44:
483:
606:
formal schooling and are designed to enhance the student's formal school career." The term "shadow" has four components to it: firstly, the existence of and need for tutoring is produced by the existence of the formal education system; secondly, the formal education system is the mainstream system and thus tutoring is its shadow; thirdly, the focus remains on mainstream education in schools; fourthly, tutoring is largely informal and unstructured as compared to formal or mainstream education. As a consequence of the popularity of shadow education, private tutoring can sometimes overshadow mainstream education with more priority given to enrolling in private tutoring centers. Mark Bray claims that "Especially near the time of major external examinations, schools in some countries may be perceived by pupils to be less able to cater for their specific needs."
504:, time management, stress management, goal setting, organization, resource utilization, effective reading, note-taking, test-taking, communication, and understanding how to use a syllabus. Academic coaches meet with the student regularly throughout the semester. Coaches work with students in all kinds of situations, not just those who are struggling academically. Academic coaching also serves to help students prepare for entrance exams to gain entry to schools or universities, and it is particularly popular in Asia. For example, in India, a majority of students, be it of any class or stream, visit a coaching center or a "study circle."
592:
regions. In contrast, paid tutoring arrangements can create or further highlight socioeconomic disparities between low-income, middle-income and high-income populations. A study found that access to private tutoring was less financially affordable for low-income families, who thus benefited less from private tutoring as compared to high-income populations, who had the resources to profit from private tutoring.
402:. The policy reclassified tutoring institutions in China as non-profit organizations, which solved the over-reliance of Chinese students on after-school tutoring classes, and reduced the additional financial burden on Chinese families. Chinese families spend 40 to 50 percent of their total domestic spending on tutoring. The double reduction policy's regulation of
618:, statistics show that for the 2006–07 years, only 22 percent of students received tutoring services out of the 60 percent of those whose parents reported receiving information about the services. Conversely, only 13 percent of students receive tutoring services out of the 43 percent whose parents reported not receiving information about the services.
540:
it easier to convey information back and forth. Online tutoring has relatively recently emerged as a mechanism to provide tutoring services in contrast to more traditional in-person teaching. Paired with in-person tutoring, some of the benefits include the opportunity for learning motivation growth for both the tutor and the tutee.
574:
of students with a low academic performance at the secondary level in schools. Additionally, peer tutoring has been proven especially useful for those with learning disabilities at the elementary level, while there is mixed evidence showing the effectiveness of peer tutoring for those at the secondary level.
62:, is a person who provides assistance or tutelage to one or more people on certain subject areas or skills. The tutor spends a few hours on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis to transfer their expertise on the topic or skill to the student (also called a tutee). Tutoring can take place in different settings.
659:
Tutoring centers (tuition centers) must be registered with the
Singapore Ministry of Education. However, tutoring agencies are not. Instead, tutoring agencies are required to register with the Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority (ACRA) under the Business Registration Act. There is a history
582:
ranging from .42 to 1.24. The tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. Although the effects diminished at the end of second grade, the tutored students continued to
573:
Studies have found that peer tutoring provides academic benefits for learners across the subject areas of "reading, mathematics, science, and social studies" Peer tutoring has also been found to be an effective teaching method in enhancing the reading comprehension skills of students, especially that
521:
is a form of tutoring that occurs in the home. Most often the tutoring relates to an academic subject or test preparation. This is in contrast to tutoring centers or tutoring provided through after-school programs. The service most often involves one-on-one attention provided to the pupil. Due to the
490:
There can be an existing overlap between different types of tutoring with respect to the setting or location of tutoring, the size of tutor-learner pairings/groups, and the method of tutoring provided, for example, one-on-one peer tutoring can take place through online tutoring. Tutoring is typically
445:
In the United
Kingdom, the cost of tuition is dependent upon a variety of factors such as subject, level (Key Stages, GCSE or A-Level), tutor experience and whether the lesson takes place virtually or in person. If you are looking to receive online tutoring from a qualified UK teacher with a verified
559:
Peer tutoring refers to the method of tutoring that involves members of the same peer group teaching or tutoring one another. The characteristics of a peer tutoring group/pairing vary across age, socioeconomic class, gender, ethnicity. It has been defined as "a class of practices and strategies that
