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Suddenly, I got shoved again, this time so hard I fell into the fire. I got scared. Chekaren got scared too. We started crying out for father, mother, brother, but no one answered. There was noise beyond the hut, we could hear trees falling down. Chekaren and I got out of our sleeping bags and wanted to run out, but then the thunder struck. This was the first thunder. The Earth began to move and rock, the wind hit our hut and knocked it over. My body was pushed down by sticks, but my head was in the clear. Then I saw a wonder: trees were falling, the branches were on fire, it became mighty bright, how can I say this, as if there was a second sun, my eyes were hurting, I even closed them. It was like what the
Russians call lightning. And immediately there was a loud thunderclap. This was the second thunder. The morning was sunny, there were no clouds, our Sun was shining brightly as usual, and suddenly there came a second one!
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The body appeared as a "pipe", i.e., a cylinder. The sky was cloudless, only a small dark cloud was observed in the general direction of the bright body. It was hot and dry. As the body neared the ground (forest), the bright body seemed to smudge, and then turned into a giant billow of black smoke, and a loud knocking (not thunder) was heard as if large stones were falling, or artillery was fired. All buildings shook. At the same time the cloud began emitting flames of uncertain shapes. All villagers were stricken with panic and took to the streets, women cried, thinking it was the end of the world. The author of these lines was meantime in the forest about 6 versts north of
Kirensk and heard to the north-east some kind of artillery barrage, that repeated at intervals of 15 minutes at least 10 times. In Kirensk in a few buildings in the walls facing north-east window glass shook.
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thump was followed by a second, and then a third. Then the interval between the first and the third thumps was accompanied by an unusual underground rattle, similar to a railway upon which dozens of trains are travelling at the same time. Afterward, for 5 to 6 minutes an exact likeness of artillery fire was heard: 50 to 60 salvoes in short, equal intervals, which got progressively weaker. After 1.5–2 minutes after one of the "barrages" six more thumps were heard, like cannon firing, but individual, loud and accompanied by tremors. The sky, at the first sight, appeared to be clear. There was no wind and no clouds. Upon closer inspection to the north, i.e. where most of the thumps were heard, a kind of an ashen cloud was seen near the horizon, which kept getting smaller and more transparent and possibly by around 2–3 p.m. completely disappeared.
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collected near the center of the lake, consists of an upper c. 1-metre-thick (39 in) sequence of lacustrine deposits overlaying coarser chaotic material. Pb and Cs indicate that the transition from lower to upper sequence occurred close to the time of the
Tunguska event. Pollen analysis reveals that remains of aquatic plants are abundant in the top post-1908 sequence but are absent in the lower pre-1908 portion of the core. These results, including organic C, N and δC data, suggest that Lake Cheko formed at the time of the Tunguska event. Pollen assemblages confirm the presence of two different units, above and below the ~100‐cm level (Fig. 4). The upper 100‐cm long section, in addition to pollen of taiga forest trees such as Abies, Betula, Juniperus, Larix, Pinus, Picea, and Populus, contains abundant remains of hydrophytes,
952:, aquatic plants probably deposited under lacustrine conditions similar to those prevailing today. These include both free-floating plants and rooted plants, growing usually in water up to 3–4 metres in depth (Callitriche, Hottonia, Lemna, Hydrocharis, Myriophyllum, Nuphar, Nymphaea, Potamogeton, Sagittaria). In contrast, the lower unit (below ~100 cm) contains abundant forest tree pollen, but no hydrophytes, suggesting that no lake existed then, but a taiga forest growing on marshy ground (Fig. 5). Pollen and microcharcoal show a progressive reduction in the taiga forest, from the bottom of the core upward. This reduction may have been caused by fires (two local episodes below ~100 cm), then by the TE and the formation of the lake (between 100 and 90 cm), and again by subsequent fires (one local fire in the upper 40 cm).
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couldn't bear it as if my shirt was on fire; from the northern side, where the fire was, came strong heat. I wanted to tear off my shirt and throw it down, but then the sky shut closed, and a strong thump sounded, and I was thrown a few metres. I lost my senses for a moment, but then my wife ran out and led me to the house. After that such noise came, as if rocks were falling or cannons were firing, the Earth shook, and when I was on the ground, I pressed my head down, fearing rocks would smash it. When the sky opened up, hot wind raced between the houses, like from cannons, which left traces in the ground like pathways, and it damaged some crops. Later we saw that many windows were shattered, and in the barn, a part of the iron lock snapped.
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apart or exploding at similar altitudes. Some models focused on combinations of properties which created scenarios with similar effects to the tree-fall pattern as well as the atmospheric and seismic pressure waves of
Tunguska. Four different computer models produced similar results; they concluded that the likeliest candidate for the Tunguska impactor was a stony body between 50 and 80 m (164 and 262 ft) in diameter, entering the atmosphere at roughly 55,000 km/h (34,000 mph), exploding at 10 to 14 km (6 to 9 mi) altitude, and releasing explosive energy equivalent to between 10 and 30 megatons. This is similar to the blast energy equivalent of the 1980 volcanic
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if the impactor had arrived a few minutes earlier it would have exploded over the US or Canada. It is now known that bodies of this kind explode at frequent intervals tens to hundreds of kilometres above the ground. Military satellites have been observing these explosions for decades. In 2019 astronomers searched for hypothesized asteroids ~100 metres in diameter from the Taurid swarm between 5–11 July, and 21 July – 10 August. As of
February 2020, there have been no reports of discoveries of any such objects.
318:. Over the next few days, night skies in Asia and Europe were aglow. There are contemporaneous reports of brightly lit photographs being successfully taken at midnight (without the aid of flashbulbs) in Sweden and Scotland. It has been theorized that this sustained glowing effect was due to light passing through high-altitude ice particles that had formed at extremely low temperatures as a result of the explosion – a phenomenon that decades later was reproduced by
299:, moving across the sky and leaving a thin trail. Closer to the horizon, there was a flash producing a billowing cloud, followed by a pillar of fire that cast a red light on the landscape. The pillar split in two and faded, turning to black. About ten minutes later, there was a sound similar to artillery fire. Eyewitnesses closer to the explosion reported that the source of the sound moved from the east to the north of them. The sounds were accompanied by a
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point where the asteroid abruptly disintegrated in a huge explosion. The destruction would have to have been so complete that no remnants of substantial size survived, and the material scattered into the upper atmosphere during the explosion would have caused the skyglows. Models published in 1993 suggested that the stony body would have been about 60 metres (200 ft) across, with physical properties somewhere between an ordinary
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crater", 32 m in diameter), he found an old tree stump on the bottom, ruling out the possibility that it was a meteoric crater. In 1938, Kulik arranged for an aerial photographic survey of the area covering the central part of the leveled forest (250 square kilometres ). The original negatives of these aerial photographs (1,500 negatives, each 18 by 18 centimetres ) were burned in 1975 by order of
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762:, such as water ice and frozen gases, and could have been completely vaporised by the impact with Earth's atmosphere, leaving no obvious traces. The comet hypothesis was further supported by the glowing skies (or "skyglows" or "bright nights") observed across Eurasia for several evenings after the impact, which are possibly explained by dust and ice that had been dispersed from the
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In 2017, new research by
Russian scientists pointed to a rejection of the theory that the Tunguska event created Lake Cheko. They used soil research to determine that the lake is 280 years old or even much older; in any case clearly older than the Tunguska event. In analyzing soils from the bottom of
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The hypothesis has been disputed by other impact crater specialists. A 1961 investigation had dismissed a modern origin of Lake Cheko, saying that the presence of metres-thick silt deposits on the lake bed suggests an age of at least 5,000 years, but more recent research suggests that only a metre or
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and others have proposed a process whereby a stony asteroid could have exhibited the
Tunguska impactor's behaviour. Their models show that when the forces opposing a body's descent become greater than the cohesive force holding it together, it blows apart, releasing nearly all its energy at once. The
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of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen at the layer of the bogs corresponding to 1908 were found to be inconsistent with the isotopic ratios measured in the adjacent layers, and this abnormality was not found in bogs outside the area. The region of the bogs showing these anomalous signatures also contains
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are assumed and the trajectories plotted by the solid, dashed, and dotted lines, respectively. The parenthesized data are the distances of the locations from the plane of projection: a plus sign indicates the location is south-south west of the plane (i.e toward the viewer); a minus sign, north-north
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has proposed that the
Tunguska event was caused by the release and subsequent explosion of 10 million tons of natural gas from within the Earth's crust. The basic idea is that natural gas leaked out of the crust and then rose to its equal-density height in the atmosphere; from there, it drifted
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with a maximum activity around 28–29 June. The
Tunguska event coincided with that shower's peak activity, the Tunguska object's approximate trajectory is consistent with what would be expected from a fragment of Comet Encke, and a hypothetical risk corridor has now been calculated demonstrating that
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In 2020, a group of
Russian scientists used a range of computer models to calculate the passage of asteroids with diameters of 200, 100, and 50 metres at oblique angles across Earth's atmosphere. They used a range of assumptions about the object's composition as if it was made of iron, rock, or ice.
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We had a hut by the river with my brother Chekaren. We were sleeping. Suddenly we both woke up at the same time. Somebody shoved us. We heard whistling and felt strong wind. Chekaren said "Can you hear all those birds flying overhead?" We were both in the hut, couldn't see what was going on outside.
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of the lake floor support the hypothesis that the Tunguska event formed the lake. The soundings revealed a conical shape for the lake bed, which is consistent with an impact crater. Magnetic readings indicate a possible metre-sized chunk of rock below the lake's deepest point that may be a fragment
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published a paper criticising the comet hypothesis. He pointed out that a body composed of cometary material, travelling through the atmosphere along such a shallow trajectory, ought to have disintegrated, whereas the Tunguska body apparently remained intact into the lower atmosphere. Sekanina also
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Soviet experiments performed in the mid-1960s, with model forests (made of matches on wire stakes) and small explosive charges slid downward on wires, produced butterfly-shaped blast patterns similar to the pattern found at the Tunguska site. The experiments suggested that the object had approached
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in the Ural district of Russia. The exploding meteoroid was determined to have been an asteroid that measured about 17–20 metres (56–66 ft) across. It had an estimated initial mass of 11,000 tonnes and exploded with an energy release of approximately 500 kilotons. The air burst inflicted over
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On the morning of 17th of June, around 9:00, we observed an unusual natural occurrence. In the north Karelinski village the peasants saw to the northwest, rather high above the horizon, some strangely bright (impossible to look at) bluish-white heavenly body, which for 10 minutes moved downwards.
