1027:
1361:
792:
956:
755:
507:
52:
1373:
1294:
1054:
626:
1085:
1422:
1395:
600:
718:
927:
1343:
1313:
887:
845:
1325:
3450:
540:
476:
448:
44:
1101:, spores often have complex patterns or ornamentation on their exterior surfaces. A specialized terminology has been developed to describe features of such patterns. Some markings represent apertures, places where the tough outer coat of the spore can be penetrated when germination occurs. Spores can be categorized based on the position and number of these markings and apertures.
1073:
577:
684:
1219:
such as ferns, wind distribution of very light spores provides great capacity for dispersal. Also, spores are less subject to animal predation than seeds because they contain almost no food reserve; however they are more subject to fungal and bacterial predation. Their chief advantage is that, of all
1281:
have been useful. The spores found in microfossils, also known as cryptospores, are well preserved due to the fixed material they are in as well as how abundant and widespread they were during their respective time periods. These microfossils are especially helpful when studying the early periods of
1171:
In fungi, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Many
296:
is that spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain within them a developing embryo (the multicellular sporophyte of the next generation), produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete formed by the megagametophyte within the
352:
produce spores of two different sizes: the larger spore (megaspore) in effect functioning as a "female" spore and the smaller (microspore) functioning as a "male". Such plants typically give rise to the two kind of spores from within separate sporangia, either a
1159:
1282:
earth as macrofossils such as plants are not common nor well preserved. Both cryptospores and modern spores have diverse morphology that indicate possible environmental conditions of earlier periods of Earth and evolutionary relationships of plant species.
994:
1113:, each spore shows three narrow lines radiating from a center pole. This shows that four spores shared a common origin and were initially in contact with each other forming a tetrahedron. A wider aperture in the shape of a groove may be termed a
392:
cells result from the fusion of two haploid gamete cells. Among sporogenic dikaryotic cells, karyogamy (the fusion of the two haploid nuclei) occurs to produce a diploid cell. Diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores.
1513:
173:
spores release amoeboid infectious germs ("amoebulae") into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula.
1253:
period. Two hypothesized initial functions of spores relate to whether they appeared before or after land plants. The heavily studied hypothesis is that spores were an adaptation of early land plant species, such as
1372:
1262:. These spore walls would have protected potential offspring from novel weather elements. The second more recent hypothesis is that spores were an early predecessor of land plants and formed during errors in the
1026:
1199:. Attracting insects, such as flies, to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having lively colours and a putrid odour, for dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy, most prominently used by the
3280:
1360:
1160:
1161:
3285:
1517:
230:
are produced internally, and the megaspores (formed within the ovules) and the microspores are involved in the formation of more complex structures that form the dispersal units, the
1163:
1658:
Myxospores consist of several cells, which are transformed to shell valves, nematocyst-like polar capsules with coiled extrudible polar filaments and amoeboid infective germs.
3418:
1678:
1864:
1813:
1293:
1258:, that allowed for plants to easily disperse while adapting to their non-aquatic environment. This is particularly supported by the observation of a thick spore wall in
1394:
2077:
Johansson, Lönnell, Sundberg and
Hylander (2014) Release thresholds for moss spores: the importance of turbulence and sporophyte length. Journal of Ecology, n/a-n/a.
3336:
1700:
1176:, for spore ejection. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of
1342:
3152:
1312:
1324:
3474:
544:
1620:
1491:
1162:
200:. In some rare cases, diploid spore is also produced in some algae, or fungi. Under favourable conditions, the spore can develop into a new
1139:
Envelope-enclosed spore tetrads are taken as the earliest evidence of plant life on land, dating from the mid-Ordovician (early
Llanvirn, ~
2095:
1975:
404:
Below is a table listing the mode of classification, name, identifying characteristic, examples, and images of different spore species.
791:
401:
Spores can be classified in several ways such as by their spore producing structure, function, origin during life cycle, and mobility.
654:
3342:
955:
2237:
1670:
1109:, there is a single narrow line (laesura) on the spore. Indicating the prior contact of two spores that eventually separated. In
2676:
506:
3157:
1134:
754:
2607:
1731:
Punt, W.; Hoen, P. P.; Blackmore, S.; Nilsson, S. & Le Thomas, A. (2007). "Glossary of pollen and spore terminology".
297:
ovule. Spores germinate to give rise to haploid gametophytes, while seeds germinate to give rise to diploid sporophytes.
3326:
2913:
2428:
51:
1172:
fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as
3484:
3408:
3162:
1191:), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000
1146:), a period from which no macrofossils have yet been recovered. Individual trilete spores resembling those of modern
3142:
1195:. Other fungi rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces, exemplified by
361:
that produces microspores. In flowering plants, these sporangia occur within the carpel and anthers, respectively.
