:
591:
575:
501:
3088:
2511:
2509:
1066:
A large amount of research has studied how users of a language perceive
755:
Figure 3: The left panel shows the 3 peripheral American English vowels
4413:
4398:
4021:
4004:
1553:
The direct realist theory of speech perception (mostly associated with
1118:
971:
560:
411:
401:
319:
208:
3842:
3172:
2569:"Speech Perception: Cognitive Foundations and Cortical Implementation"
2476:
1845:
1768:
4329:
3627:
3557:
2278:
2154:
1991:
1685:
892:
505:
3537:
Liberman, A.M., Harris, K.S., Hoffman, H.S., Griffith, B.C. (1957).
2627:
2044:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
860:
different category (see the blue discrimination curve in Figure 4).
4098:
3442:"Neural correlates of switching from auditory to speech perception"
3436:; Pallier, C.; Serniclaes, W.; Sprenger-Charolles, L.; Jobert, A.;
578:
categories. For example, one of the most studied cues in speech is
4276:
2319:"The voicing dimension: Some experiments in comparative phonetics"
800:
750:
673:
664:
Although listeners perceive speech as a stream of discrete units (
655:
550:
243:
1891:"Some effects of context on voice onset time in English plosives"
684:
will depend on the production of the following vowel (because of
4094:
on the Perception of Speech. Some articles are freely available.
824:, each new step differs from the preceding one in the amount of
4102:
3193:
Deutsch, Diana; Henthorn, Trevor; Dolson, Mark (Spring 2004).
944:
which manifests as impairment in speech production. Damage to
29:
3345:"The influence of meaning on the perception of speech sounds"
2929:
Kuhl, Patricia K.; Feng-Ming Tsao; Huei-Mei Liu (July 2003).
2748:"Auditory Agnosia with relative sparing of speech perception"
2367:
Warren, R.M. (1970). "Restoration of missing speech sounds".
2236:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
1070:
speech (referred to as cross-language speech perception) or
820:
In an artificial continuum between a voiceless and a voiced
2838:
Minagawa-Kawai, Y., Mori, K., Naoi, N., Kojima, S. (2006).
1493:
The fuzzy logical theory of speech perception developed by
1374:
as a mechanism by which humans can identify speech sounds.
2792:
The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
3159:
Loizou, P. (1998). "Introduction to cochlear implants".
1095:
Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers
2326:
Proc. 6th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences
504:
are heard, interpreted, and understood. The study of
4003:
Parker, Ellen M.; R.L. Diehl; K.R. Kluender (1986).
2328:. Prague: Academia. pp. 563–567. Archived from
2035:
Houston, Derek M.; Juscyk, Peter W. (October 2000).
1327:
above) underlies the recognition of a speech sound.
4361:
4328:
4236:
4134:
3985:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
2785:
2783:
2229:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3343:Kazanina, N., Phillips, C., Idsardi, W. (2006).
1050:below) that help us to study speech perception,
3722:"The motor theory of speech perception revised"
2935:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1742:"Some results of research on speech perception"
1470:amplitudes in low-frequency region, or timing.
1031:innate vs. acquired categorical distinctiveness
508:perception is closely linked to the fields of
4114:
3720:Liberman, A.M. & Mattingly, I.G. (1985).
478:
27:Process of hearing and understanding language
8:
4005:"Trading Relations in Speech and Non-speech"
3955:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3823:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
3654:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3592:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3371:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3077:Journal of the American Academy of Audiology
3030:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2886:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2516:Cervantes Constantino, F; Simon, JZ (2018).
2432:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2352:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2299:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2259:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
2198:"Speaker Normalization in speech perception"
2135:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
2020:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1972:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1952:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1874:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1826:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1749:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1725:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1666:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1649:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
721:Variation due to differing speech conditions
3279:McClelland, J.L. & Elman, J.L. (1986).
2573:Current Directions in Psychological Science
2567:Poeppel, David; Monahan, Philip J. (2008).