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estimated that 20-kiloton events occur annually and that Tunguska-sized events occur about once every 300 years. More recent estimates place Tunguska-sized events at about once every thousand years, with 5-kiloton air bursts averaging about once per year. Most of these are thought to be caused by
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During the next 10 years, there were three more expeditions to the area. Kulik found several dozen little "pothole" bogs, each 10 to 50 metres (33 to 164 feet) in diameter, that he thought might be meteoric craters. After a laborious exercise in draining one of these bogs (the so-called "Suslov's
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Since the 1908 event, an estimated 1,000 scholarly papers (most in Russian) have been published about the Tunguska explosion. Owing to the site's remoteness and the limited instrumentation available at the time of the event, modern scientific interpretations of its cause and magnitude have relied
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Kezhemskoye village. On the 17th an unusual atmospheric event was observed. At 7:43 the noise akin to a strong wind was heard. Immediately afterward a horrific thump sounded, followed by an earthquake that literally shook the buildings as if they were hit by a large log or a heavy rock. The first
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event provided ample data for scientists to create new models for the Tunguska event. Researchers used data from both Tunguska and Chelyabinsk to perform a statistical study of over 50 million combinations of bolide and entry properties that could produce Tunguska-scale damage when breaking
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The chief difficulty in the asteroid hypothesis is that a stony object should have produced a large crater where it struck the ground, but no such crater has been found. It has been hypothesised that the asteroid's passage through the atmosphere caused pressures and temperatures to build up to a
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In the 1960s, it was established that the zone of levelled forest occupied an area of 2,150 km (830 sq mi), its shape resembling a gigantic spread-eagled butterfly with a "wingspan" of 70 km (43 mi) and a "body length" of 55 km (34 mi). Upon closer examination,
498:. Instead they found a zone, roughly 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) across, where the trees were scorched and devoid of branches, but still standing upright. Trees farther from the centre had been partly scorched and knocked down away from the centre, creating a large radial pattern of downed trees.
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Trading Post , facing north. I suddenly saw that directly to the north, over Onkoul's Tunguska Road, the sky split in two and fire appeared high and wide over the forest . The split in the sky grew larger, and the entire northern side was covered with fire. At that moment I became so hot that I
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Other scientists disagree: "Some papers report that hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions with signatures similar to those of CI and CM carbonaceous chondrites were found in Tunguska peat layers dating from the TE (Kolesnikov et al. 1999, 2003) and that iridium anomalies were also
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Cheko, a small lake located in Siberia close to the epicentre of the 1908 Tunguska explosion, might fill a crater left by the impact of a fragment of a cosmic body. Sediment cores from the lake's bottom were studied to support or reject this hypothesis. A 175-centimetre-long (69 in) core,
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We looked at the fallen trees, watched the tree tops get snapped off, watched the fires. Suddenly Chekaren yelled "Look up" and pointed with his hand. I looked there and saw another flash, and it made another thunder. But the noise was less than before. This was the fourth strike, like normal
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Additionally, there are problems with impact physics: It is unlikely that a stony meteorite in the right size range would have the mechanical strength necessary to survive atmospheric passage intact while retaining a velocity high enough to excavate a crater that size on reaching the ground.
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produced by large air-burst explosions. The trees directly below the explosion are stripped as the blast wave moves vertically downward, but remain standing upright, while trees farther away are knocked over because the blast wave is travelling closer to horizontal when it reaches them.
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Since the second half of the 20th century, close monitoring of Earth's atmosphere through infrasound and satellite observation has shown that asteroid air bursts with energies comparable to those of nuclear weapons routinely occur, although Tunguska-sized events, on the order of 5–15
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Chekaren and I had some difficulty getting out from under the remains of our hut. Then we saw that above, but in a different place, there was another flash, and loud thunder came. This was the third thunder strike. Wind came again, knocked us off our feet, struck the fallen trees.
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Tunguska's trajectory and the locations of five villages projected onto a plane normal to the Earth's surface and passing through the fireball's approach path. The scale is given by an adopted beginning height of 100 km. Three zenith angles ZR of the apparent
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Though the region of Siberia in which the explosion occurred was very sparsely populated in 1908, there are accounts of the event from eyewitnesses who were in the surrounding area at the time, and regional newspapers reported the event shortly after it occurred.
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relative to iron, which is also found in meteorites, leading to the conclusion they were of extraterrestrial origin. The concentration of the spheres in different regions of the soil was also found to be consistent with the expected distribution of debris from a
2050:
Bonatti, Enrico; Breger, Dee; Di Rocco, Tommaso; Franchi, Fulvio; Gasperini, Luca; Polonia, Alina; Anfinogenov, John; Anfinogenova, Yana (September 2015). "Origin of John's Stone: A quartzitic boulder from the site of the 1908 Tunguska (Siberia) explosion".
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released a study calculating the probabilities based on orbital modelling extracted from the atmospheric trajectories of the Tunguska object. They concluded with a probability of 83% that the object moved on an asteroidal path originating from the
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identified a lake in the Tunguska region as a possible impact crater from the event. They do not dispute that the Tunguska body exploded in midair, but believe that a 10-metre (33 ft) fragment survived the explosion and struck the ground.
885:'s orbit likely fits with the Tunguska object's modelled orbit, even with the effects of weak non-gravitational forces. In 2013, analysis of fragments from the Tunguska site by a joint US-European team was consistent with an iron meteorite.
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downwind, in a sort of wick, which eventually found an ignition source such as lightning. Once the gas was ignited, the fire streaked along the wick, and then down to the source of the leak in the ground, whereupon there was an explosion.
845:, extracted resin from the core of the trees in the area of impact to examine trapped particles that were present during the 1908 event. They found high levels of material commonly found in rocky asteroids and rarely found in comets.
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Rogozin, D. Y.; Darin, A. V.; Kalugin, I. A.; Melgunov, M. S.; Meydus, A. V.; Degermendzhi, A. G. (October 2017). "Sedimentation rate in Cheko Lake (Evenkia, Siberia): New evidence on the problem of the 1908 Tunguska Event".
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spheres in siftings of the soil. Similar spheres were predicted to exist in the felled trees, although they could not be detected by contemporary means. Later expeditions did identify such spheres in the resin of the trees.
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east of it (i.e away from the viewer). The transliteration of the village names in this figure and the text is consistent with that of Paper I and differs somewhat from the transliteration in the current world atlases.
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Only more than a decade after the event did any scientific analysis of the region take place, in part due to the area's isolation and significant political upheaval affecting Russia in the 1910s. In 1921, the Russian
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flattened an estimated 80 million trees over an area of 2,150 km (830 sq mi) of forest, and eyewitness accounts suggest up to three people may have died. The explosion is generally attributed to a
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Phipps Morgan, J; Reston, T.J; Ranero, C.R (January 2004). "Contemporaneous mass extinctions, continental flood basalts, and 'impact signals': are mantle plume-induced lithospheric gas explosions the causal link?".
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Phipps Morgan, J; Reston, T.J; Ranero, C.R (January 2004). "Contemporaneous mass extinctions, continental flood basalts, and 'impact signals': are mantle plume-induced lithospheric gas explosions the causal link?".
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find that more of the energy was focused downward than would be the case from a nuclear explosion and estimate that the air burst had an energy range from 3 to 5 megatons of TNT (13 to 21 PJ). The 15-megaton
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Borovička, Jiří; Spurný, Pavel; Brown, Peter; Wiegert, Paul; Kalenda, Pavel; Clark, David; Shrbený, Lukáš (14 November 2013). "The trajectory, structure and origin of the Chelyabinsk asteroidal impactor".
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of the colliding body. Finally, the lake's long axis points to the Tunguska explosion's hypocentre, about 7.0 km (4.3 mi) away. Work is still being done at Lake Cheko to determine its origins.
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Turco, R.P.; Toon, O.B.; Park, C.; Whitten, R.C.; Pollack, J.B.; Noerdlinger, P. (April 1982). "An analysis of the physical, chemical, optical, and historical impacts of the 1908 Tunguska meteor fall".
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In 2013, a team of researchers published the results of an analysis of micro-samples from a peat bog near the centre of the affected area, which show fragments that may be of extraterrestrial origin.
961:. The depth of this layer gave an average annual sedimentation rate of between 3.6 and 4.6 mm a year. These sedimentation values are less than half of the 1 cm/year calculated by Gasperini
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Gasperini, Luca; Bonatti, Enrico; Albertazzi, Sonia; Forlani, Luisa; Accorsi, Carla A.; Longo, Giuseppe; Ravaioli, Mariangela; Alvisi, Francesca; Polonia, Alina; Sacchetti, Fabio (December 2009).
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642:) as it travels through the atmosphere is immense and most meteoroids burn up or explode before they reach the ground. Early estimates of the energy of the Tunguska air burst ranged from 10–15
543:. Later studies of the spheres found unusual ratios of numerous other metals relative to the surrounding environment, which was taken as further evidence of their extraterrestrial origin.
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When the meteorite fell, strong tremors in the ground were observed, and near the Lovat village of the Kansk uezd two strong explosions were heard, as if from large-calibre artillery.
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following the impact, a phenomenon caused by massive amounts of water vapour in the upper atmosphere. They compared the noctilucent cloud phenomenon to the exhaust plume from NASA's
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3691:[MINERALOGICAL-GEOCHEMICAL FEATURES OF PRIMARY ROCKS, LOOSE SEDIMENTS AND CATASTROPHIC MOSSES IN THE NORTHERN SWAMP AREA (REGION OF THE TUNGUSKA CATASTROPHE IN 1908)]
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chiefly on damage assessments and geological studies conducted many years after the event. Estimates of its energy have ranged from 3–30 megatons of TNT (13–126 petajoules).
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Researcher John Anfinogenov has suggested that a boulder found at the event site, known as John's stone, is a remnant of the meteorite, but oxygen isotope analysis of the
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materials, based on their typical penetration depths into the Earth's atmosphere. The largest asteroid air burst observed with modern instrumentation was the 500-kiloton
220:
about 50–60 metres (160–200 feet) wide. The asteroid approached from the east-south-east, probably with a relatively high speed of about 27 km/s (60,000 mph) (~
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1972:
Kolesnikov, E.M.; Kolesnikova, N.V.; Boettger, T. (February 1998). "Isotopic anomaly in peat nitrogen is a probable trace of acid rains caused by 1908 Tunguska bolide".
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563:. These unusual proportions are believed to result from debris from the falling body that deposited in the bogs. The nitrogen is believed to have been deposited as
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Kvasnytsya, Victor; Wirth, Richard; Dobrzhinetskaya, Larissa; Matzel, Jennifer; Jacobsen, Benjamin; Hutcheon, Ian; Tappero, Ryan; Kovalyukh, Mykola (August 2013).
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Vaganov, Evgenii A.; Hughes, Malcolm K.; Silkin, Pavel P.; Nesvetailo, Valery D. (September 2004). "The Tunguska Event in 1908: Evidence from Tree-Ring Anatomy".
