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temperature. In locations where the blade temperature approaches the hot gas temperature, the cooling effectiveness approaches to zero. The cooling effectiveness is mainly affected by the coolant flow parameters and the injection geometry. Coolant flow parameters include the velocity, density, blowing and momentum ratios which are calculated using the coolant and mainstream flow characteristics. Injection geometry parameters consist of hole or slot geometry (i.e. cylindrical, shaped holes or slots) and injections angle. A United States Air Force program in the early 1970s funded the development of a turbine blade that was both film and convection cooled, and that method has become common in modern turbine blades. Injecting the cooler bleed into the flow reduces turbine isentropic efficiency; the compression of the cooling air (which does not contribute power to the engine) incurs an energetic penalty; and the cooling circuit adds considerable complexity to the engine. All of these factors have to be compensated by the increase in overall performance (power and efficiency) allowed by the increase in turbine temperature. In recent years, researchers have suggested using
112:, a single turbine stage is made up of a rotating disk that holds many turbine blades and a stationary ring of nozzle guide vanes in front of the blades. The turbine is connected to a compressor using a shaft (the complete rotating assembly sometimes called a "spool"). Air is compressed, raising the pressure and temperature, as it passes through the compressor. The temperature is then increased by combustion of fuel inside the combustor which is located between the compressor and the turbine. The high-temperature, high-pressure gas then passes through the turbine. The turbine stages extract energy from this flow, lowering the pressure and temperature of the gas and transfer the kinetic energy to the compressor. The way the turbine works is similar to how the compressor works, only in reverse, in so far as energy exchange between the gas and the machine is concerned, for example. There is a direct relationship between how much the gas temperature changes (increase in compressor, decrease in turbine) and the shaft power input (compressor) or output (turbine).
478:
272:(or lost-wax processing). This process involves making a precise negative die of the blade shape that is filled with wax to form the blade shape. If the blade is hollow (i.e., it has internal cooling passages), a ceramic core in the shape of the passage is inserted into the middle. The wax blade is coated with a heat-resistant material to make a shell, and then that shell is filled with the blade alloy. This step can be more complicated for DS or SC materials, but the process is similar. If there is a ceramic core in the middle of the blade, it is dissolved in a solution that leaves the blade hollow. The blades are coated with a TBC, and then any cooling holes are machined.
44:
498:
air-cooling for its "FlexEfficiency" units. Liquid cooling seems to be more attractive because of high specific heat capacity and chances of evaporative cooling but there can be leakage, corrosion, choking and other problems which work against this method. On the other hand, air cooling allows the discharged air into main flow without any problem. Quantity of air required for this purpose is 1–3% of main flow and blade temperature can be reduced by 200–300 °C. There are many techniques of cooling used in gas turbine blades;
548:, works by hitting the inner surface of the blade with high velocity air. This allows more heat to be transferred by convection than regular convection cooling does. Impingement cooling is used in the regions of greatest heat loads. In case of turbine blades, the leading edge has maximum temperature and thus heat load. Impingement cooling is also used in mid chord of the vane. Blades are hollow with a core. There are internal cooling passages. Cooling air enters from the leading edge region and turns towards the trailing edge.
120:
there is a high-pressure spool and a low-pressure spool. Other gas turbines use three spools, adding an intermediate-pressure spool between the high- and low-pressure spool. The high-pressure turbine is exposed to the hottest, highest-pressure air, and the low-pressure turbine is subjected to cooler, lower-pressure air. The difference in conditions leads to the design of high-pressure and low-pressure turbine blades that are significantly different in material and cooling choices even though the
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air. Transpiration-cooled blades generally consist of a rigid strut with a porous shell. Air flows through internal channels of the strut and then passes through the porous shell to cool the blade. As with film cooling, increased cooling air decreases turbine efficiency, therefore that decrease has to be balanced with improved temperature performance.