2447:Jongman A, Wang Y, Kim BH (December 2003).
1433:Acoustic landmarks and distinctive features
1429:that would sound as the auditory memories.
1022:
734:Variation due to different speaker identity
4121:
4107:
4099:
4009:Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics
3154:
3152:
3108:
3106:
3064:. Baltimore: York Press. pp. 233–277.
3049:. Baltimore: York Press. pp. 171–204.
2180:. Needham Heights (MA): Allyn & Bacon.
1557:) is a part of the more general theory of
1232:stimuli after being taught Japanese, this
534:computer systems that can recognize speech
485:
471:
390:
296:
137:
76:
4020:
3998:
3996:
3972:
3970:
3968:
3966:
3740:
3513:
2964:
2954:
2863:
2763:
2543:
2533:
2475:
1776:
709:in English is fronted when surrounded by
3715:
3713:
2833:
2831:
2829:
1522:Two versions of speech mode hypothesis:
1381:To provide a theoretical account of the
60:of all important aspects of the article.
3801:Experimental Phonetics: An Introduction
2191:
2189:
2187:
1620:
1571:
1463:
1446:
1324:
1184:Research into the relationship between
646:Linearity and the segmentation problem
429:
382:
352:
299:
288:
251:
193:
140:
129:
103:
88:
4058:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142028
3948:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3647:
3585:
3364:
3281:"The TRACE model of speech perception"
3023:
2906:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
2879:
2425:
2345:
2292:
2013:
1965:
1963:
1945:
1867:
1718:
1642:
747:Perceptual constancy and normalization
500:is the process by which the sounds of
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
3671:"The grammars of speech and language"
3243:
3241:
3239:
2899:
2897:
2655:
2653:
2312:
2310:
2203:. In Pisoni, D.B.; Remez, R. (eds.).
2125:
2123:
1804:
1802:
1047:
952:where speech processing is impaired.
7:
3386:Gocken, J.M. & Fox R.A. (2001).
3354:. Vol. 30. pp. 11381–11386
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1590:Neurocomputational speech processing
2317:Lisker, L., Abramson, A.S. (1970).
1889:Lisker, L., Abramson, A.S. (1967).
1300:. One important response used with
1236:individual would have an extremely
3546:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2662:Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics
1391:
1062:Cross-language and second-language
844:in 1970. The sounds they used are
25:
2522:Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience
2205:The Handbook of Speech Perception
1610:Motor theory of speech perception
1481:This theory thus posits that the
1342:Motor theory of speech perception
1105:In language or hearing impairment
3461:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.09.039
3266:10.1111/j.1533-6077.2010.00186.x
2804:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.14040073
2585:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00553.x
1466:is simply claimed not to exist.
1440:proposed acoustic landmarks and
1133:Listeners with cochlear implants
34:
3609:"Perception of the speech code"
3161:IEEE Signal Processing Magazine
2729:"Welcome to Brain and Language"
1180:Cognitive neuroscience of music
48:may be too short to adequately
2856:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1984-06.2007
2422:. Innsbruck. pp. 285–293.
2207:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers
1778:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-5789-A
940:of the brain often results in
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
3127:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00052-5
3002:10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00198-1
2765:10.1016/s0010-9452(89)80007-3
2733:Welcome to Brain and Language
1583:Related to the case study of
1008:Infants begin the process of
852:and the last three sounds as
780:
629:(1957) showed that the onset
430:Theories of speech perception
4283:Perception as interpretation
4092:Philosophical Transactions B
3892:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90014-5
3751:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90021-6
3690:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90018-6
3300:10.1016/0010-0285(86)90015-0
2674:10.3109/02699206.2010.507297
2389:10.1126/science.167.3917.392
1813:. San Diego: Academic Press.
1639:. San Diego: Academic Press.
1169:Auditory processing disorder
1150:Auditory processing disorder
931:Aphasia is an impairment of
911:Acquired language impairment
869:Auditory processing disorder
4046:Annual Review of Psychology
3977:Ingram, John. C.L. (2007).