454:
Research supports the literature that students who seek and receive tutoring services outperformed their counterparts. However, private tutoring is not always effective in raising academic achievement; and in some schools students commonly skip classes or sleep through lessons because they are tired
605:
Tutoring has also emerged as a supplement to public and private schooling in many countries. The supplementary nature of tutoring is a feature in the domain of what some scholars have termed "shadow education". Shadow education has been defined as "a set of educational activities that occur outside
591:
Although certain types of tutoring arrangements can require a salary for the tutor, typically tutoring is free of cost and thus financially affordable for learners. The cost-effectiveness of tutoring can prove to be especially beneficial for learners from low-income backgrounds or resource-strapped
539:
is another way for a student to receive academic help, either scheduled or on-demand. Sessions are done through an application where a student and tutor can communicate. Common tools include chat, whiteboard, web conferencing, teleconferencing, online videos and other specialized applets which make
237:
By some accounting, methods of tutoring only began to become more structured after the 20th century through focus and specialization in the training of tutors, application of tutoring, and evaluation of tutors. From the 20th century onwards, with the rapid spread of mainstream education, the demand
546:
One of the potential drawbacks of online tutoring stems from the influx or sensory overload of information from different materials. "For example, material presented in multiple modalities run the risk of interrupting the learner from a coherent learning experience, of imposing a “split attention”
499:
Academic coaching is a type of mentoring applied to academics. Coaching involves a collaborative approach. Coaches try to help students learn how they best learn and how to operate in an academic environment. Tutors help students learn the material in individual courses while coaches help students
441:
In the United States, the tutoring market is fragmented. Some online tutoring marketplaces, however, have managed to aggregate a large number of private tutors on their platform and also tutoring data. For example, one such site has over 34,000 registered tutors in
California and made public their
466:
Teachers who spend more time focusing on private lessons than regular classes can cause greater inefficiencies in the mainstream school system. Situations in which teachers provide extra private lessons for pupils for whom they are already responsible in the public system can lead to corruption,
458:
In many countries, individuals can become tutors without training. In some countries, including
Cambodia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Lao PDR, and Tajikistan, the pattern of classroom teachers supplementing their incomes by tutoring students after school hours is more a necessity than a choice, as many
386:
and the
Comparative Education Research Centre at the University of Hong Kong recommended policymakers across the region take a closer look at how ‘shadow education’ affects family budgets, children's time, and national education systems. It suggested that in order to reduce the need for private
354:
Demand for tutoring in Asia is exploding; by comparison globally, shadow education is most extensive in Asia. This is partly due to the stratification of education systems, cultural factors, perceptions of shortcomings in regular school systems, and the combination of growing wealth and smaller
317:
pointed out that private tutoring can dominate the lives of young people and their families, maintain and exacerbate social inequalities, divert needed household income into an unregulated industry, and create inefficiencies in education systems. It can also undermine official statements about
437:
In South Korea, where the government has attempted to cool down the private tutoring market, shadow education costs have nonetheless continually grown, reaching $ 17.3 billion in 2010. Household expenditures on private tutoring are equivalent to about 80% of government expenditures on public
577:
One study suggests that phonologically based reading instruction for first-graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by non-teachers. In the study, non-certified tutors gave students intensive one-to-one tutoring for 30 minutes, 4 days a week for one school year. The students
355:
family sizes. Therefore, the education sector has become a profitable industry which businesses have created different kinds of products and advertisement such as "the king/queen of tutorial", a usual advertisement tactic of Hong Kong tutorial centers that has spread to South Korea,
429:
In
Georgia, household expenditures for private tutoring at the secondary school level was $ 48 million in 2011. In Hong Kong, the business of providing private tutoring to secondary schools reached $ 255 million in 2011. The estimated size of the private tuition industry in
363:, and India where tutors achieve "celebrity-like status". In some cases, successful Southeast Asian tutors will even embrace the title of "tutor". Online private tutor matching platforms and learning platform offering online learning materials are other product offerings.
281:
in a particular year group (up to 30 students). They usually work in year teams headed by a year leader, year head, or guidance teacher. Form tutors will provide parents with most of the information about their child's progress and any problems they might be experiencing.