220:
3292:
3430:
3275:
2325:
1809:"The Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970–1984"
1225:
1704:
169:
are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions.
1637:
1053:
3260:
3184:
1380:
139:
and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the
35:
1909:
Steemans, P.; Herisse, A. L.; Melvin, J.; Miller, M. A.; Paris, F.; Verniers, J.; Wellman, C. H. (2009).
3489:
3425:
140:
1084:
3147:
2999:
2671:
2230:
2177:
2041:
Pringle A, Patek SN, Fischer M, Stolze J, Money NP (2005). "The captured launch of a ballistospore".
1925:
1822:
1740:
293:
136:
132:
625:
3479:
3317:
2862:
599:
128:
2088:"False Rose of Jericho – Selaginella lepidophyllaFalse Rose of Jericho – Selaginella lepidophylla"
289:, while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete to form a zygote before developing further.
3255:
3120:
2989:
2898:
2590:
2376:
2272:
2141:
1967:
1840:
1208:
1041:
1013:
1470:
Setlow, Peter; Johnson, Eric A. (30 April 2014), Doyle, Michael P.; Buchanan, Robert L. (eds.),
1273:
Whether spores arose before or after land plants, their contributions to topics in fields like
717:
3413:
2262:
2257:
2201:
2193:
2133:
2060:
2023:
1959:
1951:
1891:
1789:
1616:
1593:
1575:
1487:
1230:
1212:), the vibration of sporophyte has been shown to be an important mechanism for spore release.
926:
2087:
1910:
3199:
3105:
3100:
3054:
2947:
2932:
2893:
2818:
2659:
2583:
2480:
2422:
2185:
2052:
2013:
1941:
1933:
1881:
1873:
1830:
1779:
1748:
1583:
1567:
1479:
1188:
1180:
in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air.
766:
512:
3453:
3435:
3297:
3126:
3076:
3064:
3044:
3026:
2962:
2789:
2757:
2718:
2691:
2520:
2515:
2406:
2342:
2223:
706:
480:
166:
2181:
1929:
1826:
1744:
1560:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
107:) can be discerned as well. Inset shows the surrounding, black poplars growing on sandy
3347:
3312:
3265:
3247:
3211:
2967:
2794:
2772:
2738:
2713:
2696:
2686:
2681:
2563:
2381:
2366:
2320:
2315:
1886:
1859:
1588:
1555:
1440:
1216:
464:
312:
2165:
3468:
3383:
3131:
3049:
3021:
2984:
2952:
2888:
2808:
2708:
2510:
2493:
2416:
2396:
2337:
2332:
2280:
2018:
2001:
1971:
1278:
1098:
1007:
742:
736:
659:
587:
533:
381:
251:
209:
886:
844:
3378:
3368:
3270:
2994:
2979:
2488:
2455:
1752:
1435:
1427:
1274:
723:
689:
548:
522:
475:
447:
372:
commonly produce spores during sexual and asexual reproduction. Spores are usually
100:
539:
1471:
27:
Unit of reproduction adapted for dispersal and survival in unfavorable conditions
3194:
3179:
3174:
3110:
2972:
2752:
2723:
2622:
2617:
2465:
2305:
2300:
2285:
1450:
1259:
1255:
1246:
1173:
1150:
plants first appeared in the fossil record at the end of the
Ordovician period.
874:
832:
762:
349:
325:
212:
182:
2056:
3223:
3216:
3206:
3189:
2872:
2867:
2803:
2595:
2442:
2401:
2295:
1483:
1445:
1417:
1350:
1250:
1234:
1200:
993:
920:
891:
853:
822:
748:
700:
669:
610:
561:
500:
469:
441:
436:
430:
389:
385:
341:
333:
227:
197:
190:
160:
92:
80:
2197:
2137:
1955:
1579:
856:, and in some cases megaspores, are formed from all four products of meiosis.
3331:
3228:
2957:
2762:
2743:
2654:
2578:
2450:
2391:
2371:
2310:
2189:
2043:
1937:
1332:
1220:
forms of progeny, spores require the least energy and materials to produce.
1196:
1147:
1072:
978:
946:
899:
863:
711:
677:
458:
337:
286:
58:
43:
31:
2205:
2064:
2027:
1963:
1895:
1877:
1835:
1808:
1793:
1784:
1767:
1597:
1571:
653:
1946:
215:, which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a
3373:
3363:
3307:
3302:
3069:
2942:
2918:
2835:
2505:
2290:
1401:
1177:
1118:
1077:
1047:
940:
909:
647:
642:
552:
528:
201:
156:
112:
84:
64:
329:. Plants that are homosporous produce spores of the same size and type.