3248:O'Callaghan, Casey (2010).
2844:The Journal of Neuroscience
2468:10.1044/1092-4388(2003/106)
2056:10.1037/0096-1523.26.5.1570
1076:second language acquisition
1054:is widely used in infants.
881:phonemic restoration effect
813:categories (phonemes) than
4486:
3935:10.1037/0033-295X.85.3.172
1910:10.1177/002383096701000101
1413:
1339:
1298:near infrared spectroscopy
1283:Neurophysiological methods
1177:
1166:
1147:
1143:Critical period hypothesis
1052:near-infrared spectroscopy
866:
794:
739:the resonant frequencies (
649:
3799:Hayward, Katrina (2000).
3515:10.1111/1469-8986.3810001
2456:J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res
1605:Speech-Language Pathology
1174:Music-language connection
1019:Thai has three categories
701:Context-induced variation
4445:Developmental psychology
3214:10.1525/mp.2004.21.3.357
2535:10.3389/fnsys.2018.00056
1595:Multisensory integration
1302:event-related potentials
1290:event-related potentials
1205:The experience of speech
1004:Infant speech perception
417:Neural encoding of sound
4404:Relational frame theory
4379:Higher nervous activity
3669:Liberman, A.M. (1970).
2956:10.1073/pnas.1532872100
2904:Crystal, David (2005).
2708:www.merriam-webster.com
2704:"Definition of AGNOSIA"
2232:Principles of phonology
1740:Liberman, A.M. (1957).
1358:along a continuum from
921:inferior temporal gyrus
828:. The first sound is a
588:manners of articulation
195:Manners of articulation
4374:Experiential avoidance
3814:Stevens, K.N. (2002).
3404:10.1006/brln.2001.2467
2727:Howard, Harry (2017).
2226:Trubetzkoy, Nikolay S.
1539:categorical perception
1511:Speech mode hypothesis
1383:categorical perception
1372:categorical perception
1350:and his colleagues at
1320:
1294:magnetoencephalography
1114:Listeners with aphasia
806:
797:Categorical perception
791:Categorical perception
772:
661:
606:
584:places of articulation
564:
407:Categorical perception
142:Places of articulation
4389:Ironic process theory
4154:Cognitive flexibility
3496:Näätänen, R. (2001).
3250:"Experiencing Speech"
2106:10.1515/LING.2010.027
1978:(5 Pt 1): 3099–3111.
1567:objects of perception
1549:Direct realist theory
1356:place of articulation
1313:
1274:Computational methods
1138:Cochlear implantation
804:
754:
659:
599:
554:
315:Fundamental frequency
3923:Psychological Review
3880:Cognitive Psychology
3678:Cognitive Psychology
3616:Psychological Review
3434:Dehaene-Lambertz, G.
3288:Cognitive Psychology
3254:Philosophical Issues
2746:Lambert, J. (1999).
2196:Johnson, K. (2005).
1442:distinctive features
1352:Haskins Laboratories
1200:Speech phenomenology
1027:statistical learning
1010:language acquisition
785:Perceptual constancy
522:cognitive psychology
335:Source–filter theory
253:Airstream mechanisms
18:Speech comprehension
4419:Thought suppression
4090:Dedicated issue of
3835:2002ASAJ..111.1872S
3089:10.3766/jaaa.22.3.2
2947:2003PNAS..100.9096K
2381:1970Sci...167..392W
2271:1995ASAJ...97..553I
2147:1986ASAJ...79.1086S
1984:1995ASAJ...97.3099H
1898:Language and Speech
1838:2001ASAJ..109..748H
1761:1957ASAJ...29..117L
1678:1976ASAJ...59.1208K
1585:Genie (feral child)
1489:Fuzzy-logical model
1306:mismatch negativity
1259:discrimination test
1218:phenomenal features
1214:Experiencing Speech
1186:music and cognition
933:language processing
874:Top-down influences
652:Speech segmentation
631:formant transitions
557:formant transitions
4022:10.3758/bf03211495
3803:. Harlow: Longman.