1019:
Dong, Alison, Batjargal Ayush, Bolormaa
Tsetsgee, & Tumendelger Sengedorj. 2006. "Mongolia". In Iveta Silova, Virginija Būdienė, & Mark Bray (Eds.), Education in a Hidden Marketplace: Monitoring of Private Tutoring. New York: Open Society Institute,
43:
1325:"A Quantitative Synthesis of Research on Programs for Struggling Readers in Elementary Schools, April 24, 2019, Best Evidence Encyclopedia, Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Research and Reform in Education"
446:
certificate it will cost between £30 & 40 per hour. It is also common in the UK to apply for tutoring sessions through your local school if you are struggling to help subsidise the cost through the
National Tuition Programme.
550:
The tutor ensures the development of individual educational programs for students and accompanies the process of individualization and individual education at school, university, in additional education systems.
462:
In South Korea, the number of private tutors expanded roughly 7.1% annually on average from 2001 to 2006, and by 2009 the sector was the largest employer of graduates from the humanities and social sciences.
1847:
The quality of private tutors is not the only complaint made against tuition agencies which, unlike tuition centres, do not have to be registered with the
Ministry of Education (MOE) under the Education
285:
In the United
Kingdom and Ireland, private tutoring, outside school, is common for students who need extra support in one or more subjects, particularly leading up to exams. In Ireland this is known as
1177:
543:
Online tutoring is now a very popular way for students at top higher education institutions to earn money to support their studies during term time, but not all universities are in favour of this.
645:
In the UK, after much discussion in the media, a limited company was set up in October 2013. The Tutors' Association was previously named The London Association Of Certified Financial Analysts.
960:
Kalikova, Saule & Zhanar Rakhimzhanova. 2009. "Private Tutoring in Kazakhstan", in Silova, Iveta (Ed.), Private Supplementary Tutoring in Central Asia: New Opportunities and Burdens.
1112:
Synovate Limited. 2011. Marketing survey of tutoring businesses in Hong Kong, cited in Modern Education Group Limited (2011), Global Offering (for stock market launch), Hong Kong, p.96.
927:
Kim, Kyung-Keun. 2010. "Educational Equality", in Lee, Chong Jae; Kim, Seong-yul & Adams, Don (eds.), Sixty Years of Korean Education. Seoul: Seoul National University Press, p.302.
482:
1860:
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private since it is exists independent of the system of public and private education, that is, one can be enrolled in public/private schooling and attend private tutoring services.
998:
Dawson, Walter. 2010. "Private Tutoring and Mass Schooling in East Asia: Reflections of Inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia." Asia Pacific Education Review 11(1):14-24.
642:
Tutoring agencies are common in many countries including Australia, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, the UAE, the U.K. and the U.S.A., although it is not regulated in most countries.
1540:
Alzahrani, Turkey; Leko, Melinda (2018). "The Effects of Peer Tutoring on the Reading Comprehension Performance of Secondary Students with Disabilities: A Systematic Review".
470:
When private tutoring is provided by well trained tutor however the effects can be dramatic, with pupils improving performance by two standard deviations, a result known as
399:
1010:, Kwo, Ora & Mark Bray. 2011. "Facing the Shadow Education System in Hong Kong." IIAS Newsletter (University of Leiden, International Institute for Asian Studies)
1826:
395:
40:
is private academic help, usually provided by an expert teacher; someone with deep knowledge or defined expertise in a particular subject or set of subjects.
1103:
EPPM (International Institute of Education Policy, Planning & Management). 2011. Study of Private Tutoring in Georgia. Tbilisi: EPPM, p.29. (In Georgian)
939:, Caritas, Community & Higher Education Service. 2010. Private Supplementary Tutoring of Secondary Students: Investigation Report. Hong Kong: Caritas.
1239:
Kim, Kyung-Min & Daekwon Park. 2012. "Impacts of Urban Economic Factors on Private Tutoring Industry." Asia Pacific Education Review 13 (20), p.273.
1145:
Kim, Sunwoong & Ju-Ho Lee. 2010. "Private Tutoring and Demand for Education in South Korea." Economic Development and Cultural Change 58(2), p.261.
1122:
1577:"Effects of Tutoring in Phonological and Early Reading Skills on Students at Risk for Reading Disabilities, 2000, Journal of Learning Disabilities"
1774:
1622:
Song, Yang; Loewenstein, George; Shi, Yaojiang (2018). "Heterogeneous effects of peer tutoring: Evidence from rural Chinese middle schools".