2558:
2553:
2470:
2460:
2145:
2121:
1844:
1385:
1263:
1192:
1090:
915:
870:
828:
636:
377:
373:
316:
205:
194:
186:
178:
170:
120:
70:
576:
30:
This article is about spores in eukaryotes. For bacterial spores, see
17:
3011:
2903:
2857:
2823:
2777:
2767:
2728:
2666:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2246:
1141:
837:
796:
616:
567:
369:
282:
235:
216:
152:
683:
1366:
Fruit mold with spores and distinguishable cellular growth. (2000x)
3169:
3091:
3059:
3016:
2908:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2828:
2813:
2782:
2703:
2361:
2352:
1318:
Dehisced fern sporangia. (microscopic view, no spores are visible)
1267:
1157:
1083:
1071:
1052:
1025:
992:
954:
925:
885:
879:
849:
843:
790:
758:
753:
716:
682:
652:
624:
598:
575:
538:
505:
495:
489:
474:
446:
148:
144:
1645:
3086:
3081:
2733:
2573:
2548:
2543:
2527:
2498:
2386:
1300:
895:
345:
259:
231:
108:
76:
2219:
219:, which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as
3006:
2568:
159:. They were thought to have appeared as early as the mid-late
2166:"A fossil record of land plant origins from charophyte algae"
2002:"Fungal cannons: explosive spore discharge in the Ascomycota"
1768:"A survey of tricolpate (eudicot) phylogenetic relationships"
1044:
due to external force (such as raindrops or passing animals)
272:
264:
1117:. The number of colpi distinguishes major groups of plants.
281:
In common parlance, the difference between a "spore" and a "
1911:"Origin and Radiation of the Earliest Vascular Land Plants"
1076:
Fossil trilete spores (blue) and a spore tetrad (green) of
1378:
Spore clusters, formed inside sporangia of the slime mold
2215:
2122:"Keys for the Classification of Fossil Spores and Pollen"
745:
of fungi produced to survive in unfavorable conditions
55:
Fresh snow partially covers rough-stalked feather-moss
1229:, dispersal is achieved in part by an unusual type of
2164:
Strother, Paul K.; Foster, Clinton (13 August 2021).
1726:
1724:
1722:
1671:"Diploid Spore - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
285:" is that a spore will germinate and develop into a
3392:
3356:
3246:
3119:
3035:
2931:
2881:
2606:
2536:
2479:
2441:
2415:
2351:
2271:
1766:Judd, Walter S. & Olmstead, Richard G. (2004).
1613:
Bacterial spores: current research and applications
809:Spores released by the host to infest other hosts
83:are visible before dispersion of their spores: the
1807:Gray, J.; Chaloner, W. G.; Westoll, T. S. (1985).
1478:, Washington, DC, USA: ASM Press, pp. 45–79,
1016:due to internal force (such as built up pressure)
1865:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
1814:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
898:, only a single product of meiosis will become a
376:and grow into mature haploid individuals through
2159:
2157:
2155:
1270:, a hypothesized early ancestor of land plants.
693:showing a carpospores and carposporophyte inside
292:The main difference between spores and seeds as
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1183:The forcible discharge of single spores termed
1030:Ballistospore mechanism of dispersal from fungi
163:period as an adaptation of early land plants.
2231:
2115:
2113:
1860:"The microfossil record of early land plants"
1556:"The microfossil record of early land plants"
1187:involves formation of a small drop of water (
8:
3337:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
301:Classification of spore-producing organisms
2438:
2238:
2224:
2216:
406:
2017:
1945:
1885:
1834:
1783:
1587:
1554:Wellman, C. H.; Gray, J. (29 June 2000).
969:Immobile, however still produce flagella
902:(macrospore), with the rest degenerating.
3281:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
50:
42:
1462:
1289:
1125:spores (i.e. spores with three colpi).
1019:Basidiospores and/or part of the genus
47:Spores produced in a sporic life cycle.
1981:from the original on 22 September 2017
1330:Spores and elaters from a horsetail. (
1733:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
1681:from the original on 13 December 2023
1566:(1398): 717–731, discussion 731–732.
1057:Puff Balls containing Stratismospores
7:
1040:Forcibly discharged from the fungal
1012:Forcibly discharged from the fungal
543:Typical reproductive structure of a
1615:. Norfolk: Caister academic press.
1354:) from Silurian deposits of Sweden.