3392:Brain and Language
2908:. Cambridge: CUP.
2616:Nat. Rev. Neurosci
1709:Linguistic Inquiry
1572:lack of invariance
1535:dichotic listening
1517:modularity of mind
1464:lack of invariance
1447:lack of invariance
1438:Kenneth N. Stevens
1386:English consonant
1325:lack of invariance
1252:Behavioral methods
1123:expressive aphasia
942:expressive aphasia
807:
773:
711:coronal consonants
692:Lack of invariance
662:
565:
461:Linguistics portal
438:Acoustic landmarks
98:Linguistics Series
4432:
4431:
4191:Critical thinking
4159:Cognitive liberty
3843:10.1121/1.1458026
3173:10.1109/79.708543
3121:(11): 1194–1208.
2941:(15): 9096–9101.
2915:978-0-521-55967-6
2375:(3917): 392–393.
2243:978-0-520-01535-7
1846:10.1121/1.1337959
1769:10.1121/1.1908635
1645:cite encyclopedia
1543:duplex perception
1212:, in his article
1210:Casey O'Callaghan
1127:receptive aphasia
1084:liquid consonants
950:receptive aphasia
948:often results in
917:receptive aphasia
614:American English
498:Speech perception
495:
494:
455:
454:
378:
377:
284:
283:
75:
74:
16:(Redirected from
4477:
4129:Mental processes
4123:
4116:
4109:
4100:
4078:
4077:
4041:
4035:
4034:
4024:
4000:
3991:
3990:
3984:
3974:
3961:
3960:
3954:
3946:
3918:
3912:
3911:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3865:
3859:
3853:. Archived from
3829:(4): 1872–1891.
3820:
3811:
3805:
3804:
3796:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3781:
3775:
3769:. Archived from
3744:
3726:
3717:
3708:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3698:
3692:. Archived from
3675:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3653:
3645:
3643:
3642:
3628:10.1037/h0020279
3613:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3591:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3558:10.1037/h0044417
3543:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3517:
3502:Psychophysiology
3493:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3446:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3370:
3362:
3360:
3359:
3349:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3330:
3324:
3318:. Archived from
3285:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3245:
3234:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3202:Music Perception
3199:
3190:
3177:
3176:
3156:
3147:
3146:
3115:Neuropsychologia
3110:
3101:
3100:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3029:
3021:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2968:
2958:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2901:
2892:
2891:
2885:
2877:
2867:
2835:
2824:
2823:
2798:(2): e154–e155.
2787:
2778:
2777:
2767:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2657:
2648:
2647:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2547:
2537:
2513:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2500:
2494:
2488:. Archived from
2479:
2453:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2431:
2423:
2420:Phonologica 1976
2415:
2409:
2408:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2351:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2334:
2323:
2314:
2305:
2304:
2298:
2290:
2279:10.1121/1.412280
2254:
2248:
2247:
2235:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2202:
2193:
2182:
2181:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2155:10.1121/1.393381
2141:(4): 1086–1100.
2127:
2118:
2117:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2072:
2066:. Archived from
2050:(5): 1570–1582.
2041:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2019:
2011:
1992:10.1121/1.411872
1967:
1958:
1957:
1951:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1934:
1928:. Archived from
1895:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1873:
1865:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1806:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1787:
1781:. Archived from
1780:
1746:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1724:
1716:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1686:10.1121/1.380986
1672:(5): 1208–1221.