77:
1864:
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effect (the mind cannot concentrate on two things simultaneously), or of overloading the learner's limited supply of cognitive resources."
1155:
630:
is a business that acts as an intermediary between people who are looking for tutors and tutors wishing to offer their services. The term
1730:
Stevenson, David Lee; Baker, David P. (1992). "Shadow Education and Allocation in Formal Schooling: Transition to University in Japan".
247:
294:
370:, most tutoring is provided by teachers, whereas in Hong Kong, it is provided by individuals, small companies or large companies. In
1266:
870:
47:
1065:"Shadow Education in China and Its Diversified Normative Governance Mechanism: Double Reduction Policy and Internet Public Opinion"
868:
Gardner, Ralph; Nobel, Michele M.; Hessler, Terri; Yawn, Christopher D.; Heron, Timothy E. (2007). "Tutoring System Innovations".
560:
employs peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, practice, repetition, and clarification of concepts"
467:
particularly when teachers deliberately teach less in their regular classes in order to promote the market for private lessons.
615:
522:
informal and private nature of in-home tutoring, there is limited substantial or conclusive information on in-home tutoring.
374:, most tutoring is labor-intensive, while entrepreneurs in South Korea make use of computers and other forms of technology.
1834:
715:
706:
1283:
471:
789:
648:
In Singapore, tutoring agencies, also known as tuition agencies, are not regulated by the Ministry of Education.
227:
1689:"Shadow Education: Comparative Perspectives on the Expansion and Implications of Private Supplementary Tutoring"
173:
provides similar services for free while criticizing the sophists for their presumed lack of concern for actual
182:
1341:
455:
after excessive external study. This means that the shadow system can make regular schooling less efficient.
387:
lessons, improvements in mainstream schools should be made. Regulations are also needed to protect citizens.
814:
391:
314:
190:
1031:
915:
383:
310:
31:
126:
1360:
1284:"The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring"
1007:
779:
407:
118:
73:
297:, a tutor is a general term for someone delivering tutorials, individually or in small groups. See
259:
114:
1324:
918:, Shadow Education: Private Supplementary Tutoring and its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia.
1747:
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809:
274:
158:
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Complaints against the industry are not uncommon, the Consumers Association of Singapore said
578:
outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding; with
1798:
1767:
Confronting the Shadow Education System: What Government Policies for What Private Tutoring?
1739:
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270:
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122:
82:
536:
531:
298:
150:
1063:
Lu, Jijian; Tuo, Pan; Pan, Junyan; Zhou, Meimei; Zhang, Mohan; Hu, Shaohua (2023-01-22).
1507:
410:
period and relieved the inequality of educational resources caused by the economic gap.
936:
799:
774:
255:
142:
106:
1411:
325:, nearly 90% of elementary students receive some form of shadow education, usually in
1888:
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1443:
948:
891:
90:
1649:
Chu, Hsiao-Lei (2015). "Private Tutoring, Wealth Constraint and Higher Education".
1608:
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501:
224:
220:
178:
1553:
1705:
1688:
1479:
Sweller, John; Chandler, Paul (1994). "Why Some Material is Difficult to Learn".
883:
833:
1203:"E-books on EBSCOhost: Combining NetLibrary E-books with the EBSCOhost Platform"
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learn how to be successful in school. In college, that includes such topics as:
340:
326:
322:
210:
204:
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In Singapore, parents and students have positive as well as negative comments.
17:
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110:
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1123:"Business Of Private Tutorials In India Now A Multi-Billion Dollar Industry"
360:
336:
231:
230:
of ancient China. Similar positions remained in very high importance across
186:
130:
1802:
1600:
339:, about 85% of senior secondary students do so. 60% of primary students in
1032:"China moves against private tutoring companies, causing shares to plunge"
1156:"Tutoring Rates in California: An Analysis of over 34,000 Private Tutors"
975:
804:
422:, expenditures on tutoring per child averaged $ 3.40 a month in 2011. In
419:
418:
Some studies have estimated costs associated with "shadow education". In
371:
367:
356:
238:
for tutoring has also increased as a way to supplement formal education.
170:
1715:
1769:. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning. p. 13.
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278:
200:
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94:
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significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling.
1412:"Action Research to Enrich Learning in e-Tutoring for Remote Schools"
634:
is an alternative term, used specifically in Singapore and Malaysia.