682:
Creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long
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In the narrow trailing edge film cooling is used to enhance heat transfer from the blade. There is an array of pin fins on the blade surface. Heat transfer takes place from this array and through the side walls. As the coolant flows across the fins with high velocity, the flow separates and wakes are
497:
cooling in a combined cycle power plant. Water cooling has been extensively tested but has never been introduced. The
General Electric "H" class gas turbine has cooled rotating blades and static vanes using steam from a combined cycle steam turbine although GE was reported in 2012 to be going back to
137:
Turbine blades are subjected to very strenuous environments inside a gas turbine. They face high temperatures, high stresses, and a potential environment of high vibration. All three of these factors can lead to blade failures, potentially destroying the engine, therefore turbine blades are carefully
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of the blade material (1300–1400 kelvins). The ability of the film cooling system to cool the surface is typically evaluated using a parameter called cooling effectiveness. Higher cooling effectiveness (with maximum value of one) indicates that the blade material temperature is closer to the coolant
119:
unless the turbine speed can be increased by adding a gearbox between the turbine and fan in which case fewer stages are required. The number of turbine stages can have a great effect on how the turbine blades are designed for each stage. Many gas turbine engines are twin-spool designs, meaning that
634:
This is similar to film cooling in that it creates a thin film of cooling air on the blade, but it is different in that air is "leaked" through a porous shell rather than injected through holes. This type of cooling is effective at high temperatures as it uniformly covers the entire blade with cool
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of the engine increases as the turbine entry temperature (TET) increases. However, high temperatures can damage the turbine, as the blades are under large centrifugal stresses and materials are weaker at high temperature. So, turbine blade cooling is essential for the first stages but since the gas
178:
A limiting factor in early jet engines was the performance of the materials available for the hot section (combustor and turbine) of the engine. The need for better materials spurred much research in the field of alloys and manufacturing techniques, and that research resulted in a long list of new
38:
jet engine. This is a blade with an outer shroud which prevents gas leaking round the blade tip in which case it wouldn't contribute to the force on the aerofoil. The platform at the base of the aerofoil forms a continuous annulus ring which, together with cooling-air cavity purge flow prevents hot
128:
principles are the same. Under these severe operating conditions inside the gas and steam turbines, the blades face high temperature, high stresses, and potentially high vibrations. Steam turbine blades are critical components in power plants which convert the linear motion of high-temperature and
599:
plasma actuator was first proposed by Roy and Wang. A horseshoe-shaped plasma actuator, which is set in the vicinity of holes for gas flow, has been shown to improve the film cooling effectiveness significantly. Following the previous research, recent reports using both experimental and numerical
527:
through the blade, and then by convection into the air flowing inside of the blade. A large internal surface area is desirable for this method, so the cooling paths tend to be serpentine and full of small fins. The internal passages in the blade may be circular or elliptical in shape. Cooling is
616:
The blade surface is made of porous material which means having a large number of small orifices on the surface. Cooling air is forced through these porous holes which forms a film or cooler boundary layer. Besides this uniform cooling is caused by effusion of the coolant over the entire blade
581:
film cooling), a widely used type, allows for higher cooling effectiveness than either convection and impingement cooling. This technique consists of pumping the cooling air out of the blade through multiple small holes or slots in the structure. A thin layer (the film) of cooling air is then
469:
temperature drops through each stage it is not required for later stages such as in the low pressure turbine or a power turbine. Current modern turbine designs are operating with inlet temperatures higher than 1900 kelvins which is achieved by actively cooling the turbine components.
157:
failures. Additionally, the first stage (the stage directly following the combustor) of a modern gas turbine faces temperatures around 2,500 °F (1,370 °C), up from temperatures around 1,500 °F (820 °C) in early gas turbines. Modern military jet engines, like the
528:
achieved by passing the air through these passages from hub towards the blade tip. This cooling air comes from an air compressor. In case of gas turbine the fluid outside is relatively hot which passes through the cooling passage and mixes with the main stream at the blade tip.
502:, film, transpiration cooling, cooling effusion, pin fin cooling etc. which fall under the categories of internal and external cooling. While all methods have their differences, they all work by using cooler air taken from the compressor to remove heat from the turbine blades.
103:
Diagram of a twin spool jet engine. The high-pressure turbine is connected by a shaft to the high-pressure compressor to form one spool, or complete rotating assembly(purple)- and the low-pressure turbine is connected to the low-pressure compressor to form the other spool
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coatings. Improved ceramic coatings became available in the 1980s. These coatings increased turbine blade temperature capability by about 200 °F (90 °C). The coatings also improve blade life, almost doubling the life of turbine blades in some cases.
79:
is a major source of failure in steam turbines and gas turbines. Fatigue is caused by the stress induced by vibration and resonance within the operating range of machinery. To protect blades from these high dynamic stresses, friction dampers are used.