1661:
1655:
1654:
1648:
1640:
1632:
1600:Origin of speech
1397:
1389:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1244:Research methods
1092:
1088:
1048:Research methods
855:
851:
846:available online
822:bilabial plosive
766:
762:
758:
715:voice onset time
708:
683:
640:
636:
621:
617:
580:voice onset time
487:
480:
473:
391:
297:
138:
77:
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
4485:
4484:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4474:
4465:Psychoacoustics
4435:
4434:
4433:
4428:
4357:
4324:
4232:
4211:Problem solving
4196:Decision-making
4130:
4127:
4086:
4081:
4043:
4042:
4038:
4002:
4001:
3994:
3976:
3975:
3964:
3947:
3920:
3919:
3915:
3877:
3876:
3872:
3863:
3861:
3857:
3818:
3813:
3812:
3808:
3798:
3797:
3788:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3724:
3719:
3718:
3711:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3673:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3611:
3606:
3605:
3601:
3584:
3578:
3576:
3541:
3536:
3535:
3531:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3481:
3479:
3444:
3432:
3431:
3427:
3385:
3384:
3380:
3367:cite conference
3363:
3357:
3355:
3347:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3283:
3278:
3277:
3273:
3247:
3246:
3237:
3232:
3228:
3218:
3216:
3197:
3192:
3191:
3180:
3167:(11): 101–130.
3158:
3157:
3150:
3112:
3111:
3104:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3059:
3058:
3054:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3022:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2903:
2902:
2895:
2878:
2837:
2836:
2827:
2789:
2788:
2781:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2712:
2710:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2668:(12): 980–996.
2659:
2658:
2651:
2628:10.1038/nrn2113
2613:
2612:
2608:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2515:
2514:
2507:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2451:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2428:cite conference
2424:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2348:cite conference
2344:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2321:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2291:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2244:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2208:
2200:
2195:
2194:
2185:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2129:
2128:
2121:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2039:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2012:
1969:
1968:
1961:
1944:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1866:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1808:
1807:
1800:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1717:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1641:
1634:
1633:
1622:
1618:
1580:
1551:
1513:
1495:Dominic Massaro
1491:
1435:
1418:
1416:Exemplar theory
1412:
1410:Exemplar theory
1344:
1338:
1333:
1285:
1276:
1267:
1265:Sinewave Speech
1254:
1246:
1207:
1202:
1194:tritone paradox
1182:
1176:
1171:
1157:
1152:
1135:
1116:
1107:
1072:second-language
1064:
1006:
969:
946:Wernicke's area
929:
913:
876:
871:
799:
793:
749:
736:
723:
703:
694:
654:
648:
549:
491:
443:Exemplar theory
353:Phonation types
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4483:
4481:
4473:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4437:
4436:
4430:
4429:
4427:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4399:Mental fatigue
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4358:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4334:
4332:
4326:
4325:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4248:
4242:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4231:
4230:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4218:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4172:
4171:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4140:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4125:
4118:
4111:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4085:
4084:External links
4082:
4080:
4079:
4052:(1): 149–179.
4036:
4015:(2): 129–142.
3992:
3962:
3929:(3): 172–191.
3913:
3886:(3): 398–421.
3870:
3806:
3786:
3742:10.1.1.330.220
3709:
3684:(4): 301–323.
3661:
3622:(6): 431–461.
3599:
3552:(5): 358–368.
3529:
3488:
3425:
3398:(2): 241–253.
3378:
3335:
3271:
3235:
3226:
3178:
3148:
3102:
3083:(3): 129–142.
3067:
3052:
3037:
2996:(1): B47–B57.
2980:
2921:
2914:
2893:
2850:(2): 315–321.
2825:
2779:
2738:
2719:
2695:
2649:
2622:(5): 393–402.
2606:
2559:
2505:
2462:(6): 1367–77.
2439:
2410:
2359:
2306:
2265:(1): 553–562.
2249:
2242:
2217:
2183:
2168:
2119:
2100:(4): 865–892.
2084:
2027:
1959:
1881:
1832:(2): 748–763.
1816:
1798:
1755:(1): 117–123.
1732:
1699:
1656:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1579:
1576:
1559:direct realism
1550:
1547:
1531:
1530:
1527:
1512:
1509:
1490:
1487:
1460:coarticulation
1434:
1431:
1414:Main article:
1411:
1408:
1348:Alvin Liberman
1340:Main article:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1317:distributions.