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had caused the event. Upon returning, he persuaded the Soviet government to fund an expedition to the suspected impact zone, based on the prospect of salvaging
2007:
Anfinogenov, John; Budaeva, Larisa; Kuznetsov, Dmitry; Anfinogenova, Yana (November 2014). "John's Stone: A possible fragment of the 1908 Tunguska meteorite".
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Brown, P.; Spalding, R. E.; ReVelle, D. O.; Tagliaferri, E.; Worden, S. P. (November 2002). "The flux of small near-Earth objects colliding with the Earth".
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observed (Hou et al. 1998, 2004). Measurements performed in other laboratories have not confirmed these results (Rocchia et al. 1990; Tositti et al. 2006)."
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in their 2009 publication on their analysis of the core they took from Lake Cheko in 1999. The Russian scientists in 2017 counted at least 280 such annual
3689:"МИНЕРА-ЛОГО-ГЕОХИМИЧЕСКИЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ КОРЕННЫХ ПОРОД, РЫХЛЫХ ОТЛОЖЕНИЙ И КАТАСТРОФНЫХ МХОВ УЧАСТКА СЕВЕРНОЕ БОЛОТО (РАЙОН ТУНГУССКОЙ КАТАСТРОФЫ 1908 Г.)"
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Perkins, Sid (30 September 2009). "Story One: A century later, scientists still study Tunguska: Asteroid or comet blamed for Siberian blast of 1908".
3660:[GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL-GEOCHEMICAL PECULIARITIES OF LOOSE SEDIMENTS AND PRIMARY ROCKS IN EPICENTER OF TUNGUSSKAYA CATASTROPHE IN 1908]
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The model that most closely matched the observed event was an iron asteroid up to 200 metres in diameter, travelling at 11.2 km per second, that
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Though scientific consensus is that the Tunguska explosion was caused by the impact of a small asteroid, there are some dissenters. Astrophysicist
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1937:
Hou, Q.L.; Ma, P.X.; Kolesnikov, E.M. (February 1998). "Discovery of iridium and other element anomalies near the 1908 Tunguska explosion site".
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Boyarkina, A. P., Demin, D. V., Zotkin, I. T., Fast, W. G. "Estimation of the blast wave of the Tunguska meteorite from the forest destruction".
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result is no crater, with damage distributed over a fairly wide radius, and all the damage resulting from the thermal energy the blast releases.
228:, the object is thought to have exploded at an altitude of 5 to 10 kilometres (3 to 6 miles) rather than hitting the Earth's surface, leaving no
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hypothesis has also been proposed as a possible cause of the Tunguska event. Other research has proposed a geophysical mechanism for the event.
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Drobyshevski, E. M.; Galushina, T. Yu; Drobyshevski, M. E. (March 2009). "A search for a present-day candidate for the Comet P/Tunguska-1908".
4059:"Skeptoid #803: What Really Happened at Tunguska: The true cause of one of history's most violent cataclysms remains a mystery... to a degree"
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2865:"Two-dimensional turbulence, space shuttle plume transport in the thermosphere, and a possible relation to the Great Siberian Impact Event"
1567:"Two-dimensional Turbulence, Space Shuttle Plume Transport in the Thermosphere, and a Possible Relation to the Great Siberian Impact Event"
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argued that the evidence pointed to a dense rocky object, probably of asteroidal origin. This hypothesis was further boosted in 2001, when
314:, and Washington, D.C. It is estimated that, in some places, the resulting shock wave was equivalent to an earthquake measuring 5.0 on the
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across Eurasia, and air waves from the blast were detected in Germany, Denmark, Croatia, and the United Kingdom – and as far away as
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4463:, also (Crows Nest, NSW, Australia) Allen & Unwin Pty Ltd., 2006, with same ISBN. Index has "Lake Cheko" as "Ceko, Lake", without "h".
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every day, travelling at a speed of at least 11 km/s (7 mi/s). The heat generated by compression of air in front of the body (
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Serra, R.; Cecchini, S.; Galli, M.; Longo, G. (September 1994). "Experimental hints on the fragmentation of the Tunguska Cosmic body".
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may be a possible candidate for the Tunguska object's parent body as the asteroid made a close approach of 0.06945 AU (27
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Kulik found holes that he erroneously concluded were meteorite holes; he did not have the means at that time to excavate the holes.
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across the upper atmosphere. The cometary hypothesis gained a general acceptance among Soviet Tunguska investigators by the 1960s.
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so of the sediment layer on the lake bed is "normal lacustrine sedimentation", a depth consistent with an age of about 100 years.
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Now I remember well there was also one more thunder strike, but it was small, and somewhere far away, where the Sun goes to sleep.
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510:, then Chairman of the Committee on Meteorites of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as part of an initiative to dispose of flammable
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811:, rather than on a cometary one (probability of 17%). Proponents of the comet hypothesis have suggested that the object was an
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2464:"Most Explosive Meteor Impact: 1908 Tunguska Explosion Caused by Iron Asteroid That Entered Earth Then Bounced Back to Space"
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475:. Although they never visited the central blast area, the many local accounts of the event led Kulik to believe that a giant
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Lerman, J. C.; Mook, W. G.; Vogel, J. C. (1967). "Effect of the Tunguska Meteor and Sunspots on Radiocarbon in Tree Rings".
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in the 1260 mm long core sample pulled from the bottom of the lake, representing an age older than the Tunguska event.
2913:
5812:
4957:
4873:
4798:
4722:
650:) to 30 megatons of TNT (130 PJ), depending on the exact height of the burst as estimated when the scaling laws from the
5847:
5676:
5600:
5376:
5270:
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3658:"ГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ И МИНЕРАЛОГО-ГЕОХИМИЧЕСКИЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ РЫХЛЫХ И КОРЕННЫХ ПОРОД ИЗ ЭПИЦЕНТРА ТУНГУССКОЙ КАТАСТРОФЫ 1908 Г"
2212:
1885:
1383:
905:
94:
3574:
Vannucchi, Paola; Morgan, Jason P.; Della Lunga, Damiano; Andronicos, Christopher L.; Morgan, W. Jason (January 2015).
2793:
Longo, G.; Serra, R.; Cecchini, S.; Galli, M. (February 1994). "Search for microremnants of the Tunguska Cosmic Body".
2600:
Nemtchinov, I.V.; Jacobs, C.; Tagliaferri, E. (1997). "Analysis of Satellite Observations of Large Meteoroid Impacts".
5827:
5807:
908:. The researchers also concluded impactors of this size hit the Earth only at an average interval scale of millennia.
472:
192:
79:
5138:
3944:
Brown, John C.; Hughes, David W. (August 1977). "Tunguska's comet and non-thermal 14C production in the atmosphere".
1910:
Kolesnikov, E.m.; Boettger, T.; Kolesnikova, N.V. (June 1999). "Finding of probable Tunguska Cosmic Body material".
1300:
892:
Comparison of approximate sizes of notable impactors with the Hoba meteorite, a Boeing 747 and a New Routemaster bus
5645:
5620:
5289:
5225:
4952:
4924:
1646:
875:
747:
679:
test in 1961. A 2019 paper suggests the explosive power of the Tunguska event may have been around 20–30 megatons.
651:
311:
2420:
Khrennikov, Daniil E; Titov, Andrei K; Ershov, Alexander E; Pariev, Vladimir I; Karpov, Sergei V (21 March 2020).
2344:
781:
with a period of just over three years that stays entirely within Jupiter's orbit. It is also responsible for the
440:
5842:
5696:
5686:
5521:
5392:
5312:
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5156:
5150:
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3656:СКУБЛОВ, Г.Т.; МАРИН, Ю.Б.; СКУБЛОВ, С.Г.; БИДЮКОВ, Б.Ф.; ЛОГУНОВА, Л.Н.; ГЕМБИЦКИЙ, В.В.; НЕЧАЕВА, Е.С. (2010).
1210:
1033:
369:
248:
4281:
Ol'khovatov, A. Yu. (November 2003). "Geophysical Circumstances Of The 1908 Tunguska Event In Siberia, Russia".
3613:
Ol'khovatov, A. Yu. (November 2003). "Geophysical Circumstances Of The 1908 Tunguska Event In Siberia, Russia".
827:. Typical carbonaceous chondrite substance tends to be dissolved with water rather quickly unless it is frozen.
5872:
5837:
5817:
5640:
5458:
5132:
4941:
3271:
327:
597:
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Farinella, P.; Foschini, L.; Froeschlé, Ch.; Gonczi, R.; Jopek, T. J.; Longo, G.; Michel, P. (October 2001).
5787:
5397:
5197:
3207:
1712:
1085:
1043:
857:
759:
446:
315:
4180:, trans. J. S. Romankiewicz (Part III: The Tunguska Meteorite), (Oxford and New York) Pergamon Press, 1966.
1051:
957:
Lake Cheko, they identified a layer of radionuclide contamination from mid-20th century nuclear testing at
352:, 1931. The original photo was taken between 1927 and 1930 (presumptively no later than 14 September 1930).
5832:
5756:
5336:
5240:
4982:
4885:
4063:
4054:
2167:
1079:
863:. A team of Russian researchers led by Edward Drobyshevski in 2009 suggested that the near-Earth asteroid
824:
710:
688:
664:
2716:
738:
at an angle of roughly 30 degrees from the ground and 115 degrees from north and had exploded in midair.
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5204:
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923:
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610:
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83:
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2216:
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5544:
5474:
5039:
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4675:
4634:
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Beasley, William H.; Tinsley, Brian A. (August 1974). "Tungus event was not caused by a black hole".
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2549:
2494:"World's largest 'explosion' could have been caused by iron asteroid entering and leaving atmosphere"
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2016:
1981:
1946:
1616:
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1471:
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occurred in prehistoric times. An explosion of this magnitude would be capable of destroying a large
3005:"Tunguska Revisited: 111-Year-Old Mystery Impact Inspires New, More Optimistic Asteroid Predictions"
1038:
In fiction, many alternative explanations for the event appear. The notion that it was caused by an
5585:
5551:
5464:
4891:
4772:
3034:
Gasperini, L; Alvisi, F; Biasini, G; Bonatti, E; Longo, G; Pipan, M; Ravaioli, M; Serra, R (2007).
1047:
208:
3458:
Kundt, Wolfgang (2007). "Tunguska (1908) and Its Relevance for Comet/Asteroid Impact Statistics".
2650:"Could larger space rocks be hiding in the Beta Taurid Meteor stream? We may find out this summer"
1525:
382:
4969:
4748:
4701:
4650:
4613:
4306:
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3874:
Islam, Science Fiction and Extraterrestrial Life: The Culture of Astrobiology in the Muslim World
3638:
3403:
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1016:
1010:
897:
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697:
602:
551:
4588:
Jackson, A. A.; Ryan, Michael P. (September 1973). "Was the Tungus Event due to a Black Hole?".
3687:СКУБЛОВ, Г.Г.; МАРИН, Ю.Б.; СКУБЛОВ, С.Г.; ЛОГУНОВА, Л.Н.; НЕЧАЕВА, E.С.; САВИЧЕВ, A.A. (2011).