1016:
Dexclaux, Jacques and Serre, Jacque (2003). "M88-2 E4: Advanced New
Generation Engine for Rafale Multirole Fighter". AIAA/ICAS International Air and Space Symposium and Exposition: The Next 100 Years. 14–17 July 2003, Dayton, Ohio. AIAA
356:– GE used IN-738 as a first stage blade material from 1971 until 1984, when it was replaced by GTD-111. It is now used as a second stage material. It was specifically designed for land-based turbines rather than aircraft gas turbines.
260:(TBC). Where DS and SC developments improved creep and fatigue resistance, TBCs improved corrosion and oxidation resistance, both of which became greater concerns as temperatures increased. The first TBCs, applied in the 1970s, were
39:
gas leakage onto the turbine discs. The short extension, or shank, between the platform and fir-tree fixing in the disc allows space for cooling-air entry to blade, may control blade vibration modes and heat transfer to disc rim.
162:, can see turbine temperatures of 2,900 °F (1,590 °C). Those high temperatures can weaken the blades and make them more susceptible to creep failures. The high temperatures can also make the blades susceptible to
1006:
Koff, Bernard L. (2003). "Gas
Turbine Technology Overview – A Designer's Perspective". AIAA/ICAS International Air and Space Symposium and Exposition: The Next 100 Years. 14–17 July 2003, Dayton, Ohio. AIAA
1733:
252:
A turbine blade with thermal barrier coating. This blade has no tip shroud so tip leakage is controlled by the clearance between the tip and a stationary shroud ring attached to the turbine case.
55:
is a radial aerofoil mounted in the rim of a turbine disc and which produces a tangential force which rotates a turbine rotor. Each turbine disc has many blades. As such they are used in
960:
1613:
S. Dai, Y. Xiao, L. He, T. Jin, P. Hou, Q. Zhang, Z. Zhao, Computational study of plasma actuator on film cooling performance for different shaped holes, AIP Adv. 5 (2015), 067104.
1604:
P. Audier, M., N. Benard, E. Moreau, Film cooling effectiveness enhancement using surface dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow 62 (2016), 247–57.
1726:
1622:
Y. Xiao, S. Dai, L. He, T. Jin, Q. Zhang, P. Hou, Investigation of film cooling from cylindrical hole with plasma actuator on flat plate, Heat Mass Transf. 52 (2016), 1571–83.
1500:
1197:
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282:, are being developed for use in turbine blades. The main advantage of CMCs over conventional superalloys is their light weight and high temperature capability.
67:. The turbine blades are often the limiting component of gas turbines. To survive in this difficult environment, turbine blades often use exotic materials like
1311:
P. Caron, Y. Ohta, Y.G. Nakagawa, T. Khan (1988): Superalloys 1988 (edited by S. Reichmann et al.), p. 215. The
Metallurgical Society of AIME, Warrendale, PA.
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formed. Many factors contribute towards heat transfer rate among which the type of pin fin and the spacing between fins are the most significant.
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This material was used as a first stage (the most demanding stage) material in the 1960s, and is now used in later, less demanding, stages.
1116:
1237:"GE Successfully Tests World's First Rotating Ceramic Matrix Composite Material for Next-Gen Combat Engine | Press Release | GE Aviation"
2107:
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Gas
Turbine Engineering Handbook Second Edition, Boyce, ISBN 0 88415 732 6, Fig. 9-23 General Electric "Water-cooled turbine blade"
1975:
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created on the external surface of the blade, reducing the heat transfer from main flow, whose temperature (1300–1800
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improved the alloys used for turbine blades and increased turbine blade performance. Modern turbine blades often use
924:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267620184_Fundamental_Differences_Between_Conventional_and_Geared_Turbofans
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1831:
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are designed to operate in different conditions, which typically involve lower rotational speeds and temperatures.
382:(P&W)) is a single crystal superalloy jointly developed by NASA, GE Aviation, and Pratt & Whitney for the
1854:
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145:(turbine stages can rotate at tens of thousands of revolutions per minute (RPM)) and fluid forces that can cause
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63:. The blades are responsible for extracting energy from the high temperature, high pressure gas produced by the
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Acharya, Sumanta; Kanani, Yousef (2017-01-01), Sparrow, Ephraim M.; Abraham, John P.; Gorman, John M. (eds.),
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in one direction (DS) or by eliminating grain boundaries altogether (SC). SC research began in the 1960s with
198:
in the 1950s greatly increased the temperature capability of turbine blades. Further processing methods like
2004:
1791:
878:"Study of corrosive fatigue and life enhancement of low pressure steam turbine blade using friction dampers"
386:(HSCT). While the HSCT program was cancelled, the alloy is still being considered for use by GE and P&W.