1284:
1281:
1275:
1272:
1266:
1263:
1253:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1175:
1172:
1156:
1153:
1134:
1131:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1103:
1063:
1060:
1005:
1002:
987:Speech agnosia
977:speech agnosia
968:
965:
961:parietal lobes
928:
925:
912:
909:
875:
872:
864:cues as well.
795:Main article:
792:
789:
748:
745:
735:
732:
728:speaking tempo
722:
719:
702:
699:
693:
690:
686:coarticulation
650:Main article:
647:
644:
643:
642:
627:Alvin Liberman
623:
548:
545:
493:
492:
490:
489:
482:
475:
467:
464:
463:
457:
456:
453:
452:
451:
450:
445:
440:
432:
431:
427:
426:
425:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
387:
386:
380:
379:
376:
375:
374:
373:
368:
363:
355:
354:
350:
349:
348:
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
309:
308:
293:
292:
286:
285:
282:
281:
280:
279:
274:
269:
264:
256:
255:
249:
248:
247:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
198:
197:
191:
190:
189:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
145:
144:
134:
133:
127:
126:
125:
124:
119:
114:
106:
105:
104:Subdisciplines
101:
100:
93:
92:
86:
85:
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4482:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4366:
4364:
4360:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4338:Consolidation
4336:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4327:
4321:
4318:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4278:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4235:
4229:
4226:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4186:Consciousness
4184:
4182:
4181:Comprehension
4179:
4177:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4133:
4124:
4119:
4117:
4112:
4110:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4095:
4093:
4088:
4087:
4083:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4040:
4037:
4032:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3982:
3973:
3971:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3952:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3917:
3914:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3874:
3871:
3860:on 2007-06-09
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3817:
3810:
3807:
3802:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3776:on 2021-04-15
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3723:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3699:on 2015-12-31
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3672:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3610:
3603:
3600:
3595:
3589:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3533:
3530:
3525:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3489:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3429:
3426:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3379:
3374:
3368:
3353:
3346:
3339:
3336:
3325:on 2007-04-21
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3282:
3275:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3244:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3215:
3211:
3208:(3): 357–72.
3207:
3203:
3196:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3068:
3063:
3056:
3053:
3048:
3041:
3038:
3033:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2984:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2925:
2922:
2917:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2883:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2739:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2720:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
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2073:on 2014-04-30
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2017:
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2005:
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1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
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1964:
1960:
1955:
1949:
1935:on 2016-03-03
1931:
1927:
1923:
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1911:
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1885:
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1843:
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1799:
1788:on 2016-03-03
1784:
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1568:
1564:
1563:distal source
1560:
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1540:
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1524:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1510:
1508:
1506:
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1501:
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1483:distal object
1479:
1475:
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905:neural coding
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562:
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547:Acoustic cues
546:
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395:
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343:
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312:
311:
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3855:the original
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3771:the original
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3694:the original
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3650:cite journal
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3577:. Retrieved
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3217:. Retrieved
3205:
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2795:
2791:
2758:(5): 71–82.
2755:
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2711:. Retrieved
2707:
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2490:the original
2459:
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2330:the original
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2295:cite journal
2262:
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2204:
2177:
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2138:
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2131:Syrdal, A.K.
2097:
2093:
2087:
2075:. Retrieved
2068:the original
2047:
2043:
2030:
2016:cite journal
1975:
1971:
1948:cite journal
1937:. Retrieved
1930:the original
1901:
1897:
1884:
1870:cite journal
1829:
1825:
1819:
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1790:. Retrieved
1783:the original
1752:
1748:
1735:
1721:cite journal
1715:(1): 57–116.
1712:
1708:
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1669:
1665:
1659:
1636:
1555:Carol Fowler
1552:
1532:
1521:
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1472:
1468:
1452:
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1427:
1423:
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1345:
1336:Motor theory
1321:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1286:
1277:
1268:
1255:
1247:
1240:experience.