331:
117:, the lower classes could pay for instruction in group settings like
86:
1506:
Utley, Cheryl A.; Mortweet, Susan L.; Greenwood, Charles R. (2017).
1743:
1008:
http://www.iias.nl/article/facing-shadow-education-system-hong-kong
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481:
431:
423:
344:
203:, have always enjoyed importance and prestige. In particular, the
174:
162:
98:
42:
1178:"National Tutoring Programme: guidance for schools, 2022 to 2023"
149:
established lucrative careers teaching the important skills of
121:
but the upper classes preferred personalized home tutoring. In
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attracted so many students that they established influential
426:, families spent $ 12 billion in 2010 on private tutoring.
723:
1791:"From the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)"
951:. , Pratham. 2011. Annual Status of Education Report 2010.
318:
fee-free education and create threats to social cohesion.
406:
has improved the quality of school curriculum during the
97:
was traditionally handled on a personal basis, with most
434:
was estimated to be worth around $ 70 billion in 2017.
1458:"The rise of online tutoring among Cambridge students"
1249:
Dawson, Walter (2009). ""The Tricks of the Teacher"".
50:
with his tutor Wolrad von Plessen, in historical dress
1863:. Singapore: EdVantage. 4 August 2012. Archived from
753:
313:
and the Comparative Education Research Centre at the
937:
http://klncc.caritas.org.hk/private/document/644.pdf
916:
ADB Study Highlights Dark Side of 'Shadow Education'
691:
685:
Association for the Coaching and Tutoring Profession
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teachers’ salaries hover close to the poverty line.
949:http://www.pratham.org/aser08/ASER_2010_Report.pdf
1575:Vadasy, P. F.; Jenkins, J. R.; Pool, K. (2000).
1820:
1818:
400:State Council of the People's Republic of China
994:
992:
438:education for primary and secondary students.
1508:"Peer-Mediated Instruction and Interventions"
834:"Educational Process in Ancient Rome Schools"
396:General Office of the Chinese Communist Party
208:
8:
660:of poor compliance and consumer complaints.
1861:"Should the tuition industry be regulated?"
1833:. Singapore Press Holdings. Archived from
1410:Liu, Ruo-Lan; Li, Yu-Chi (February 2020).
841:European Journal of Contemporary Education
1714:
1704:
1693:Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
1080:
852:
610:Disproportionate use of tutoring services
1361:"Tutoring Spreads Beyond Asia's Wealthy"
667:
105:long handed down within families or via
1535:
1533:
825:
1827:"Tuition agencies largely unregulated"
1158:. www.findtutorsnearme.com. 2015-11-13
177:and understanding. In the case of the
48:Prince Charles Louis of the Palatinate
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1680:
1416:Systemic Practice and Action Research
911:
909:
907:
905:
903:
901:
199:, the personal instructors of future
78:Education of the British royal family
7:
614:In a 2009 research performed by the
269:are given the responsibilities of a
1030:Stevenson, Alexandra (2021-07-26).
972:"Meet the 'tutor kings and queens'"
970:Sharma, Yojana (27 November 2012).
347:, and 60% of secondary students in
248:Teaching assistant (United Kingdom)
242:British and Irish secondary schools
25:
1393:"Hey tutors! Leave us kids alone"
1201:Gorrell, Michael Gorrell (2011).
871:Intervention in School and Clinic
189:was frequently provided by Greek
1581:Journal of Learning Disabilities
1542:Reading & Writing Quarterly
1460:. www.varsity.co.uk. 2019-02-21
1207:Information Standards Quarterly
747:Australian Tutoring Association
616:Institute of Education Sciences
394:got promulgated jointly by the
295:British higher education system
601:Tutoring as "shadow education"
1:
1732:American Journal of Sociology
1554:10.1080/10573569.2017.1302372
1512:Focus on Exceptional Children
716:National Tutoring Association
700:American Tutoring Association
486:Tutoring in France, ca. 1950s
219:) was one of the three great
1706:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.03.096
884:10.1177/10534512070430020701
85:is first attested among the
1825:Gerrard Lai (7 July 2011).
1282:Bloom, Benjamin S. (1984).
1251:Buying Your Way into Heaven
442:tutoring hourly rate data.