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fibers have been shown to withstand operating temperatures 200°-300 °F higher than nickel superalloys.
229:(SC) production methods. These methods help greatly increase strength against fatigue and creep by aligning
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successfully demonstrated the use of such SiC/SiC composite blades for the low-pressure turbine of its
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and many different methods of cooling that can be categorized as internal and external cooling, and
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https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/11154551/geared-fan-vki-aero-engine-design-mtu-aero-engines
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gas turbines in the first stage. Blades made from equiaxed GTD-111 are being used in later stages.
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2019:
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high-pressure steam flowing down a pressure gradient into a rotary motion of the turbine shaft.
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For a turbofan engine the number of turbine stages required to drive the fan increases with the
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It works by passing cooling air through passages internal to the blade. Heat is transferred by
237:
and took about 10 years to be implemented. One of the first implementations of DS was with the
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materials and methods that make modern gas turbines possible. One of the earliest of these was
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51st AIAA Aerospace
Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition
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1990:
1960:
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1302:. NASA Glenn's Research & Technology. Updated: 7 November 2007. Retrieved: 16 June 2010.
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1159:
1149:"Evaluation of Ceramic Matrix Composite Technology for Aircraft Turbine Engine Applications"
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Boyce, Meherwan P. (2006). "Chapter 9: Axial Flow
Turbines and Chapter 11: Materials".
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methods demonstrated the effect of cooling enhancement by 15% using a plasma actuator.
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125:
30:
798:
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Another major improvement to turbine blade material technology was the development of
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S. Roy, C.-C. Wang, Plasma actuated heat transfer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92 (2008) 231501
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Fractographic investigations of the failure of L-1 low pressure steam turbine blade
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periods, and near the melting point. Creep always increases with temperature. From
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763:
707:"Nomenclature of Cooled Axial Turbine Blade – Turbomachinery Aerodynamic Design"
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56:
1446:
1320:
S. Walston, A. Cetel, R. MacKay, K. O’Hara, D. Duhl, and R. Dreshfield (2004).
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failures. Finally, vibrations from the engine and the turbine itself can cause
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1212:"Ceramic Matrix Composites Allow GE Jet Engines to Fly Longer – GE Reports"
221:
Aside from alloy improvements, a major breakthrough was the development of
2181:
1940:
1884:
1806:
1801:
1782:
1653:
YAHYA, SM (2011). "Chapter 10: High temperature(cooled) turbine stages".
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to create wind turbine blades is in development in a partnership between
434:
364:
Blades made from directionally solidified GTD-111 are being used in many
207:
146:
116:
1678:. Cambridge Aerospace Series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
1796:
1657:(4th ed.). New delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Education private limited.
1163:
347:
306:
Note: This list is not inclusive of all alloys used in turbine blades.
215:
180:
1534:
Aircraft propulsion. Thermal and mechanical limitations in jet engines
1501:
Volume 1. Performance Flight
Testing Phase. Chapter 7. Aero Propulsion
1965:
1821:
1300:
Low-Density, Creep-Resistant
Superalloys Developed for Turbine Blades
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211:
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1546:
Technical
University of Madrid, School of Aeronautical Engineering
1322:
Joint Development of a Fourth Generation Single Crystal Superalloy
607:
568:
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535:
514:
476:
247:
242:
98:
42:
29:
1391:. New delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2010. pp. 430–433.
565:
Rendering of a turbine blade with cooling holes for film cooling.
595:
for film cooling. The film cooling of turbine blades by using a
448:
444:
1715:
47:
The turbine blades have a golden colour in this engine cutaway.
1331:. NASA TM—2004-213062. December 2004. Retrieved: 16 June 2010.
963:. Case Studies in Engineering Failure Analysis, 1(2), pp.72–78
238:
1481:
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Coolingof Turbine Blades and Vanes
481:
Laser-drilled holes permit film cooling in this first-stage
1674:
Flack, Ronald D. (2005). "Chapter 8: Axial Flow Turbines".