419:Example Spore Containing Organism
25:
3286:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
2098:from the original on 15 July 2011
3449:
3448:
2019:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00900.x
1420:
1393:
1371:
1359:
1341:
1323:
1311:
1292:
1129:Spore tetrads and trilete spores
930:Ascomycete containing mitospores
806:External (Environmental) spores
629:Microscopic image of teliospores
1472:"Spores and Their Significance"
1384:, from pine forests of eastern
959:Microscopic image of a Zoospore
1753:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2006.06.008
1703:. 26 June 2008. Archived from
1215:In the case of spore-shedding
1167:Spores being ejected by fungi.
1135:Evolutionary history of plants
674:Produced by carposophorophyte
357:that produces megaspores or a
332:Heterosporous plants, such as
177:In plants, spores are usually
115:, with the detail area marked.
1:
3475:Fungal morphology and anatomy
1611:Abel-Santos, Ernesto (2012).
388:among rusts are dikaryotic).
319:. Vascular plants are either
262:, sowing", related to σπόρος
3327:History of plant systematics
2914:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1249:dating back to the mid-late
873:, and give rise to a female
795:A parasitic pink fungi on a
273:
265:
1858:Wellman CH, Gray J (2000).
1636:Ivan Fiala (10 July 2008).
416:Identifying Characteristic
321:homosporous (or isosporous)
91:) is still attached to the
3506:
3143:Alternation of generations
2057:10.3852/mycologia.97.4.866
1772:American Journal of Botany
1701:"Biology of Microsporidia"
1514:"Tree of Life Web Project"
1306:. (microscopic view, 400x)
1245:Spores have been found in
1206:In Common Smoothcap moss (
1132:
997:Autospores of a strain of
914:Produced asexually though
869:Produced sexually through
831:, and give rise to a male
827:Produced sexually through
427:Spore Producing Structure
426:
221:alternation of generations
29:
3444:
3293:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3256:Biological classification
2253:
2006:FEMS Microbiology Letters
1484:10.1128/9781555818463.ch3
1036:
1006:
977:
965:
939:
936:
908:
818:
816:Origin During Life Cycle
815:
789:
778:
735:
732:
699:
668:
660:Phytophthora agathidicida
635:
609:
586:
560:
521:
488:
457:
429:
412:
270:, "sowing", and σπείρειν
3153:Evolutionary development
1642:Tree of Life Web Project
1400:Internal surface of the
1226:Selaginella lepidophylla
785:Germinate within a host
397:Classification of spores
135:that may be adapted for
75:. The last stage of the
2804:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
2190:10.1126/science.abj2927
2126:Journal of Paleontology
2092:Plant- and Flower guide
1938:10.1126/science.1169659
1144: million years ago
779:Parasitic Fungal Spore
410:Mode of Classification
59:Brachythecium rutabulum
3419:by author abbreviation
3343:Plant taxonomy systems
3261:Botanical nomenclature
1878:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612
1836:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077
1785:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1627
1572:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612
1168:
1094:
1081:
1058:
1031:
1001:
999:Jenufa aeroterrestrica
960:
931:
903:
857:
800:
773:
727:
694:
663:
630:
604:
592:Produced by uredinium
581:
555:
516:
483:
452:
208:division, producing a
116:
48:
36:Spore (disambiguation)
34:. For other uses, see
3426:Botanical expeditions
2120:Norem, W. L. (1958).
1675:www.sciencedirect.com
1348:Fossil plant spores (
1166:
1088:Tricolpate pollen of
1087:
1075:
1056:
1029:
996:
983:Immobile spores that
958:
951:Some algae and fungi
929:
890:In contrast, in many
889:
847:
794:
761:, chlamydospores and
757:
720:
686:
656:
628:
602:
579:
542:
509:
478:
450:
54:
46:
3158:Evolutionary history
3148:Double fertilization
3000:Cellular respiration
1381:Reticularia olivacea
1304:Bartramia ithyphylla
687:Light microscopy of
185:and are produced by
133:asexual reproduction
79:is shown, where the
71:Populus x canadensis
67:hybrid black poplar
2377:Non-vascular plants
2182:2021Sci...373..792S
1930:2009Sci...324..353S
1827:1985RSPTB.309..167G
1745:2007RPaPa.143....1P
1648:on 16 February 2015
1336:, microscopic view)
451:Sporangium of Fungi
380:division of cells (
99:). The tops of the
3485:Plant reproduction
2882:Surface structures
2677:Flower development
1520:on 5 February 2018
1404:of the slime mold
1209:Atrichum undulatum
1169:
1105:show no lines. In
1095:
1082:
1059:
1032:
1002:
961:
932:
904:
894:and heterosporous
858:
801:
774:
728:
695:
664:
631:
605:
582:
556:
517:
484:
453:
315:spores are always
117:
49:
3462:
3461:
3101:Herbaceous plants
2927:
2926:
2176:(6556): 792–796.