1265:
794:
770:
4531:
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Tunguska: The Largest Recent Impact Event (14 November 2007)
2578:
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from the area also revealed numerous anomalies considered consistent with an impact event. The
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is a small bowl-shaped lake about 8 km (5.0 mi) north-northwest of the hypocentre.
878:) from Earth on 27 June 1908, three days before the Tunguska impact. The team suspected that
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1989:
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1954:
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1919:
1869:
1624:
1586:
1479:
1462:
Whipple, F. J. W. (10 September 2007). "On Phenomena related to the great Siberian meteor".
1182:
1165:
1132:
1128:
1088:, protected area covering a portion of the site; ongoing scientific study of forest recovery
1073:
1055:
1006:
617:
540:
236:
213:
200:
137:
3231:"Sediments from Lake Cheko (Siberia), a possible impact crater for the 1908 Tunguska Event"
2118:
1024:
1,200 injuries, mainly from broken glass falling from windows shattered by its shock wave.
888:
5722:
5671:
5402:
5187:
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hunters to guide his team to the centre of the blast area, where they expected to find an
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2422:"On the possibility of through passage of asteroid bodies across the Earth's atmosphere"
2382:
2305:
2264:
2191:
2183:
2064:
2020:
1620:
1582:
1475:
1428:
1250:
1223:
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982:
838:
778:
684:
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643:
583:
507:
204:
188:
87:
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4153:
3576:"Direct evidence of ancient shock metamorphism at the site of the 1908 Tunguska event"
3560:
3169:
1993:
1958:
1923:
1819:
5781:
5740:
5488:
5356:
5250:
4402:
This is one of several articles in a special issue, cover title: "Cosmic Cataclysms".
4310:
3749:
3642:
3427:
3394:
Kundt, Wolfgang (2001). "The 1908 Tunguska catastrophe: An alternative explanation".
3371:
3346:
3327:
3255:
3230:
3129:
3120:
3095:
3060:
3035:
2898:
2849:
2814:
2631:
2103:
2036:
1628:
1194:
958:
936:
812:
808:
786:
491:
486:
Kulik led a scientific expedition to the Tunguska blast site in 1927. He hired local
480:
319:
229:
3380:
5727:
5610:
5527:
5432:
5341:
4821:
4784:
4705:
4654:
4617:
4524:
4213:
3973:
3688:
2914:"A mystery solved: Space shuttle shows 1908 Tunguska explosion was caused by comet"
2406:
2329:
1067:
782:
672:
668:
639:
606:
476:
468:
361:
348:
252:
225:
4132:
Gasperini, Luca; Bonatti, Enrico; Longo, Giuseppe (2008). "The Tunguska Mystery".
3148:
Gasperini, Luca; Bonatti, Enrico; Longo, Giuseppe (2008). "The Tunguska Mystery".
2086:
Peplow, Mark (10 June 2013). "Rock samples suggest meteor caused Tunguska blast".
303:
that knocked people off their feet and broke windows hundreds of kilometres away.
17:
4331:
3467:
2273:
2248:
2072:
2028:
1186:
1137:
1112:
852:(2009) contend that the impact was caused by a comet because of the sightings of
346:
Tunguska marshes, around the area where it fell. This photo is from the magazine
3844:
3839:. Science and Fiction. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 32–35.
1020:
774:
755:
635:
495:
471:
led a team to the Podkamennaya Tunguska River basin to conduct a survey for the
292:
221:
39:
3599:
1548:"Space Shuttle Science Shows How 1908 Tunguska Explosion Was Caused By A Comet"
1163:
Jenniskens, P (2019). "Tunguska eyewitness accounts, injuries and casualties".
654:
are employed. More recent calculations that include the effect of the object's
5691:
5650:
5630:
5625:
5533:
3758:
The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Science Fiction: The Definitive Illustrated Guide
3319:
2645:
2142:
2095:
928:
917:
730:
722:
676:
627:
579:
465:
360:
According to the testimony of S. Semenov, as recorded by Russian mineralogist
331:
307:
300:
4519:
4438:
The Tunguska Fireball: Solving One of the Great Mysteries of the 20th century
2779:
1873:
116:
103:
5732:
5507:
5501:
5366:
5361:
5260:
5255:
3775:
2448:
2421:
990:
865:
820:
575:
564:
526:
511:
207:, on the morning of 30 June 1908. The explosion over the sparsely populated
184:
4697:
4530:
4512:
4504:
4397:
4169:
4003:
Christie, William H. (April 1942). "The great Siberian meteorite of 1908".
3185:
2398:
2321:
1483:
1378:
3657:
1874:"Preliminary results from the 1961 combined Tunguska meteorite expedition"
255:
rating for the impactor is 8: a certain collision with local destruction.
5494:
5326:
5088:
5077:
5066:
5055:
5044:
4929:
4571:
4543:
4479: – Many Tunguska-related pictures with comments in English
2889:
2864:
2748:"The 1908 Tunguska explosion: atmospheric disruption of a stony asteroid"
2746:
Chyba, Christopher F.; Thomas, Paul J.; Zahnle, Kevin J. (January 1993).
1591:
1566:
1292:
655:
621:
547:
522:
217:
141:
4520:
Preliminary results from the 1961 combined Tunguska meteorite expedition
4161:
4046:
3407:
3177:
2522:
2390:
2313:
1643:
1641:
N. V. Vasiliev, A. F. Kovalevsky, S. A. Razin, L. E. Epiktetova (1981).
671:
nuclear test in 1954 (which measured 15.2 Mt) and one third that of the
5538:
5124:
5028:
5017:
5007:
4987:
4790:
2579:"Analysis of the Tunguska Event as a Semi-Hypothetical Impact Scenario"
1421:
Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society, An Interdisciplinary Approach
663:) estimate represents an energy about 1,000 times greater than that of
556:
288:
268:
4476:
2747:
2540:
Kresak, L' (1978). "The Tunguska Object: a Fragment of Comet Encke?".
521:
Expeditions sent to the area in the 1950s and 1960s found microscopic
334:
transparency consistent with an increase in suspended dust particles.
5605:
5331:
5235:
4688:
4663:
4646:
4609:
4388:
4363:
4205:
4058:
3965:
2771:
1042:
is a popular one that gained prominence following the publication of
966:
900:
535:
487:
5281:
837:
During the 1990s, Italian researchers, coordinated by the physicist
4779:
4017:
Crowther, J. G. (1931). "More About the Great Siberian Meteorite".
3575:
2701:
2676:
2438:
1423:. Berlin; Heidelberg; New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 303–330.
3096:"Reply – Lake Cheko and the Tunguska Event: impact or non-impact?"
2955:
2209:"Sandia supercomputers offer new explanation of Tunguska disaster"
1788:
887:
751:
693:
647:
596:
515:
439:
341:
262:
145:
3491:"100 years on, mystery shrouds massive 'cosmic impact' in Russia"
815:
with a stony mantle that allowed it to penetrate the atmosphere.
5109:
4559:
1388:
5285:
4794:
2577:
Boslough, Mark; Chodas, Paul; Brown, Peter (13 December 2023).
2203:
2201:
2119:"New evidence of meteoritic origin of the Tunguska cosmic body"
1293:"The Tunguska explosion: an unexpected loud bang and explosion"
3094:
Gasperini, L.; Bonatti, Enrico; Longo, Giuseppe (April 2008).
296:
2249:"Probabilistic assessment of Tunguska-scale asteroid impacts"
1208:
Trayner, C (1994). "Perplexities of the Tunguska meteorite".
3904:
The Fire Came by: The Riddle of the Great Siberian Explosion
2863:
Kelley, M. C.; Seyler, C. E.; Larsen, M. F. (22 July 2009).
4096:
The Day the Sky Split Apart: Investigating a Cosmic Mystery
2971:"Meteoroid, not comet, explains the 1908 Tunguska fireball"
235:
The Tunguska event is the largest impact event on Earth in
4567:"In Siberia in 1908, a huge explosion came out of nowhere"
4251:
Oliver, Charles P (1928). "The Great Siberian Meteorite".
3720:"Meteorite hits central Russia, more than 500 people hurt"
1076:, about 830 kilometres (520 mi) to the east-southeast
700:
in 2013, which shattered windows and produced meteorites.
616:
The leading scientific explanation for the explosion is a
2542:
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of Czechoslovakia
1237:
Gritzner, C (1997). "Human Casualties in Impact Events".
721:
The explosion's effect on the trees near the explosion's
4073:
The Tungus Event: The Great Siberian Catastrophe of 1908
3200:"Crater From 1908 Russian Space Impact Found, Team Says"
2677:"The Tunguska event - No cometary signature in evidence"
1113:"Probable asteroidal origin of the Tunguska Cosmic Body"
3515:"Massive Tunguska Blast Still Unsolved 100 Years Later"
2170:(1983). "Asteroid and Comet Bombardment of the Earth".
1019:
occurred over a populated area on 15 February 2013, at
601:
Comparison of possible sizes of Tunguska (TM mark) and
291:
natives and Russian settlers in the hills northwest of
155:
Flattened 2,150 km (830 sq mi) of forest
3787:
3785:
3036:"A possible impact crater for the 1908 Tunguska Event"
713:
the Earth's atmosphere and returned into solar orbit.
692:
asteroid impactors, as opposed to mechanically weaker
624:
6–10 km (4–6 mi) above the Earth's surface.
534:
showed that the spheres contained high proportions of
514:. Positive prints were preserved for further study in
4720:
1464:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
1407:
1405:
746:
In 1930, the British meteorologist and mathematician
4110:
Gallant, Roy A. (June 1994). "Journey to Tunguska".
1565:
Kelley, M. C.; Seyler, C. E.; Larsen, M. F. (2009).
1377:
Nemiroff, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (14 November 2007).
1323:"Reported Deaths and Injuries from Meteorite Impact"
5749:
5715:
5664:
5570:
5443:
5385:
5319:
5218:
5165:
5122:
5107:
4912:
4835:
4828:
169:
161:
151:
132:
93:
75:
67:
49:
4128:Cover article, with full-page map. Cited in Verma.
3347:"Evidence that Lake Cheko is not an impact crater"
1554:(Press release). Cornell University. 25 June 2009.
1498:
667:, and roughly equal to that of the United States'
3927:The Tunguska Meteorite: History of Investigations
3802:Science Fact and Science Fiction: An Encyclopedia
2426:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
582:origin, and probably related to Permian-Triassic
330:in California observed a months-long decrease in
295:observed a bluish light, nearly as bright as the
4098:, (New York) Atheneum Books for Children, 1995.
3981:Chaikin, A. (January 1984). "Target: Tunguska".
3701:Proceedings of the Russian Mineralogical Society
3670:Proceedings of the Russian Mineralogical Society
2247:Wheeler, Lorien F.; Mathias, Donovan L. (2019).