1047:"Single-Crystal Turbine Blades Earn ASME Milestone Status"
752:"Chapter Three - Advances in Film Cooling Heat Transfer"
1477:"Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes"
286:
consisting of a silicon carbide matrix reinforced by
955:
953:
2190:
2164:
2131:
2088:
2033:
2012:
2003:
1903:
1840:
1770:
1756:
1470:
1468:
1117:"Development of CMC Turbine Parts for Aero Engines"
789:, in Irvine, Thomas F.; Hartnett, James P. (eds.),
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2113:Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS)
2146:Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC)
1282:. GE Energy. August 2004. Retrieved: 25 May 2011.
719:The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary, Bill Gunston,
1676:Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with Applications
278:(CMC), where fibers are embedded in a matrix of
194:in the 1940s and new processing methods such as
27:Aerofoil; individual component of a turbine disc
2103:Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1115:Takeshi, Takashi, Kuniyuki, Ken-ichi, Masato.
1727:
1506:Edwards Air Force Base, Air Force Test Center
8:
1447:https://patents.google.com/patent/US2966331A
1196:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1132:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
882:Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology
141:Turbine blades are subjected to stress from
1280:Advanced Gas Turbine Materials and Coatings
1147:Halbig, Jaskowiak, Kiser, Zhu (June 2013).
793:, vol. 7, Elsevier, pp. 321–379,
758:, vol. 49, Elsevier, pp. 91–156,
2108:Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)
2009:
1767:
1734:
1720:
1712:
827:Bogard, D. G.; Thole, K. A. (2006-03-01).
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268:Most turbine blades are manufactured by
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392:was used for the turbine blades on the
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1290:
1288:
1189:
1125:
876:Bhagi LK, Rastogi V, Gupta P (2017).
138:designed to resist these conditions.
7:
1071:Langston, Lee S. (6 February 2017).
959:Bhagi LK, Rastogi V, Gupta P (2013).
785:Goldstein, Richard J. (1971-01-01),
745:
743:
741:
206:-based superalloys that incorporate
1298:MacKay, Rebecca A., et al. (2007).
544:A variation of convection cooling,
1697:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier.
1045:Langston, Lee S. (16 March 2018).
1034:. United States Geological Survey.
791:Advances in Heat Transfer Volume 7
25:
1422:"Moving beyond the steam cooling"
1976:Thrust specific fuel consumption
1695:Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook
489:Turbine blades are cooled using
1563:(6 ed.). Rolls-Royce plc.
1475:Lesley M. Wright, Je-Chin Han.
836:Journal of Propulsion and Power
302:List of turbine blade materials
2025:Propeller speed reduction unit
1549:, 2015. Retrieved: April 2015.
464:At a constant pressure ratio,
441:3D printed thermoplastic resin
1:
1655:turbines, compressor and fans
1388:Turbines Compressors and Fans
1073:"Each Blade a Single Crystal"
799:10.1016/s0065-2717(08)70020-0
133:Environment and failure modes
1509:, February 1991. Size: 8MB.
597:dielectric barrier discharge
1936:Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
1029:"Mineral Yearbook: Rhenium"
764:10.1016/bs.aiht.2017.10.001
519:Blade cooling by convection
2255:
2203:Auxiliary power unit (APU)
1832:Rotating detonation engine
829:"Gas Turbine Film Cooling"
655:High temperature corrosion
577:Film cooling (also called
493:except for limited use of
384:High Speed Civil Transport
223:directional solidification
1341:"Metal Tidbits: Nimonic."
1077:www.americanscientist.org
894:10.1007/s12206-016-1203-5
756:Advances in Heat Transfer
645:Components of jet engines
276:Ceramic matrix composites
1911:Aircraft engine starting
1559:Rolls-Royce plc (2005).
1368:Retrieved: 5 March 2011.
1346:Retrieved: 5 March 2011.
280:polymer derived ceramics
258:thermal barrier coatings
196:vacuum induction melting
73:thermal barrier coatings
1792:Pulse detonation engine
1511:mirror of ADA320315.pdf
1327:15 October 2006 at the
1278:Schilke, P. W. (2004).