2094:. February 2009.
2000:Trail F. (2007).
1872:(1398): 717–732.
1821:(1138): 167–195.
1622:978-1-908230-00-3
1493:978-1-68367-058-2
1476:Food Microbiology
1223:In the spikemoss
1164:
1063:
1062:
987:produce flagella
250:derives from the
111:on the bank of a
16:(Redirected from
3497:
3452:
3451:
3431:Individual trees
3106:Secondary growth
3077:Succulent plants
3065:Prostrate shrubs
2948:Apical dominance
2933:Plant physiology
2894:Epicuticular wax
2439:
2432:
2423:Plant morphology
2240:
2233:
2226:
2217:
2210:
2209:
2161:
2150:
2149:
2117:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2021:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1980:
1949:
1915:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1889:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1838:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1728:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1653:
1644:. Archived from
1633:
1627:
1626:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1551:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1516:. Archived from
1510:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1500:
1467:
1430:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1397:
1375:
1363:
1345:
1327:
1315:
1296:
1165:
1145:
1066:External anatomy
1037:Stratismospores
782:Internal Spores
707:tetrasphorophyte
621:Rusts and Smuts
595:Rusts and Smuts
580:Aecia on foliage
572:Rusts and Smuts
547:, including the
513:Didymella Rabiei
407:
276:
268:
167:Bacterial spores
21:
3505:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3494:
3465:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3440:
3409:Botanical terms
3402:
3388:
3352:
3298:Citrus taxonomy
3276:Author citation
3242:
3136:
3115:
3037:
3031:
3027:Turgor pressure
2935:
2923:
2877:
2692:Floral symmetry
2610:
2602:
2532:
2521:Vascular bundle
2516:Vascular tissue
2475:
2435:
2426:
2425:
2411:
2382:Vascular plants
2347:
2343:Plant pathology
2267:
2249:
2244:
2214:
2213:
2163:
2162:
2153:
2119:
2118:
2111:
2101:
2099:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2040:
2039:
2035:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1913:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1778:(10): 1627–44.
1765:
1764:
1760:
1730:
1729:
1720:
1710:
1708:
1707:on 26 June 2008
1699:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1682:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1651:
1649:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1623:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1553:
1552:
1533:
1523:
1521:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1426:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1409:
1406:Tubifera dudkae
1398:
1389:
1376:
1367:
1364:
1355:
1346:
1337:
1328:
1319:
1316:
1307:
1297:
1288:
1243:
1217:vascular plants
1158:
1156:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1107:monolete spores
1068:
945:Mobile through
882:in seed plants
840:in seed plants
721:Tetraspores of
399:
367:
359:microsporangium
310:
303:
294:dispersal units
244:
63:, growing on a
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3503:
3501:
3493:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3467:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3399:Related topics
3397:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3348:Taxonomic rank
3345:
3340:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3300:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3266:Botanical name
3258:
3252:
3250:
3248:Plant taxonomy
3244:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3224:Megasporangium
3221:
3220:
3219:
3212:Microsporangia
3204:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3129:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3057:
3052:
3050:Cushion plants
3041:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2987:
2985:Plant hormones
2982:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2968:Photosynthesis
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2939:
2937:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2687:Floral formula
2684:
2682:Floral diagram
2679:
2674:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2635:
2625:
2620:
2614:
2612:
2611:(incl. Flower)
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2571:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2513:
2511:Storage organs
2508:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2491:
2485:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2445:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2397:Spermatophytes
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2367:Archaeplastida
2364:
2358:
2356:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2321:Phytogeography
2318:
2316:Phytochemistry
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2275:
2273:Subdisciplines
2269:
2268:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2235:
2228:
2220:
2212:
2211:
2151:
2132:(4): 666–676.