1843:
1841:
1419:. In Bobrowsky, Peter T.; Rickman, Hans (eds.).
1106:
1104:
1102:
368:At breakfast time I was sitting by the house at
4011:. Los Angeles: The Griffith Observatory: 38–47.
1778:, Vol. 24, 1964, pp. 112–128 (in Russian).
1506:Journal of the British Astronomical Association
1054:". The idea that the cause was the impact of a
945:
725:was similar to the effects of the conventional
433:
422:
410:
387:
366:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3697:ЗАПИСКИ РОССИЙСКОГО МИНЕРАЛОГИЧЕСКОГО ОБЩЕСТВА
3666:ЗАПИСКИ РОССИЙСКОГО МИНЕРАЛОГИЧЕСКОГО ОБЩЕСТВА
2286:
2284:
5297:
4806:
2172:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1864:
1862:
750:suggested that the Tunguska body was a small
224:80). Though the incident is classified as an
8:
1905:
1903:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
559:, similar to the iridium layer found in the
494:. To their surprise, there was no crater at
32:
4342:, (Dordrecht and New York) Springer, 2009.
2998:
2996:
1379:"Tunguska: The Largest Recent Impact Event"
5304:
5290:
5282:
4832:
4813:
4799:
4791:
4277:Cited in Baxter and Atkins, also in Verma.
3805:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 301–303.
2603:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
773:suggested that the body was a fragment of
567:, a suspected fallout from the explosion.
38:
31:
27:1908 meteor air burst explosion in Siberia
4687:
4409:, (New York) Simon & Schuster, 1977.
4387:
3923:Тунгусский метеорит: история исследования
3876:. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 68–69.
3504:, 29 June 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
3370:
3272:"ОЗЕРО ЧЕКО СТАРШЕ ТУНГУССКОГО МЕТЕОРИТА"
3254:
3119:
3059:
2954:
2888:
2700:
2447:
2437:
2272:
1590:
1136:
4527:. Reconstruction by William K. Hartmann.
4075:, (New York) Nordon Publications, 1977.
3921:Бронштэн, Виталий Александрович (2000).
3902:Baxter, John; Atkins, Thomas R. (1976).
3528:, 4 July 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
3460:Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society
3423:"Did blast from below destroy Tunguska?"
3143:
3141:
3139:
1644:Eyewitness accounts of Tunguska (Crash).
287:in 1918), at around 7:17 AM local time,
44:Trees blown down and burned by the blast
4727:
3003:Smith, Kimberly Ennico (25 June 2019).
2364:
2362:
2355:from the original on 10 September 2012.
2162:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2152:
1713:"The Tunguska Impact – 100 Years Later"
1352:de Pater, Imke; Lissauer, Jack (2001).
1098:
943:The main points of the study are that:
216:, the atmospheric explosion of a stony
157:Devastation to local plants and animals
5707:Planetary Defense Coordination Office
5702:Space Situational Awareness Programme
4455:, (Cambridge) Icon Books Ltd., 2006.
4440:, (Cambridge) Icon Books Ltd., 2005.
1826:from the original on 26 February 2021
1740:
1738:
1457:
1455:
1333:from the original on 24 February 2021
1303:from the original on 14 December 2017
1070:, annual global event held on June 30
324:Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
249:depicted in numerous works of fiction
7:
4664:"Planetary science: Tunguska at 100"
4453:The Mystery of the Tunguska Fireball
3278:from the original on 18 January 2018
5173:Predicted asteroid impacts on Earth
4420:Stoneley, Jack; with Lawton, A. T.
4405:Stoneley, Jack; with Lawton, A. T.
4224:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3929:] (in Russian). А.Д. Сельянов.
3730:from the original on 9 October 2017
3718:Shurmina, Natalia; Kuzmin, Andrey.
3580:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3541:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2930:from the original on 31 August 2018
2343:Wiley, John P. Jr. (January 1995).
2192:10.1146/annurev.ea.11.050183.002333
5178:Asteroid close approaches to Earth
4565:Hogenboom, Melissa (7 July 2016).
4556:The Tunguska Event 100 Years later
4303:10.1023/B:MOON.0000047474.85788.01
4039:10.1038/scientificamerican0531-314
3635:10.1023/B:MOON.0000047474.85788.01
3077:"Team makes Tunguska crater claim"
2624:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48348.x
2215:. 17 December 2007. Archived from
1847:See: Bronshten (2000), p. 56.
922:In June 2007, scientists from the
729:. These effects are caused by the
25:
4273:10.1038/scientificamerican0728-42
4154:10.1038/scientificamerican0608-80
3868:Determann, Jörg Matthias (2020).
3837:Pseudoscience and Science Fiction
3206:. 7 November 2007. Archived from
3170:10.1038/scientificamerican0608-80
1888:from the original on 20 July 2008
1799:from the original on 4 March 2023
1756:from the original on 8 March 2021
1272:from the original on 1 March 2021
283:before the implementation of the
5878:20th-century astronomical events
5210:Asteroids crossing Earth's orbit
4920:2002 Eastern Mediterranean event
4778:
4766:
4754:
4742:
4730:
3906:. Random House Childrens Books.
3439:from the original on 31 May 2015
3372:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2008.00791.x
3256:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2009.00906.x
3121:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2008.00792.x
3061:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2007.00742.x
3015:from the original on 1 July 2019
2727:from the original on 16 May 2017
2656:from the original on 14 May 2019
2345:"Phenomena, Comment & Notes"
1723:from the original on 16 May 2021
555:an unusually high proportion of
2675:Sekanina, Z. (September 1983).
2504:from the original on 7 May 2020
2474:from the original on 7 May 2020
1746:"This Month in Physics History"
4424:, (London) W. H. Allen, 1977.
4083:. (St. Albans) Panther, 1977.
3421:Jones, N. (7 September 2002).
1356:. Cambridge University Press.
1:
5823:Geography of Krasnoyarsk Krai
4958:2012 United Kingdom meteoroid
4244:10.1016/s0012-821x(03)00602-2
3561:10.1016/s0012-821x(03)00602-2
3075:Rincon, Paul (26 June 2007).
2977:. 1 July 2013. Archived from
1994:10.1016/S0032-0633(97)00190-6
1959:10.1016/S0032-0633(97)00174-8
1924:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00006-9
561:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
5868:Unsolved problems in physics
5863:Natural disasters in Siberia
5677:Japan Spaceguard Association
5420:Earth-crossing minor planets
5377:Potentially hazardous object
5271:Potentially hazardous object
4536:"Mystery space blast 'solved
4332:10.1002/scin.2008.5591731904
4013:This review is widely cited.
3468:10.1007/978-3-540-32711-0_19
2869:Geophysical Research Letters
2850:10.1016/0032-0633(94)90120-1
2815:10.1016/0032-0633(94)90028-0
2610:(1 Near–Earth Ob): 303–317.
2274:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.12.017
2213:Sandia National Laboratories
2073:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.06.018
2029:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.09.006
1629:10.1016/0019-1035(82)90096-3
1384:Astronomy Picture of the Day
1187:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.01.001
1117:Astronomy & Astrophysics
906:eruption of Mount St. Helens
377:Testimony of Chuchan of the
306:The explosion registered at
5767:Fiction about impact events
4662:Steel, Duncan (June 2008).
4550:Sound of the Tunguska event
3845:10.1007/978-3-319-42605-1_2
3760:. Carlton. pp. 39–40.
2830:Planetary and Space Science
2795:Planetary and Space Science
2123:Planetary and Space Science
1974:Planetary and Space Science
1939:Planetary and Space Science
1912:Planetary and Space Science
1856:Rubtsov (2009), p. 59.
1702:Vasiliev, Section 1, Item 5
1693:Vasiliev, Section 1, Item 3
1672:Vasiliev, Section 1, Item 2
1524:Watson, Nigel (July 2008).
769:In 1978, Slovak astronomer
338:Selected eyewitness reports
193:Podkamennaya Tunguska River
80:Podkamennaya Tunguska River
5894:
5858:Modern Earth impact events
5798:1908 in the Russian Empire
5226:Asteroid impact prediction
4925:2007 Carancas impact event
4422:Tunguska, Cauldron of Hell
4407:Cauldron of Hell: Tunguska
3600:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.11.001
1820:"The 1938 aerophotosurvey"
1138:10.1051/0004-6361:20011054
1031:
1000:
915:
704:Glancing impact hypothesis
652:effects of nuclear weapons
473:Soviet Academy of Sciences
322:. In the United States, a
312:Batavia, Dutch East Indies
5697:The Spaceguard Foundation
5415:Asteroid close approaches
5393:Asteroid impact avoidance
5231:Asteroid impact avoidance
4947:2009 Sulawesi superbolide
3520:21 September 2013 at the
3496:24 September 2015 at the
3320:10.1134/S1028334X17100269
2975:DiscoverMagazine.com blog
2912:Ju, Anne (24 June 2009).
2143:10.1016/j.pss.2013.05.003
2096:10.1038/nature.2013.13163
1750:American Physical Society
1649:30 September 2007 at the
1034:Tunguska event in fiction
754:. A comet is composed of
431:newspaper, 13 July 1908:
420:newspaper, 27 July 1908:
267:Location of the event in
37:
5762:Fiction about meteoroids
5641:Sentinel Space Telescope
5133:Impact events on Jupiter
4283:Earth, Moon, and Planets
3615:Earth, Moon, and Planets
2681:The Astronomical Journal
1414:"18: The Tunguska event"
1412:Longo, Giuseppe (2007).
455:Scientific investigation
408:newspaper, 2 July 1908:
328:Mount Wilson Observatory
5793:1908 in the environment
5398:Asteroid laser ablation
4904:Earth-grazing meteoroid
4898:Great Daylight Fireball
4868:Great Meteor Procession
4295:2003EM&P...93..163O
4236:2004E&PSL.217..263P
4124:1994S&T....87...38G
3995:1984S&T....67...18C
3627:2003EM&P...93..163O
3592:2015E&PSL.409..168V
3553:2004E&PSL.217..263P
2842:1994P&SS...42..777S
2807:1994P&SS...42..163L
2581:. 2023 AGU Fall Meeting
2237:Verma (2005), p 1.
2135:2013P&SS...84..131K
1986:1998P&SS...46..163K
1951:1998P&SS...46..179H
1497:Traynor, Chris (1997).
1129:2001A&A...377.1081F
1086:Tunguska Nature Reserve
1044:Russian science fiction
937:Acoustic-echo soundings
605:(CM) meteoroids to the
578:suggests that it is of
364:'s expedition in 1930:
316:Richter magnitude scale
279:(cited as 17 June 1908
191:that occurred near the
173:A few damaged buildings
55:; 116 years ago
5803:1908 natural disasters
5337:Earth-grazing fireball
5241:Earth-grazing fireball
5139:Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9
4525:1908 Siberia Explosion
4505:10.1089/ast.2004.4.391
4362:Steel, Duncan (2008).