1237:
1233:
1229:
1226:
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1217:
1213:
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1080:
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1007:
992:
991:
986:
985:
970:
954:
938:Broca's area
930:
914:
901:
885:
877:
862:
858:
819:
814:
810:
808:
778:
774:
737:
724:
704:
695:
678:
663:
607:
601:
600:
596:
572:sensory cues
567:
566:
538:
497:
496:
448:Motor theory
383:
330:Pitch accent
166:Postalveolar
131:Articulation
117:Articulatory
96:Part of the
66:January 2021
63:
47:
45:lead section
4228:Prospection
4201:Imagination
4164:Forecasting
4144:Association
3735:(1): 1–36.
3508:(1): 1–21.
3438:Dehaene, S.
3294:(1): 1–86.
3260:: 305–327.
2094:Linguistics
1904:(1): 1–28.
1394:), yet all
1023:categorical
997:Phonagnosia
993:Phonagnosia
981:phonagnosia
834:unaspirated
726:changes in
518:linguistics
229:Approximant
4439:Categories
4409:Mental set
4288:Peripheral
4238:Perception
4221:strategies
3864:2007-05-17
3780:2007-07-19
3703:2007-07-19
3641:2007-05-19
3579:2007-05-18
3482:2007-07-04
3449:NeuroImage
3358:2007-05-19
3329:2007-05-19
2713:2017-12-15
2528:(56): 56.
2499:2017-09-14
2477:1808/13411
2339:2007-05-17
2211:2007-05-17
1939:2007-05-17
1792:2007-05-17
1616:References
1400:modularity
1178:See also:
1167:See also:
1148:See also:
1043:habituated
1017:, whereas
889:morphology
867:See also:
830:pre-voiced
713:. Or, the
530:psychology
526:perception
384:Perception
277:Percussive
4455:Cognition
4450:Phonetics
4384:Intention
4369:Attention
4303:Harmonics
4256:RGB model
4206:Intuition
4176:Foresight
4169:affective
4149:Awareness
4136:Cognition
3737:CiteSeerX
3729:Cognition
2990:Cognition
2812:0895-0172
2752:Neurocase
2593:0963-7214
2114:143639653
1238:different
897:semantics
670:syllables
514:phonetics
510:phonology
301:Phonation
290:Acoustics
267:Glottalic
219:Fricative
214:Affricate
204:Consonant
186:Laryngeal
90:Phonetics
50:summarize
4424:Volition
4414:Thinking
4394:Learning
4343:Encoding
4066:14744213
3851:12002871
3574:10117886
3566:13481283
3524:11321610
3477:11899232
3469:15588593
3440:(2005).
3420:28469116
3412:11500073
3219:29 April
3143:17307242
3135:11527557
3097:21545766
3010:12499111
2975:12861072
2874:17215392
2820:25923865
2690:26478503
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2554:30429778
2486:14700361
2405:30356740
2228:(1969).
2064:11039485
2008:10104073
1926:34616732
1862:10751216
1854:11248979
1578:See also
1455:spectral
1331:Theories
1162:learning
1015:plosives
957:temporal
842:Abramson
783:below).
781:theories
741:formants
666:phonemes
592:phonemes
576:phonetic
561:Formants
502:language
262:Pulmonic
161:Alveolar
122:Auditory
112:Acoustic
82:a series
80:Part of
4460:Hearing
4348:Storage
4216:methods
4031:3725537
3908:7629786
3900:2758786
3831:Bibcode
3759:4075760
3636:4170865
3316:7428866
3308:3753912
2943:Bibcode
2865:6672067
2774:2707006
2644:6199399
2545:6220042
2397:5409744
2377:Bibcode
2369:Science
2287:7860832
2267:Bibcode
2163:3700864
2143:Bibcode
2077:1 March
2000:7759650
1980:Bibcode
1918:6044530
1834:Bibcode
1757:Bibcode
1674:Bibcode
1304:is the
1119:Aphasia
1068:foreign
972:Agnosia
967:Agnosia
927:Aphasia
811:between
541:Hearing
422:Prosody
412:Hearing
402:Aphasia
371:Breathy
320:Glottis
305:Voicing
272:Lingual
239:Lateral
209:Plosive
171:Palatal
4470:Speech
4353:Recall
4330:Memory
4320:Visual
4313:Speech
4293:Social
4273:Haptic
4246:Amodal
4074:937985
4072:
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3943:663005
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1694:956516
1692:
1541:, and
1296:, and
893:syntax
838:Lisker
815:within
763:, and
697:this:
672:, and
506:speech
366:Creaky
234:Liquid
181:Uvular
156:Dental
151:Labial
4362:Other
4308:Pitch
4298:Sound
4277:Touch
4263:Depth
4251:Color
4070:S2CID
3989:–127.