1916:
1593:10.1177/002221940003300606
1428:10.1007/s11213-019-09517-5
529:
511:
351:receive private tutoring.
245:
223:of the royal court of the
71:
58:, formally also called an
29:
1636:10.1016/j.rie.2017.05.002
1493:10.1207/s1532690xci1203_1
1481:Cognition and Instruction
1359:Gooch, Liz (2012-08-05).
1303:10.3102/0013189X013006004
1259:10.1163/9789087907297_005
854:10.13187/ejced.2019.2.425
790:Peer-mediated instruction
664:Professional associations
638:Tutoring around the world
209:
1524:10.17161/foec.v29i5.6751
1219:10.3789/isqv23n2.2011.07
305:Private tutoring in Asia
27:Private academic lessons
1663:10.1111/1468-0106.12122
1651:Pacific Economic Review
815:Double Reduction Policy
732:The Tutors' Association
472:Bloom's 2 sigma problem
392:Double Reduction Policy
315:University of Hong Kong
181:, the education of the
1803:10.1037/e607002011-005
1291:Educational Researcher
487:
384:Asian Development Bank
311:Asian Development Bank
51:
32:Tutor (disambiguation)
1624:Research in Economics
485:
390:On 24 July 2021, the
234:into the modern era.
93:but, in most fields,
46:
780:Learning by teaching
569:Academic performance
408:Compulsory education
382:A 2012 study by the
309:A 2012 study by the
74:History of education
30:For other uses, see
1867:on 22 November 2012
1765:Bray, Mark (2009).
1687:Bray, Mark (2013).
1342:"Academic Coaching"
508:Home-based tutoring
115:classical antiquity
1397:The Times Of India
1365:The New York Times
1346:Harvard University
1253:. pp. 51–73.
1082:10.3390/su15021437
1036:The New York Times
488:
52:
1795:PsycEXTRA Dataset
1776:978-92-803-1333-8
847:(2). 2019-06-12.
810:Virtual education
761:
760:
495:Academic coaching
478:Types of tutoring
414:Costs of tutoring
263:secondary schools
16:(Redirected from
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587:Economic effects
519:In-home tutoring
514:In-home tutoring
404:shadow education
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83:Formal education
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680:Operating area
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628:tutoring agency
624:
622:Tutoring agency
612:
603:
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566:
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537:Online tutoring
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532:Online tutoring
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526:Online tutoring
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299:tutorial system
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151:public speaking
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72:Main articles:
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18:Tutor (officer)
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800:Tuition agency
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143:ancient Greece
107:apprenticeship
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1831:AsiaOne News
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139:philosophies
129:tutors like
127:aristocratic
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1464:10 February
1297:(6): 4–16.
1075:(2): 1437.
770:Cram school
341:West Bengal
323:South Korea
267:form tutors
205:Grand Tutor
103:professions
95:instruction
1889:Categories
1808:2021-05-12
1378:2018-04-28
1187:2023-08-24
1132:2024-08-21
1049:2023-04-11
1020:pp.257-277
821:References
785:Mentorship
757:Australia
674:Short name
349:Kazakhstan
246:See also:
183:patricians
111:modern era
109:until the
1752:143012779
1671:113397604
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337:Hong Kong
232:East Asia
187:plebeians
131:Confucius
1900:Teaching
1895:Learning
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1797:. 2010.
1601:15495399
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976:BBC News
805:Tutorial
764:See also
420:Pakistan
398:and the
372:Mongolia
368:Cambodia
357:Thailand
329:termed
279:students
171:Socrates
155:assembly
153:for the
147:sophists
38:Tutoring
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1311:1714225
1162:14 June
981:14 June
795:Teacher
677:Website
564:Effects
293:In the
256:British
228:dynasty
145:, some
135:Mencius
125:, some
87:scribes
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332:Hagwon
288:grinds
201:rulers
191:slaves
159:courts
99:skills
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1667:S2CID
1605:S2CID
1558:S2CID
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1440:S2CID
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432:India
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345:India
335:. In
275:class
260:Irish
221:lords
217:tàifù
175:truth
167:works
163:Plato
161:; in
141:. In
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1843:2013
1771:ISBN
1597:PMID
1466:2022
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1164:2016
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983:2016
727:USA
710:USA
695:USA
688:ACTP
671:Name
271:form
258:and
225:Zhou
133:and
119:ludi
101:and
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