1981:Thrust to weight ratio
1951:Overall pressure ratio
1946:Jet engine performance
1870:Centrifugal compressor
1787:Gluhareff Pressure Jet
613:
574:
566:
541:
520:
486:
253:
200:hot isostatic pressing
183:, used in the British
105:
48:
40:
2218:Ice protection system
1986:Variable cycle engine
1956:Propulsive efficiency
1522:What is Film Cooling?
1051:www.machinedesign.com
630:Transpiration cooling
611:
572:
564:
539:
518:
480:
251:
102:
46:
34:Turbine blade from a
33:
2118:Flight data recorder
1880:Constant speed drive
1860:Afterburner (reheat)
1532:Martinez, Isidoro. "
437:supersonic airliner.
1385:Yahya, S M (2011).
1361:8 December 2012 at
1027:Magyar, Michael J.
685:Creep (deformation)
612:Cooling by effusion
546:impingement cooling
532:Impingement cooling
453:GE Renewable Energy
427:combustion chambers
190:The development of
2020:Propeller governor
1539:2015-07-01 at the
1241:www.geaviation.com
1164:10.2514/6.2013-539
614:
575:
567:
542:
521:
511:Convection cooling
487:
473:Methods of cooling
466:thermal efficiency
398:de Havilland Ghost
284:SiC/SiC composites
270:investment casting
254:
110:gas turbine engine
106:
49:
41:
2226:
2225:
2098:Annunciator panel
2084:
2083:
1999:
1998:
1890:Propelling nozzle
1704:978-0-7506-7846-9
1685:978-0-521-81983-1
1664:978-0-07-070702-3
1183:978-1-62410-181-6
586:) can exceed the
485:nozzle guide vane
235:Pratt and Whitney
143:centrifugal force
36:Turbo-Union RB199
16:(Redirected from
2246:
2213:Hydraulic system
2208:Bleed air system
2198:Air-start system
2061:Counter-rotating
2010:
1991:Windmill restart
1961:Specific impulse
1931:Compressor stall
1865:Axial compressor
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1632:
1629:
1623:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1587:
1586:Boyce, p. 379-80
1584:
1575:
1574:
1556:
1550:
1530:
1524:
1519:
1513:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1472:
1463:
1460:
1449:
1444:
1438:
1435:
1426:
1425:
1418:
1412:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1382:
1369:
1353:
1347:
1338:
1332:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1296:
1283:
1276:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1195:
1187:
1175:
1173:2060/20130010774
1153:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1131:
1123:
1121:
1112:
1106:
1103:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1024:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1004:
987:
984:
978:
975:
964:
957:
948:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
912:
906:
905:
873:
867:
866:
864:
858:. Archived from
833:
824:
818:
817:
816:
815:
782:
773:
772:
771:
770:
747:
736:
733:
727:
717:
711:
710:
703:
688:
680:
604:Cooling effusion
552:External cooling
506:Internal cooling
425:was used in the
417:Rolls-Royce Spey
415:was used on the
405:was used on the
394:Rolls-Royce Nene
231:grain boundaries
21:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2186:
2169:
2160:
2156:Thrust reversal
2133:Engine controls
2127:
2090:
2080:
2056:Contra-rotating
2029:
1995:
1899:
1850:Accessory drive
1842:
1836:
1778:Air turborocket
1760:
1752:
1740:
1705:
1692:
1686:
1673:
1665:
1652:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:Flack, p. 428-9
1630:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1578:
1571:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1541:Wayback Machine
1531:
1527:
1520:
1516:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1483:
1474:
1473:
1466:
1461:
1452:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1429:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1399:
1384:
1383:
1372:
1366:Special Metals.
1354:
1350:
1344:steelforge.com.
1339:
1335:
1329:Wayback Machine
1319:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1297:
1286:
1277:
1264:
1260:Boyce, p. 440-2
1259:
1255:
1245:
1243:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1188:
1184:
1151:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1105:Flack, p. 430-3
1104:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1081:
1079:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1055:
1053:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1031:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1015:
1011:
1005:
990:
985:
981:
976:
967:
958:
951:
946:
942:
934:
930:
922:
918:
913:
909:
875:
874:
870:
862:
848:10.2514/1.18034
831:
826:
825:
821:
813:
811:
809:
784:
783:
776:
768:
766:
749:
748:
739:
734:
730:
718:
714:
705:
704:
700:
696:
691:
681:
677:
673:
641:
632:
623:
621:Pin fin cooling
606:
593:plasma actuator
559:
554:
534:
513:
508:
475:
462:
431:Bristol Olympus
407:Bristol Proteus
304:
288:silicon carbide
241:engines of the
176:
135:
97:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2252:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2231:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2173:
2171:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2137:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2094:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2076:Variable-pitch
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2051:Constant-speed
2048:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2016:
2014:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1846:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1780:
1774:
1772:
1765:
1763:jet propulsion
1754:
1753:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1690:
1684:
1670:
1669:
1663:
1649:
1648:
1643:
1642:
1633:
1624:
1615:
1606:
1597:
1588:
1576:
1570:978-0902121232
1569:
1561:The Jet Engine
1551:
1525:
1514:
1493:
1464:
1462:Boyce, p. 370.