3904:S2CID
3858:(PDF)
3819:(PDF)
3774:(PDF)
3763:S2CID
3725:(PDF)
3697:(PDF)
3674:(PDF)
3612:(PDF)
3570:S2CID
3542:(PDF)
3473:S2CID
3445:(PDF)
3416:S2CID
3348:(PDF)
3323:(PDF)
3312:S2CID
3284:(PDF)
3198:(PDF)
3139:S2CID
3014:S2CID
2686:S2CID
2640:S2CID
2597:S2CID
2493:(PDF)
2452:(PDF)
2401:S2CID
2333:(PDF)
2322:(PDF)
2201:(PDF)
2110:S2CID
2071:(PDF)
2040:(PDF)
2004:S2CID
1933:(PDF)
1922:S2CID
1894:(PDF)
1858:S2CID
1786:(PDF)
1745:(PDF)
1500:fuzzy
1392:above
1155:Noise
1093:(see
895:, or
674:words
361:Modal
325:Pitch
244:Vowel
224:Nasal
176:Velar
4268:Form
4062:PMID
4027:PMID
3957:link
3939:PMID
3896:PMID
3847:PMID
3755:PMID
3656:link
3632:PMID
3594:link
3562:PMID
3520:PMID
3465:PMID
3408:PMID
3373:link
3352:PNAS
3304:PMID
3221:2014
3131:PMID
3093:PMID
3032:link
3006:PMID
2971:PMID
2910:ISBN
2888:link
2870:PMID
2816:PMID
2808:ISSN
2770:PMID
2678:PMID
2632:PMID
2589:ISSN
2550:PMID
2482:PMID
2434:link
2393:PMID
2354:link
2301:link
2283:PMID
2238:ISBN
2159:PMID
2079:2012
2060:PMID
2022:link
1996:PMID
1954:link
1914:PMID
1876:link
1850:PMID
1727:link
1690:PMID
1651:link
1368:/ɡɑ/
1364:/dɑ/
1360:/bɑ/
1234:same
1230:same
1125:and
1089:and
979:and
840:and
769:Bark
618:and
570:are
524:and
520:and
512:and
340:Tone
4054:doi
4017:doi
3987:113
3931:doi
3888:doi
3839:doi
3827:111
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3624:doi
3554:doi
3510:doi
3457:doi
3400:doi
3296:doi
3262:doi
3210:doi
3169:doi
3123:doi
3085:doi
2998:doi
2961:PMC
2951:doi
2939:100
2860:PMC
2852:doi
2800:doi
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2670:doi
2624:doi
2581:doi
2540:PMC
2530:doi
2472:hdl
2464:doi
2385:doi
2373:167
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2151:doi
2102:doi
2052:doi
1988:doi
1906:doi
1842:doi
1830:109
1773:hdl
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1388:/d/
1366:to
1362:to
1097:).
1091:/r/
1087:/l/
1033:).
959:or
854:/p/
850:/b/
826:VOT
765:/u/
761:/ɑ/
757:/i/
707:/u/
688:).
682:/d/
639:/d/
635:/d/
633:of
620:/æ/
616:/ɛ/
586:or
528:in
516:in
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