2109:
2079:
2070:
2033:
1992:
1947:1854/LU-697223
1901:
1850:
1799:
1758:
1718:
1692:
1662:
1628:
1621:
1603:
1531:
1505:
1492:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1441:Auxiliary cell
1438:
1432:
1431:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1399:
1392:
1390:
1377:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1358:
1356:
1347:
1340:
1338:
1329:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1310:
1308:
1299:Spores of the
1298:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1242:
1239:
1185:ballistospores
1155:
1152:
1133:Main article:
1130:
1127:
1111:trilete spores
1067:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1050:
1045:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1023:
1017:
1010:
1008:Ballistospores
1004:
1003:
990:
988:
981:
975:
974:
972:
970:
967:
963:
962:
952:
949:
943:
938:
934:
933:
923:
918:
912:
906:
905:
883:
877:
867:
866:(macrospores)
860:
859:
841:
835:
825:
820:
817:
813:
812:
810:
807:
803:
802:
788:
786:
783:
780:
776:
775:
751:
746:
743:resting spores
739:
734:
730:
729:
714:
709:
703:
697:
696:
680:
675:
672:
666:
665:
650:
645:
639:
633:
632:
622:
619:
613:
607:
606:
596:
593:
590:
588:Urediniospores
584:
583:
573:
570:
564:
558:
557:
536:
534:Basidiomycetes
531:
525:
519:
518:
510:Ascospores of
503:
498:
492:
486:
485:
479:Zygospores on
472:
467:
465:zygosporangium
461:
455:
454:
444:
439:
433:
431:Sporangiospore
428:
424:
423:
420:
417:
414:
411:
398:
395:
382:Urediniospores
366:
363:
355:megasporangium
313:Vascular plant
309:
306:
302:
299:
243:
240:
226:The spores of
131:(in fungi) or
77:moss lifecycle
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3502:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3455:
3447:
3446:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3394:
3391:
3385:
3384:Phytochemical
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3245:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3022:Transpiration
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2809:Inflorescence
2807:
2805:
2802:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2494:Ground tissue
2492:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:Plant anatomy
2414:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2338:Plant ecology
2336:
2334:
2333:Plant anatomy
2331:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2281:Archaeobotany
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2236:
2234:
2229:
2227:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2051:(4): 866–71.
2050:
2046:
2045:
2037:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1993:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1924:(5925): 353.
1923:
1919:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1706:
1702:
1696:
1693:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1618:
1614:
1607:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1519:
1515:
1509:
1506:
1495:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1463:
1456:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1418:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1369:
1362:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1326:
1321:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1279:phylogenetics
1276:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1210:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1189:Buller's drop
1186:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1143:
1136:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1099:magnification
1093:
1092:
1086:
1079:
1078:Late Silurian
1074:
1070:
1065:
1055:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1014:fruiting body
1011:
1009:
1005:
1000:
995:
991:
989:
986:
982:
980:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:Aplanospores
964:
957:
953:
950:
948:
944:
942:
935:
928:
924:
922:
919:
917:
913:
911:
907:
901:
897:
893:
888:
884:
881:
878:
876:
872:
868:
865:
862:
861:
855:
851:
846:
842:
839:
836:
834:
830:
826:
824:
821:
814:
811:
808:
805:
804:
798:
793:
787:
784:
781:
777:
771:
769:
764:
760:
756:
752:
750:
747:
744:
741:Thick-walled
740:
738:
737:Chalmydospore
731:
726:
725:
719:
715:
713:
710:
708:
704:
702:
698:
692:
691:
685:
681:
679:
676:
673:
671:
667:
662:
661:
655:
651:
649:
646:
644:
640:
638:
634:
627:
623:
620:
618:
614:
612:
608:
603:Uredinospores
601:
597:
594:
591:
589:
585:
578:
574:
571:
569:
565:
563:
559:
554:
550:
546:
545:basidiomycete
541:
537:
535:
532:
530:
526:
524:
523:Basidiospores
520:
515:
514:
508:
504:
502:
499:
497:
493:
491:
487:
482:
477:
473:
471:
468:
466:
462:
460:
456:
449:
445:
443:
440:
438:
434:
432:
425:
421:
418:
415:
409:
408:
405:
402:
396:
394:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
364:
362:
360:
356:
351:
348:of the order
347:
343:
339:
335:
330:
328:
327:
326:heterosporous
322:
318:
314:
307:
305:
300:
298:
295:
290:
288:
284:
279:
277:
275:
269:
267:
261:
257:
253:
252:ancient Greek
249:
241:
239:
237:
233:
229:
224:
222:
218:
214:
211:
210:multicellular
207:
203:
199:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
175:
172:
168:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
127:is a unit of
126:
122:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
72:
66:
62:
60:
53:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3490:Reproduction
3379:Horticulture
3369:Floriculture
3271:Correct name
3235:
3121:Reproduction
3111:Woody plants
3036:Plant growth
2995:Gas Exchange
2980:Phytomelanin
2858:Plant embryo
2608:Reproductive
2456:Phragmoplast
2173:
2169:
2129:
2125:
2100:. Retrieved
2091:
2082:
2073:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2009:
2005:
1995:
1983:. Retrieved
1921:
1917:
1904:
1869:
1863:
1853:
1818:
1812:
1802:
1775:
1771:
1761:
1736:
1732:
1709:. Retrieved
1705:the original
1695:
1683:. Retrieved
1674:
1665:
1657:
1650:. Retrieved
1646:the original
1641:
1631:
1612:
1606:
1563:
1559:
1522:. Retrieved
1518:the original
1508:
1497:, retrieved
1475:
1465:
1436:Aeroplankton
1428:Fungi portal
1408:with spores.