1450:
1439:
1427:
1413:
1404:
1397:
1370:
1348:
1333:
1313:
1304:
1284:
1262:
1253:
1228:
1203:
1182:
1139:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1063:
1037:
1019:
1009:
988:
979:
977:Flack, p. 429.
965:
949:
940:
928:
916:
907:
868:
865:on 2019-03-07.
842:(2): 249–270.
819:
807:
787:"Film Cooling"
774:
737:
735:Boyce, p. 368.
728:
712:
697:
695:
692:
690:
689:
674:
672:
669:
668:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
640:
637:
631:
628:
622:
619:
605:
602:
558:
555:
553:
550:
533:
530:
512:
509:
507:
504:
474:
471:
461:
458:
457:
456:
438:
420:
410:
400:
387:
369:
359:
358:
357:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
303:
300:
227:single crystal
175:
172:
134:
131:
96:
93:
89:water turbines
61:steam turbines
26:
24:
18:Turbine blades
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2251:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2191:Other systems
2189:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2168:and induction
2167:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2124:
2123:Glass cockpit
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2087:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1921:Brayton cycle
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1895:Turbine blade
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1732:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1714:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1671:
1666:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1640:Boyce, p. 375
1637:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1619:
1616:
1610:
1607:
1601:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1443:
1440:
1437:Flack, p.428.
1434:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1417:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1400:
1398:9780070707023
1394:
1390:
1389:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1363:archive.today
1360:
1357:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1342:
1337:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1317:
1314:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1217:
1213:
1207:
1204:
1199:
1193:
1185:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1143:
1140:
1135:
1129:
1118:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1099:
1096:Boyce, p. 449
1093:
1090:
1078:
1074:
1067:
1064:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1038:
1030:
1023:
1020:
1013:
1010:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
993:
989:
986:Flack, p. 410
983:
980:
974:
972:
970:
966:
962:
956:
954:
950:
947:Flack, p. 407
944:
941:
937:
932:
929:
925:
920:
917:
914:Flack, p. 406
911:
908:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
872:
869:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
830:
823:
820:
810:
808:9780120200078
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
781:
779:
775:
765:
761:
757:
753:
746:
744:
742:
738:
732:
729:
726:
725:0 511 33833 3
722:
716:
713:
708:
702:
699:
693:
686:
679:
676:
670:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
642:
638:
636:
629:
627:
620:
618:
610:
603:
601:
598:
594:
589:
588:melting point
585:
580:
571:
563:
556:
551:
549:
547:
538:
531:
529:
526:
517:
510:
505:
503:
501:
496:
492:
484:
479:
472:
470:
467:
459:
454:
450:
446:
442:
439:
436:
432:
428:
424:
421:
418:
414:
411:
408:
404:
401:
399:
395:
391:
388:
385:
381:
377:
373:
370:
367:
363:
360:
355:
352:
351:
350:
349:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
312:
309:
308:
307:
301:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
271:
266:
263:
259:
250:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
188:
186:
182:
173:
171:
169:
165:
161:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
132:
130:
127:
126:thermodynamic
123:
118:
113:
111:
101:
94:
92:
90:
86:
85:wind turbines
81:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:turbine blade
45:
37:
32:
19:
2177:Flame holder
2151:Thrust lever
2141:Autothrottle
1971:Thrust lapse
1926:Bypass ratio
1894:
1758:Gas turbines
1750:gas turbines
1694:
1675:
1654:
1647:Bibliography
1636:
1627:
1618:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1560:
1554:
1544:
1528:
1517:
1504:
1503:page 7.122.