3300:Doklady Earth Sciences
1484:10.1002/qj.49706025709
1080:Sikhote-Alin meteorite
977:Geophysical hypotheses
954:
893:
825:carbonaceous chondrite
613:
451:
438:
426:
415:
403:
381:tribe, as recorded by
375:
353:
272:
117:60.90306°N 101.90972°E
5853:Yeniseysk Governorate
5116:Impact events on Mars
4998:2015 Kerala meteoroid
4993:2014 Ontario fireball
4975:Chelyabinsk meteorite
4942:Buzzard Coulee meteor
4005:The Griffith Observer
2449:10.1093/mnras/staa329
1789:"external image from
1050:'s 1946 short story "
924:University of Bologna
891:
843:University of Bologna
611:Empire State Building
600:
546:Chemical analysis of
443:
345:
266:
247:. The event has been
197:Yeniseysk Governorate
84:Yeniseysk Governorate
5813:Explosions in Russia
5682:Meteoritical Society
5003:2015 Thailand bolide
4953:Sutter's Mill meteor
4822:Modern impact events
4340:The Tunguska Mystery
3831:May, Andrew (2017).
3703:] (in Russian).
3672:] (in Russian).
3502:Agence France-Presse
3462:. pp. 331–339.
2890:10.1029/2009GL038362
1592:10.1029/2009GL038362
1526:"The Tunguska Event"
1500:"The Tunguska Event"
1266:"The Tunguska event"
793:In 1983, astronomer
593:Earth impactor model
187:of between 3 and 50
5848:Evenkiysky District
5586:Catalina Sky Survey
4983:Braunschweig meteor
4886:Sikhote-Alin meteor
4680:2008Natur.453.1157S
4674:(7199): 1157–1159.
4639:1974Natur.250..555B
4602:1973Natur.245...88J
4497:2004AsBio...4..391V
4380:2008MNSSA..67...75.
4374:(7199): 1157–1159.
4338:Rubtsov, Vladimir.
4265:1928SciAm.139...42O
4253:Scientific American
4198:1967Natur.216..990L
4146:2008SciAm.298f..80G
4134:Scientific American
4057:(26 October 2021).
4031:1931SciAm.144..314C
4019:Scientific American
3958:1977Natur.268..512B
3870:"Missions and Mars"
3754:"Cosmic collisions"
3363:2008TeNov..20..165C
3312:2017DokES.476.1226R
3247:2009TeNov..21..489G
3204:National Geographic
3162:2008SciAm.298f..80G
3150:Scientific American
3112:2008TeNov..20..169G
3052:2007TeNov..19..245G
2881:2009GeoRL..3614103K
2764:1993Natur.361...40C
2693:1983AJ.....88.1382S
2616:1997NYASA.822..303N
2554:1978BAICz..29..129K
2524:Siberian Apocalypse
2391:10.1038/nature01238
2383:2002Natur.420..294B
2314:10.1038/nature12671
2306:2013Natur.503..235B
2265:2019Icar..327...83W
2219:on 19 February 2013
2184:1983AREPS..11..461S
2065:2015Icar..258..297B
2021:2014Icar..243..139A
1663:Vasiliev, Section 5
1654:, Section 6, Item 4
1621:1982Icar...50....1T
1583:2009GeoRL..3614103K
1476:1934QJRMS..60..505W
1448:on 14 October 2013.
1429:2007caih.book.....B
1251:1997JIMO...25..222G
1224:1994Obs...114..227T
1179:2019Icar..327....4J
1058:has also appeared.
1048:Alexander Kazantsev
552:isotopic signatures
241:much larger impacts
209:East Siberian taiga
122:60.90306; 101.90972
113: /
34:
5828:History of Siberia
5808:Explosions in 1908
5750:Related categories
4970:Chelyabinsk meteor
4558: –
4071:Furneaux, Rupert.
3513:Choi, Charles Q.,
2924:Cornell University
2717:"Arctic Asteroid!"
1682:Gregorian calendar
1571:Geophys. Res. Lett
1354:Planetary Sciences
1327:delong.typepad.com
1011:Chelyabinsk meteor
896:The February 2013
894:
854:noctilucent clouds
727:Operation Blowdown
698:Chelyabinsk meteor
687:, are much rarer.
632:Earth's atmosphere
614:
452:
354:
273:
18:Tunguska explosion
5775:
5774:
5716:Potential threats
5408:Ion-beam shepherd
5372:Near-Earth object
5352:Meteor procession
5313:Planetary defense
5279:
5278:
5266:Near-Earth object
5246:Meteor procession
5193:Meteor air bursts
5103:
5102:
5040:Winchcombe meteor
5034:2020 China bolide
5013:2017 China bolide
4633:(5467): 555–556.
4477:Tunguska pictures
4461:978-1-84046-728-4
4451:Verma, Surendra.
4446:978-1-84046-620-1
4436:Verma, Surendra.
4430:978-0-352-39619-8
4415:978-0-671-22943-6
4364:"Tunguska at 100"
4356:978-1-4614-2925-8
4348:978-0-387-76573-0
4192:(5119): 990–991.
4112:Sky and Telescope
4104:978-0-689-80323-9
4089:978-0-586-04423-0
4081:978-0-8439-0619-6
3983:Sky and Telescope
3952:(5620): 512–514.
3936:978-5-901273-04-3
3913:978-0-385-11396-0
3883:978-0-7556-0129-5
3854:978-3-319-42604-4
3812:978-0-415-97460-8
3793:Stableford, Brian
3477:978-3-540-32709-7
2919:Cornell Chronicle
2652:. Bad Astronomy.
2498:siberiantimes.com
2377:(6913): 294–296.
2300:(7475): 235–237.
2168:Shoemaker, Eugene
1438:978-3-540-32709-7
1297:philipcoppins.com
1291:Coppins, Philip.
1017:smaller air burst
1003:Fireball (meteor)
831:Christopher Chyba
742:Asteroid or comet
532:Chemical analysis
251:. The equivalent
245:metropolitan area
177:
176:
53:30 June 1908
16:(Redirected from
5885:
5843:June 1908 events
5347:Meteor air burst
5306:
5299:
5292:
5283:
5094:
5083:
5072:
5061:
5050:
5024:Kamchatka meteor
4935:
4892:Murchison meteor
4833:
4815:
4808:
4801:
4792:
4783:
4782:
4771:
4770:
4769:
4759:
4758:
4757:
4747:
4746:
4745:
4735:
4734:
4733:
4726:
4717:
4691:
4689:10.1038/4531157a
4658:
4647:10.1038/250555a0
4621:
4610:10.1038/245088a0
4584:
4582:
4580:
4552:(reconstruction)
4539:
4516:
4401:
4391:
4389:10.1038/4531157a
4335:
4314:
4276:
4247:
4230:(3–4): 263–284.
4217:
4206:10.1038/216990a0
4178:Giant Meteorites
4173:
4127:
4094:Gallant, Roy A.
4068:
4050:
4012:
3998:
3977:
3966:10.1038/268512a0
3940:
3917:
3888:
3887:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3828:
3817:
3816:
3789:
3780:
3779:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3735:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3694:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3663:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3547:(3–4): 263–284.
3535:
3529:
3526:Fox News Channel
3511:
3505:
3488:
3482:
3481:
3455:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3374:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3306:(2): 1226–1228.
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3270:Лебедева, Юлия.
3267:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3226:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3145:
3134:
3133:
3123:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3000:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2892:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2772:10.1038/361040a0
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2564:PASCAL7830419797
2562:
2537:
2531:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2441:
2432:(1): 1344–1351.
2417:
2411:
2410:
2366:
2357:
2356:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2288:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2244:
2238:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2205:
2196:
2195:
2164:
2147:
2146:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1980:(2–3): 163–167.
1969:
1963:
1962:
1945:(2–3): 179–188.
1934:
1928:
1927:
1918:(6–7): 905–916.
1907:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1866:
1857:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1785:
1779:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1742:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1685:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1655:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1521:
1515:
1514:
1502:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1470:(257): 505–522.
1459:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1441:. Archived from
1418:
1409:
1400:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1160:
1143:
1142:
1140:
1123:(3): 1081–1097.
1108:
1074:Patomskiy crater
1056:micro black hole
1007:Meteor air burst
884:
873:
871:
870:
748:F. J. W. Whipple
689:Eugene Shoemaker
618:meteor air burst
541:meteor air burst
477:meteorite impact
349:Around the World
308:seismic stations
275:On 30 June 1908
237:recorded history
214:meteor air burst
201:Krasnoyarsk Krai
165:Up to 3 possible
138:meteor air burst
128:
127:
125:
124:
123:
118:
114:
111:
110:
109:
106:
63:
61:
56:
42:
35:
21:
5893:
5892:
5888:
5887:
5886:
5884:
5883:
5882:
5873:Meteorite falls
5838:Holocene events
5818:Fires in Russia
5778:
5777:
5776:
5771:
5745:
5736:
5711:
5672:B612 Foundation
5660:
5566:
5439:
5403:Gravity tractor
5381:
5315:
5310:
5280:
5275:
5214:
5198:Meteorite falls
5161:
5118:
5099:
5093:
5089:
5082:
5078:
5071:
5067:
5060:
5056:
5049:
5045:
4934:
4930:
4908:
4824:
4819:
4789:
4777:
4767:
4765:
4755:
4753:
4743:
4741:
4731:
4729:
4721:
4661:
4624:
4596:(5420): 88–89.
4587:
4578:
4576:
4564:
4537:
4482:
4473:
4468:
4361:
4317:
4280:
4250:
4220:
4183:
4131:
4109:
4053:
4016:
4002:
3999:Cited in Verma.
3980:
3943:
3937:
3920:
3914:
3901:
3897:
3892:
3891:
3884:
3867:
3866:
3862:
3855:
3830:
3829:
3820:
3813:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3768:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3733:
3731:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3681:
3661:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3573:
3572:
3568:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3522:Wayback Machine
3512:
3508:
3498:Wayback Machine
3489:
3485:
3478:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3442:
3440:
3420:
3419:
3415:
3396:Current Science
3393:
3392:
3388:
3341:Collins, G.S.;
3340:
3339:
3335:
3296:
3295:
3291:
3281:
3279:
3269:
3268:
3264:
3228:
3227:
3223:
3213:
3211:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3147:
3146:
3137:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3033:
3032:
3028:
3018:
3016:
3002:
3001:
2994:
2984:
2982:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2948:
2947:
2943:
2933:
2931:
2911:
2910:
2906:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2827:
2826:
2822:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2758:(6407): 40–44.
2745:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2728:
2721:Science at NASA
2715:
2714:
2710:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2659:
2657:
2648:(14 May 2019).