1405:
1379:
1349:
1331:
1303:
1275:paleontology
1272:
1260:cryptospores
1256:embryophytes
1247:microfossils
1244:
1224:
1222:
1214:
1207:
1205:
1184:
1182:
1174:hydrophobins
1170:
1138:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1103:Alete spores
1102:
1096:
1089:
1069:
1042:fruting body
1020:
998:
984:
767:
763:blastospores
759:Pseudohyphae
724:Polysiphonia
722:
705:Produced by
690:Polysiphonia
688:
658:
657:Oospores of
641:Produced by
615:Produced by
566:Produced by
549:basidiospore
527:Produced by
511:
494:Produced by
463:Produced by
435:Produced by
403:
400:
368:
358:
354:
331:
324:
320:
311:
304:
291:
280:
278:, "to sow".
271:
263:
255:
247:
245:
225:
176:
165:
124:
118:
104:
101:gametophytes
96:
88:
68:
56:
40:
3195:Pollen tube
3190:Pollinators
3180:Pollination
3175:Germination
2990:Respiration
2973:Chlorophyll
2819:Pedicellate
2753:Gametophyte
2672:Aestivation
2623:Antheridium
2618:Archegonium
2466:Plasmodesma
2443:Plant cells
2306:Paleobotany
2301:Ethnobotany
2286:Astrobotany
2012:(1): 12–8.
1739:(1): 1–81.
1685:13 December
1499:13 December
1451:Cryptospore
1148:cryptogamic
1097:Under high
921:Ascomycetes
892:seed plants
875:gametophyte
854:microspores
833:gametophyte
823:Microspores
819:Meiospores
701:Tetraspores
670:Carpospores
611:Teliospores
501:Ascomycetes
470:Zygomycetes
442:Zygomycetes
386:Teliospores
350:Salviniales
338:spikemosses
334:seed plants
258:, meaning "
254:word σπορά
228:seed plants
213:gametophyte
183:unicellular
141:life cycles
81:sporophytes
3480:Germ cells
3469:Categories
3217:Microspore
3207:Sporangium
3185:Artificial
2873:Sporophyte
2868:Sporophyll
2863:Receptacle
2758:Gynandrium
2628:Androecium
2537:Vegetative
2407:Angiosperm
2402:Gymnosperm
2296:Dendrology
2102:1 February
1985:1 November
1652:14 January
1524:5 February
1457:References
1446:Bioaerosol
1351:Scylaspora
1277:and plant
1251:Ordovician
1235:tumbleweed
1201:stinkhorns
1123:tricolpate
979:Autospores
910:Mitospores
864:Megaspores
562:Aecispores
490:Ascospores
459:Zygospores
437:sporangium
390:Dikaryotic
342:quillworts
242:Definition
198:sporophyte
191:sporangium
161:Ordovician
3414:Botanists
3332:Herbarium
3229:Megaspore
3127:Evolution
3070:Subshrubs
3038:and habit
2963:Nutrition
2958:Cellulose
2953:Bulk flow
2936:Materials
2899:Epidermis
2763:Gynoecium
2744:Endosperm
2739:Dispersal
2655:Staminode
2591:Sessility
2579:Cataphyll
2499:Mesophyll
2451:Cell wall
2392:Lycophyte
2372:Bryophyte
2326:Geobotany
2311:Phycology
2198:0036-8075
2138:0022-3360
2044:Mycologia
1972:206518080
1956:0036-8075
1638:"Myxozoa"
1580:0962-8436
1333:Equisetum
1197:puffballs
1178:osmolytes
1154:Dispersal
1048:Puffballs
941:Zoospores
937:Mobility
900:megaspore
749:Asomycota
733:Function
712:Red Algae
678:Red Algae
648:Oomycetes
287:sporeling
246:The term
137:dispersal
32:endospore
3454:Category
3374:Forestry
3364:Agronomy
3357:Practice
3308:Cultivar
3303:Cultigen
3163:timeline
3055:Rosettes
2943:Aleurone
2919:Trichome
2836:Perianth
2648:Filament
2506:Meristem
2429:glossary
2291:Bryology
2206:34385396
2096:Archived
2065:16457355
2028:17784861
1976:Archived
1964:19372423
1896:10905606
1794:21652313
1711:24 March
1679:Archived
1598:10905606
1414:See also
1402:peridium
1231:diaspore
1119:Eudicots
947:flagella
643:oogonium
637:Oospores
553:basidium
529:basidium
481:Rhizopus
274:speirein
238:grains.