1496:
1484:. Retrieved
1480:
1442:
1416:
1407:
1387:
1365:
1351:
1343:
1336:
1316:
1307:
1256:
1244:. Retrieved
1240:
1231:
1219:. Retrieved
1215:
1206:
1192:cite journal
1155:
1142:
1110:
1101:
1092:
1080:. Retrieved
1076:
1066:
1054:. Retrieved
1050:
1040:
1022:
1012:
982:
943:
931:
926:, Fig.1.5-14
919:
910:
885:
881:
871:
860:the original
839:
835:
822:
812:, retrieved
790:
767:, retrieved
755:
731:
715:
701:
678:
633:
624:
615:
578:
576:
573:Film cooling
557:Film cooling
545:
543:
522:
494:
490:
488:
463:
440:
433:used on the
422:
412:
402:
389:
379:
375:
371:
361:
353:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
310:
305:
298:jet engine.
274:
267:
255:
220:
189:
177:
140:
136:
117:bypass-ratio
114:
107:
95:Introduction
82:
59:engines and
52:
50:
2091:instruments
2046:Blade pitch
2041:Autofeather
1743:Jet engines
1543:" page 19.
1356:"Products."
1082:25 November
1056:25 November
665:Superalloys
660:Gas turbine
540:Impingement
423:Nimonic 263
413:Nimonic 105
390:Nimonic 80a
292:GE Aviation
192:superalloys
122:aerodynamic
69:superalloys
57:gas turbine
2034:Principles
2013:Components
2005:Propellers
1904:Principles
1855:Air intake
1843:components
1841:Mechanical
1817:Turboshaft
1246:2 November
1221:2 November
1216:GE Reports
1007:2003-2722.
814:2019-08-30
769:2019-08-30
694:References
525:conduction
500:convection
403:Nimonic 90
170:failures.
160:Snecma M88
83:Blades of
2066:Proprotor
1916:Bleed air
1875:Combustor
1812:Turboprop
1017:2003-2610
902:115023151
888:: 17–27.
650:Combustor
617:surface.
366:GE Energy
262:aluminide
225:(DS) and
187:engines.
174:Materials
164:corrosion
65:combustor
2233:Category
2182:Jet fuel
2071:Scimitar
1941:Flameout
1885:Impeller
1807:Turbojet
1802:Turbofan
1783:Pulsejet
1747:aircraft
1537:Archived
1359:Archived
1325:Archived
1128:cite web
856:54063370
639:See also
435:Concorde
380:PWA 1497
208:chromium
151:yielding
147:fracture
104:(green).
75:. Blade
2239:Engines
2170:systems
1797:Propfan
584:kelvins
460:Cooling
429:of the
372:EPM-102
362:GTD-111
348:Inconel
342:CMSX-10
332:PWA1484
327:Rene N6
322:Rene N5
317:Rene 77
216:rhenium
185:Whittle
181:Nimonic
168:fatigue
77:fatigue
2089:Engine
1966:Thrust
1827:Rocket
1822:Ramjet
1701:
1682:
1661:
1567:
1486:27 May
1395:
1180:
938:, p.15
900:
854:
805:
723:
451:, and
378:(GE),
354:IN-738
337:CMSX-4
214:, and
212:cobalt
204:nickel
1771:Types
1152:(PDF)
1120:(PDF)
1032:(PDF)
898:S2CID
863:(PDF)
852:S2CID
832:(PDF)
671:Notes
495:steam
483:V2500
311:U-500
243:SR-71
155:creep
153:, or
108:In a
2166:Fuel
1761:and
1745:and
1699:ISBN
1680:ISBN
1659:ISBN
1565:ISBN
1488:2013
1393:ISBN
1248:2015
1223:2015
1198:link
1178:ISBN
1134:link
1084:2018
1058:2018
803:ISBN
721:ISBN
579:thin
449:NREL
445:ORNL
396:and
296:F414
124:and
87:and
1168:hdl
1160:doi
890:doi
844:doi
795:doi
760:doi
491:air
376:MX4
239:J58
2235::
1579:^
1479:.
1467:^
1453:^
1430:^
1373:^
1287:^
1265:^
1239:.
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1194:}}
1190:{{
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1166:.
1158:.
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801:,
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218:.
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1728:t
1721:v
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1688:.
1667:.
1573:.
1490:.
1424:.
1401:.
1250:.
1225:.
1200:)
1186:.
1170::
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