2644:
2643:
2639:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2560:
2539:
2538:
2534:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2505:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2475:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2368:
2367:
2360:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2290:
2289:
2282:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2222:
2220:
2207:
2206:
2199:
2166:
2165:
2150:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2049:
2048:
2044:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1909:
1908:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1870:Florenskiy, K P
1868:
1867:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1839:
1829:
1827:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1802:
1800:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1757:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1726:
1724:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1651:Wayback Machine
1640:
1636:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1461:
1460:
1453:
1445:
1439:
1416:
1411:
1410:
1403:
1393:
1391:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1336:
1334:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1306:
1304:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1275:
1273:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1211:The Observatory
1207:
1206:
1202:
1162:
1161:
1146:
1110:
1109:
1100:
1095:
1064:
1040:alien spaceship
1036:
1030:
1013:
999:
979:
920:
914:
883:
879:
868:
867:
864:
795:Zdeněk Sekanina
744:
719:
706:
644:megatons of TNT
595:
457:
340:
326:program at the
285:Soviet calendar
261:
170:Property damage
156:
121:
119:
115:
112:
107:
104:
102:
100:
99:
59:
57:
54:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5891:
5889:
5881:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5788:Tunguska event
5780:
5779:
5773:
5772:
5770:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5753:
5751:
5747:
5746:
5744:
5743:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5725:
5719:
5717:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5668:
5666:
5662:
5661:
5659:
5658:
5653:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5577:
5575:
5568:
5567:
5565:
5564:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5524:
5519:
5516:NEAR Shoemaker
5512:
5511:
5510:
5498:
5491:
5486:
5485:
5484:
5477:
5467:
5462:
5455:
5447:
5445:
5441:
5440:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5435:
5430:
5424:Damage scales
5422:
5417:
5412:
5411:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5389:
5387:
5383:
5382:
5380:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5329:
5323:
5321:
5317:
5316:
5311:
5309:
5308:
5301:
5294:
5286:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5222:
5220:
5216:
5215:
5213:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5201:
5200:
5195:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5169:
5167:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5159:
5157:Jupiter impact
5153:
5151:Jupiter impact
5147:
5145:Jupiter impact
5141:
5135:
5129:
5127:
5120:
5119:
5114:
5112:
5105:
5104:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5091:
5086:
5080:
5075:
5069:
5064:
5058:
5053:
5047:
5042:
5036:
5031:
5029:2019 MO impact
5026:
5020:
5018:2018 LA impact
5015:
5010:
5008:WT1190F impact
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4988:2014 AA impact
4985:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4966:
4960:
4955:
4949:
4944:
4938:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4916:
4914:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4906:
4900:
4894:
4888:
4882:
4880:Chicora meteor
4876:
4870:
4864:
4858:
4852:
4846:
4839:
4837:
4830:
4826:
4825:
4820:
4818:
4817:
4810:
4803:
4795:
4788:
4787:
4775:
4763:
4751:
4739:
4719:
4718:
4659:
4622:
4585:
4562:
4553:
4547:
4533:
4528:
4522:
4517:
4491:(3): 391–399.
4480:
4472:
4471:External links
4469:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4434:
4433:
4432:
4403:
4359:
4336:
4315:
4289:(3): 163–173.
4278:
4248:
4218:
4181:
4176:Krinov, E. L.
4174:
4129:
4107:
4092:
4069:
4055:Dunning, Brian
4051:
4025:(5): 314–317.
4014:
4000:
3978:
3941:
3935:
3918:
3912:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3890:
3889:
3882:
3860:
3853:
3818:
3811:
3781:
3766:
3752:, ed. (1996).
3750:Pringle, David
3741:
3710:
3679:
3648:
3621:(3): 163–173.
3605:
3566:
3530:
3506:
3483:
3476:
3450:
3413:
3402:(4): 399–407.
3386:
3357:(2): 165–168.
3333:
3289:
3262:
3241:(6): 489–494.
3221:
3210:on 15 May 2018
3191:
3135:
3106:(2): 169–172.
3086:
3067:
3026:
2992:
2981:on 4 July 2013
2962:
2941:
2904:
2855:
2836:(9): 777–783.
2820:
2801:(2): 163–177.
2785:
2738:
2708:
2702:10.1086/113429
2667:
2637:
2592:
2569:
2532:
2515:
2485:
2470:. 6 May 2020.
2455:
2412:
2358:
2335:
2280:
2239:
2230:
2197:
2178:(1): 461–494.
2148:
2109:
2078:
2042:
1999:
1964:
1929:
1899:
1858:
1849:
1837:
1810:
1780:
1767:
1734:
1704:
1695:
1686:
1674:
1665:
1656:
1634:
1598:
1577:(14): L14103.
1557:
1539:
1516:
1489:
1451:
1437:
1401:
1369:
1362:
1344:
1314:
1283:
1256:
1229:
1200:
1144:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1083:
1077:
1071:
1063:
1060:
1032:Main article:
1029:
1026:
998:
995:
983:Wolfgang Kundt
978:
975:
913:
910:
881:
839:Giuseppe Longo
779:periodic comet
743:
740:
718:
715:
705:
702:
594:
591:
584:Siberian Traps
508:Yevgeny Krinov
456:
453:
339:
336:
320:Space Shuttles
260:
257:
181:Tunguska event
175:
174:
171:
167:
166:
163:
159:
158:
153:
149:
148:
134:
130:
129:
97:
91:
90:
88:Russian Empire
77:
73:
72:
69:
65:
64:
51:
47:
46:
43:
33:Tunguska event
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5890:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5833:Holocene Asia
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5785:
5783:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5757:Impact events
5755:
5754:
5752:
5748:
5742:
5741:99942 Apophis
5739:
5737:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5669:
5667:
5665:Organizations
5663:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5621:OGS Telescope
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5569:
5563:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5553:
5549:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5529:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5506:
5505:
5504:
5503:
5499:
5497:
5496:
5492:
5490:
5489:Halley Armada
5487:
5483:
5482:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5472:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5460:
5456:
5454:
5453:
5449:
5448:
5446:
5442:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5428:Palermo scale
5426:
5425:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5391:
5390:
5388:
5384:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5357:Meteor shower
5355:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5324:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5307:
5302:
5300:
5295:
5293:
5288:
5287:
5284:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5251:Meteor shower
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5223:
5221:
5217:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5205:Minor planets
5203:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5190:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5158:
5154:
5152:
5148:
5146:
5142:
5140:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5128:
5126:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5111:
5106:
5096:
5087:
5085:
5076:
5074:
5065:
5063:
5054:
5052:
5043:
5041:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4973:
4972:
4971:
4967:
4965:
4964:Novato meteor
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4939:
4937:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4915:
4911:
4905:
4901:
4899:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4887:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4869:
4865:
4863:
4859:
4857:
4853:
4851:
4847:
4845:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4834:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4816:
4811:
4809:
4804:
4802:
4797:
4796:
4793:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4774:
4764:
4762:
4752:
4750:
4740:
4738:
4728:
4724:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4586:
4574:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4561:
4557:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4545:
4541:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4481:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4399:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4360:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4182:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4108:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3905:
3900:
3899:
3894:
3885:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3864:
3861:
3856:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3819:
3814:
3808:
3804:
3803:
3798:
3794:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3767:1-85868-188-X
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3711:
3707:(3): 120–138.
3706:
3702:
3698:
3690:
3683:
3680:
3676:(1): 111–135.
3675:
3671:
3667:
3659:
3652:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3609:
3606:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3570:
3567:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3534:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3492:
3487:
3484:
3479:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3454:
3451:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3428:New Scientist
3424:
3417:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3390:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3343:Artemieva, N.
3337:
3334:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3293:
3290:
3277:
3273:
3266:
3263:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3225:
3222:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3068:
3062:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3030:
3027:
3014:
3010:
3006:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2963:
2957:
2952:
2945:
2942:
2929:
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2921:
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2800:
2796:
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2749:
2742:
2739:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2687:: 1382–1413.
2686:
2682:
2678:
2671:
2668:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2641:
2638:
2633:
2629:
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2526:
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2519:
2516:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2489:
2486:
2473:
2469:
2468:Science Times
2465:
2459:
2456:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2416:
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2331:
2327:
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2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
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2299:
2295:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2275:
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2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2240:
2234:
2231:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
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1865:
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1859:
1853:
1850:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1811:
1798:
1794:
1792:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1768:
1755:
1752:. June 2018.
1751:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1708:
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1699:
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1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1530:History Today
1527:
1520:
1517:
1513:(3): 111–130.
1512:
1508:
1507:
1501:
1493:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1456:
1452:
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1415:
1408:
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1390:
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1373:
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1365:
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1332:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1315:
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1271:
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1260:
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1201:
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1188:
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1159:
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1153:
1151:
1149:
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1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1087:
1084:
1082:, 1947 impact
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1035:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1012:
1008:
1004:
997:Similar event
996:
994:
992:
987:
984:
976:
974:
970:
968:
964:
960:
959:Novaya Zemlya
953:
951:
944:
941:
938:
932:
930:
925:
919:
911:
909:
907:
902:
899:
890:
886:
877:
872:
862:
861:Space Shuttle
860:
855:
851:
846:
844:
840:
835:
832:
828:
826:
822:
816:
814:
813:extinct comet
810:
809:asteroid belt
805:
801:
796:
791:
788:
787:meteor shower
784:
780:
776:
772:
767:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
741:
739:
735:
732:
728:
724:
717:Blast pattern
716:
714:
712:
703:
701:
699:
695:
690:
686:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
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623:
619:
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581:
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566:
562:
558:
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549:
544:
542:
537:
533:
528:
524:
519:
517:
513:
509:
503:
499:
497:
493:
492:impact crater
489:
484:
482:
481:meteoric iron
478:
474:
470:
467:
461:
454:
448:
442:
437:
432:
430:
425:
421:
419:
418:Siberian Life
414:
409:
407:
402:
399:
395:
391:
386:
384:
380:
374:
371:
365:
363:
358:
351:
350:
344:
337:
335:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
270:
265:
258:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
233:
231:
230:impact crater
227:
223:
219:
215:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
172:
168:
164:
160:
154:
150:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
98:
96:
92:
89:
85:
81:
78:
74:
70:
66:
52:
48:
41:
36:
30:
19:
5728:101955 Bennu
5611:NEO Surveyor
5559:
5550:
5543:
5528:New Horizons
5526:
5514:
5500:
5493:
5480:
5457:
5450:
5444:Space probes
5433:Torino scale
5342:Impact event
4874:Curuçá River
4861:
4856:Great Meteor
4850:Great Meteor
4773:Solar System
4671:
4667:
4630:
4626:
4593:
4589:
4577:. Retrieved
4570:
4488:
4485:Astrobiology
4484:
4452:
4437:
4421:
4406:
4371:
4367:
4339:
4323:
4320:Science News
4319:
4286:
4282:
4259:(1): 42–44.