202:organism
171:Myxozoan
157:protozoa
143:of many
85:calyptra
3132:Ecology
2889:Cuticle
2719:Capsule
2709:Anatomy
2660:Tapetum
2584:Petiole
2559:Rhizome
2554:Rhizoid
2481:Tissues
2471:Vacuole
2461:Plastid
2263:Outline
2258:History
2178:Bibcode
2170:Science
2146:1300785
1926:Bibcode
1918:Science
1887:1692785
1845:2396358
1823:Bibcode
1741:Bibcode
1589:1692785
1386:Ukraine
1286:Gallery
1264:meiosis
1091:Ricinus
1021:Pilobus
916:mitosis
871:meiosis
829:meiosis
768:Candida
378:mitotic
374:haploid
317:haploid
206:mitotic
195:diploid
189:in the
187:meiosis
179:haploid
121:biology
93:capsule
65:thinned
3436:Plants
3339:(IAPT)
3092:Lianas
3060:Shrubs
3012:Starch
2904:Nectar
2824:Raceme
2790:Stigma
2778:Locule
2768:Carpel
2729:Pyrena
2667:Flower
2643:Anther
2638:Stamen
2633:Pollen
2355:groups
2247:Botany
2204:
2196:
2144:
2136:
2063:
2026:
1970:
1962:
1954:
1894:
1884:
1843:
1792:
1619:
1596:
1586:
1578:
1490:
1241:Origin
1115:colpus
1080:origin
985:do not
850:plants
838:Pollen
797:Lichen
617:teilum
568:aecium
422:Image
344:, and
308:Plants
283:gamete
266:sporos
236:pollen
217:zygote
204:using
145:plants
129:sexual
18:Spores
3396:Lists
3313:Group
3236:Spore
3170:Flora
3087:Vines
3082:Trees
3045:Habit
3017:Sugar
2909:Stoma
2851:Sepal
2846:Petal
2841:Tepal
2829:Umbel
2814:Bract
2795:Style
2783:Ovule
2773:Ovary
2714:Berry
2704:Fruit
2697:Whorl
2564:Shoot
2362:Algae
2353:Plant
2142:JSTOR
1979:(PDF)
1968:S2CID
1914:(PDF)
1841:JSTOR
1268:algae
1121:have
896:ferns
880:Ovule
770:yeast
496:ascus
413:Name
370:Fungi
365:Fungi
346:ferns
256:spora
248:spore
232:seeds
193:of a
153:fungi
149:algae
125:spore
3318:Grex
3200:Self
2734:Seed
2596:Stem
2574:Leaf
2549:Root
2544:Bulb
2528:Wood
2489:Cork
2387:Fern
2202:PMID
2194:ISSN
2134:ISSN
2104:2010
2061:PMID
2024:PMID
1987:2017
1960:PMID
1952:ISSN
1892:PMID
1790:PMID
1713:2024
1687:2023
1654:2014
1617:ISBN
1594:PMID
1576:ISSN
1526:2018
1501:2023
1488:ISBN
1301:moss
1233:, a
799:tree
551:and
384:and
260:seed
234:and
181:and
155:and
123:, a
113:kolk
109:loam
3007:Sap
2724:Nut
2569:Bud
2186:doi
2174:373
2053:doi
2014:doi
2010:276
1942:hdl
1934:doi
1922:324
1882:PMC
1874:doi
1870:355
1831:doi
1819:309
1780:doi
1749:doi
1737:143
1584:PMC
1568:doi
1564:355
1480:doi
1266:of
1142:470
848:In
765:of
323:or
119:In
3471::
2200:.
2192:.
2184:.
2172:.
2168:.
2154:^
2140:.
2130:32
2128:.
2124:.
2112:^
2090:.
2059:.
2049:97
2047:.
2022:.
2008:.
2004:.
1974:.
1966:.
1958:.
1950:.
1940:.
1932:.
1920:.
1916:.
1890:.
1880:.
1868:.
1862:.
1839:.
1829:.
1817:.
1811:.
1788:.
1776:91
1774:.
1770:.
1747:.
1735:.
1721:^
1677:.
1673:.
1656:.
1640:.
1592:.
1582:.
1574:.
1562:.
1558:.
1534:^
1486:,
1474:,
1237:.
1203:.
852:,
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336:,
223:.
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2431:)
2427:(
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2188::
2180::
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2055::
2030:.
2016::
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1944::
1936::
1928::
1898:.
1876::
1847:.
1833::
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1715:.
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1600:.
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1528:.
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20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