4256:
4252:
4227:
4223:
4189:
4185:
4177:
4140:(6): 80–86.
4137:
4133:
4115:
4111:
4095:
4072:
4062:
4022:
4018:
4008:
4004:
3986:
3982:
3949:
3945:
3926:
3922:
3903:
3895:Bibliography
3873:
3863:
3836:
3800:
3757:
3744:
3732:. Retrieved
3723:
3713:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3682:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3651:
3618:
3614:
3608:
3583:
3579:
3569:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3509:
3486:
3459:
3453:
3443:17 September
3441:. Retrieved
3432:
3426:
3416:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3354:
3350:
3336:
3303:
3299:
3292:
3280:. Retrieved
3265:
3238:
3234:
3224:
3212:. Retrieved
3208:the original
3203:
3194:
3156:(6): 80–86.
3153:
3149:
3103:
3099:
3089:
3080:
3070:
3043:
3039:
3029:
3017:. Retrieved
3008:
2983:. Retrieved
2979:the original
2974:
2965:
2944:
2932:. Retrieved
2917:
2907:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2833:
2829:
2823:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2755:
2751:
2741:
2729:. Retrieved
2720:
2711:
2684:
2680:
2670:
2658:. Retrieved
2640:
2607:
2601:
2595:
2583:. Retrieved
2572:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2523:
2518:
2506:. Retrieved
2497:
2488:
2476:. Retrieved
2467:
2458:
2429:
2425:
2415:
2374:
2370:
2348:
2338:
2297:
2293:
2256:
2252:
2242:
2233:
2221:. Retrieved
2217:the original
2175:
2171:
2126:
2122:
2112:
2087:
2081:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1915:
1911:
1890:. Retrieved
1881:
1877:
1852:
1828:. Retrieved
1813:
1801:. Retrieved
1790:
1783:
1775:
1770:
1758:. Retrieved
1749:
1725:. Retrieved
1717:NASA Science
1716:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1677:
1668:
1659:
1642:
1637:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1552:ScienceDaily
1551:
1542:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1510:
1504:
1492:
1467:
1463:
1443:the original
1420:
1394:12 September
1392:. Retrieved
1382:
1372:
1353:
1347:
1335:. Retrieved
1326:
1317:
1305:. Retrieved
1296:
1286:
1274:. Retrieved
1268:. CBC News.
1259:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1215:
1209:
1203:
1170:
1164:
1120:
1116:
1068:Asteroid Day
1037:
1014:
989:The similar
988:
980:
971:
962:
955:
949:
946:
942:
933:
921:
895:
858:
849:
847:
836:
829:
817:
803:
802:, Foschini,
792:
785:, an annual
783:Beta Taurids
771:Ľubor Kresák
768:
764:comet's tail
745:
736:
720:
707:
681:
673:Soviet Union
669:Castle Bravo
640:ram pressure
626:
615:
607:Eiffel Tower
588:
580:hydrothermal
573:
569:
545:
520:
512:nitrate film
504:
500:
485:
469:Leonid Kulik
466:mineralogist
462:
458:
434:
429:Krasnoyaretz
428:
427:
423:
417:
416:
411:
405:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
383:I. M. Suslov
376:
367:
362:Leonid Kulik
359:
355:
347:
305:
274:
271:(modern map)
253:Torino scale
234:
226:impact event
183:was a large
180:
178:
29:
5459:Deep Impact
5320:Main topics
4749:Outer space
4326:(19): 5–6.
3797:"Meteorite"
3586:: 168–174.
2585:17 December
2349:Smithsonian
2223:22 December
2129:: 131–140.
2059:: 297–308.
2015:: 139–147.
1878:Meteoritica
1803:6 September
1791:Meteoritika
1776:Meteoritika
1760:22 December
1615:(1): 1–52.
1264:Jay, Paul.
1218:: 227–231.
1021:Chelyabinsk
898:Chelyabinsk
775:Comet Encke
711:glanced off
636:outer space
603:Chelyabinsk
586:magmatism.
496:ground zero
332:atmospheric
293:Lake Baikal
259:Description
120: /
108:101°54′35″E
95:Coordinates
5782:Categories
5692:Spaceguard
5651:Spacewatch
5631:Pan-STARRS
5626:Orbit@home
5534:OSIRIS-REx
4714:A183317615
3833:"Tunguska"
3351:Terra Nova
3282:17 January
3235:Terra Nova
3100:Terra Nova
3046:(4): 245.
3040:Terra Nova
2985:29 October
2646:Phil Plait
2439:2009.14234
1727:13 January
1363:0521482194
1093:References
1028:In fiction
1001:See also:
929:Lake Cheko
918:Lake Cheko
916:See also:
912:Lake Cheko
731:blast wave
723:hypocentre
677:Tsar Bomba
648:petajoules
628:Meteoroids
301:shock wave
105:60°54′11″N
60:1908-06-30
5687:NEOShield
5522:NEA Scout
5502:Hayabusa2
5367:Meteoroid
5362:Meteorite
5261:Meteoroid
5256:Meteorite
4913:Post-2000
4737:Astronomy
4579:8 October
4311:122496016
4118:(6): 38.
3734:8 October
3643:122496016
3328:134128473
3214:8 October
3130:140554080
2956:0903.3313
2899:129245795
2780:0028-0836
2731:8 October
2632:122983849
2259:: 83–96.
2104:131239755
2037:118541956
1830:8 October
1818:Longo G.
1684:: 30 June
1337:8 October
1307:8 October
1195:127618395
1052:Explosion
991:verneshot
859:Endeavour
841:from the
821:chondrite
800:Farinella
760:volatiles
576:quartzite
565:acid rain
548:peat bogs
527:magnetite
398:thunder.
385:in 1926:
379:Shanyagir
239:, though
185:explosion
140:of small
136:Probable
5574:tracking
5561:Stardust
5495:Hayabusa
5327:Asteroid
5219:See also
4862:Tunguska
4844:Qingyang
4836:Pre-2000
4829:On Earth
4698:18580919
4572:BBC News
4544:BBC News
4513:15383242
4398:18580919
4350:; 2012,
4170:18642546
4162:26000644
4064:Skeptoid
4047:24975675
3795:(2006).
3776:38373691
3728:Archived
3518:Archived
3494:Archived
3437:Archived
3408:24104960
3381:31459798
3345:(2008).
3276:Archived
3186:18642546
3178:26000644
3081:BBC News
3013:Archived
2928:Archived
2725:Archived
2654:Archived
2502:Archived
2472:Archived
2399:12447433
2353:Archived
2322:24196708
1886:Archived
1872:(1963).
1824:Archived
1797:Archived
1793:article"
1754:Archived
1721:Archived
1647:Archived
1331:Archived
1301:Archived
1270:Archived
1173:: 4–18.
1062:See also
694:cometary
685:megatons
656:momentum
622:asteroid
523:silicate
370:Vanavara
218:asteroid
189:megatons
142:asteroid
76:Location
5733:2010 RF
5723:1950 DA
5616:NEOSSat
5545:Rosetta
5539:PROCYON
5386:Defense
5188:Bolides
5125:Jupiter
5090:2024 RW
5079:2024 BX
5068:2023 CX
5057:2022 WJ
5046:2022 EB
4931:2008 TC
4761:Siberia
4723:Portals
4706:4360243
4676:Bibcode
4655:4155163
4635:Bibcode
4618:4216795
4598:Bibcode
4575:. Earth
4493:Bibcode
4376:Bibcode
4291:Bibcode
4261:Bibcode
4232:Bibcode
4214:4147211
4194:Bibcode
4142:Bibcode
4120:Bibcode
4027:Bibcode
3991:Bibcode
3974:4176090
3954:Bibcode
3724:Reuters
3623:Bibcode
3588:Bibcode
3549:Bibcode
3359:Bibcode
3308:Bibcode
3243:Bibcode
3158:Bibcode
3108:Bibcode
3048:Bibcode
2934:25 June
2877:Bibcode
2838:Bibcode
2803:Bibcode
2760:Bibcode
2689:Bibcode
2612:Bibcode
2550:Bibcode
2548:: 129.
2407:4380864
2379:Bibcode
2330:4399008
2302:Bibcode
2261:Bibcode
2180:Bibcode
2131:Bibcode
2061:Bibcode
2017:Bibcode
1982:Bibcode
1947:Bibcode
1892:26 June
1617:Bibcode
1579:Bibcode
1536:(1): 7.
1472:Bibcode
1425:Bibcode
1276:20 July
1247:Bibcode
1245:: 222.
1220:Bibcode
1175:Bibcode
1125:Bibcode
1046:writer
880:2005 NB
866:2005 NB
665:Trinity
646:(42–63
557:iridium
447:radiant
269:Siberia
152:Outcome
58: (
5646:Sentry
5606:NEODyS
5596:LONEOS
5591:LINEAR
5552:Philae
5508:MASCOT
5465:HAMMER
5332:Bolide
5236:Bolide
5183:Comets
5095:impact
5084:impact
5073:impact
5062:impact
5051:impact
4936:impact
4712:
4704:
4696:
4668:Nature
4653:
4627:Nature
4616:
4590:Nature
4511:
4459:
4444:
4428:
4413:
4396:
4368:Nature
4354:
4346:
4309:
4212:
4186:Nature
4168:
4160:
4102:
4087:
4079:
4045:
3989:: 18.
3972:
3946:Nature
3933:
3910:
3880:
3851:
3809:
3774:
3764:
3641:
3474:
3435:: 14.
3406:
3379:
3326:
3184:
3176:
3128:
3019:6 July
2897:
2875:(14).
2778:
2752:Nature
2660:17 May
2630:
2561:
2405:
2397:
2371:Nature
2328:
2320:
2294:Nature
2253:Icarus
2102:
2088:Nature
2053:Icarus
2035:
2009:Icarus
1609:Icarus
1435:
1360:
1193:
1166:Icarus
1009:, and
967:varves
963:et al.
901:bolide
850:et al.
848:Kelly
823:and a
804:et al.
630:enter
620:by an
536:nickel
488:Evenki
289:Evenki
205:Russia
162:Deaths
5581:ATLAS
5166:Lists
5155:2016
5149:2010
5143:2009
5137:1994
5038:2021
5022:2018
4981:2013
4968:2013
4962:2012
4951:2012
4940:2008
4902:1990
4896:1972
4890:1969
4884:1947
4878:1938
4872:1930
4866:1913
4860:1908
4854:1860
4848:1783
4842:1490
4785:Stars
4702:S2CID
4651:S2CID
4614:S2CID
4307:S2CID
4210:S2CID
4158:JSTOR
4043:JSTOR
3970:S2CID
3925:[
3699:[
3693:(PDF)
3668:[
3662:(PDF)
3639:S2CID
3404:JSTOR
3377:S2CID
3324:S2CID
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