412:
836:
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250:
674:(PTF), lead to the conclusion that this explosion arises from single-degenerate progenitor, with a red giant companion, thus suggesting there is no single progenitor path to SN Ia. Direct observations of the progenitor of PTF 11kx were reported in the August 24 edition of Science and support this conclusion, and also show that the progenitor star experienced periodic nova eruptions before the supernova – another surprising discovery. However, later analysis revealed that the
31:
392:
540:, but this glow was not detected by Swift's XRT (X-ray telescope) in the 53 closest supernova remnants. For 12 Type Ia supernovae observed within 10 days of the explosion, the satellite's UVOT (ultraviolet/optical telescope) showed no ultraviolet radiation originating from the heated companion star's surface hit by the supernova shock wave, meaning there were no red giants or larger stars orbiting those supernova progenitors. In the case of
378:
645:
152:
446:. After the primary has degenerated into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase, the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours. If the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the
4342:
4402:
4426:
4352:
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4414:
756:; these are the main constituents of the outer layers of the star. Months after the explosion, when the outer layers have expanded to the point of transparency, the spectrum is dominated by light emitted by material near the core of the star, heavy elements synthesized during the explosion; most prominently isotopes close to the mass of iron (
34:
38:
37:
33:
32:
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738:
39:
2604:
Kate; Suzuki, Nao; Tarlton, James E.; Pan, Yen-Chen; Bildsten, Lars; Fulton, Benjamin J.; Parrent, Jerod T.; Sand, David; Podsiadlowski, Philipp; Bianco, Federica B.; Dilday, Benjamin; Graham, Melissa L.; Lyman, Joe; James, Phil; et al. (December 2011). "Supernova 2011fe from an
Exploding Carbon-Oxygen White Dwarf Star".
787:. In a series of papers in the 1990s the survey showed that while Type Ia supernovae do not all reach the same peak luminosity, a single parameter measured from the light curve can be used to correct unreddened Type Ia supernovae to standard candle values. The original correction to standard candle value is known as the
36:
704:. This supernova appeared at three different times in the evolution of its brightness due to the differing path length of the light in the three images; at −24, 92, and 107 days from peak luminosity. A fourth image will appear in 2037 allowing observation of the entire luminosity cycle of the supernova.
299:
Regardless of the exact details of how the supernova ignites, it is generally accepted that a substantial fraction of the carbon and oxygen in the white dwarf fuses into heavier elements within a period of only a few seconds, with the accompanying release of energy increasing the internal temperature
2668:
Dilday, B.; Howell, D. A.; Cenko, S. B.; Silverman, J. M.; Nugent, P. E.; Sullivan, M.; Ben-Ami, S.; Bildsten, L.; Bolte, M.; Endl, M.; Filippenko, A. V.; Gnat, O.; Horesh, A.; Hsiao, E.; Kasliwal, M. M.; Kirkman, D.; Maguire, K.; Marcy, G. W.; Moore, K.; Pan, Y.; Parrent, J. T.; Podsiadlowski, P.;
2377:
Foley, Ryan J.; Challis, P. J.; Chornock, R.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Li, W.; Marion, G. H.; Morrell, N. I.; Pignata, G.; Stritzinger, M. D.; Silverman, J. M.; Wang, X.; Anderson, J. P.; Filippenko, A. V.; Freedman, W. L.; Hamuy, M.; Jha, S. W.; Kirshner, R. P.; McCully, C.; Persson, S. E.; Phillips, M.
656:
Unlike the other types of supernovae, Type Ia supernovae generally occur in all types of galaxies, including ellipticals. They show no preference for regions of current stellar formation. As white dwarf stars form at the end of a star's main sequence evolutionary period, such a long-lived star
660:
A long-standing problem in astronomy has been the identification of supernova progenitors. Direct observation of a progenitor would provide useful constraints on supernova models. As of 2006, the search for such a progenitor had been ongoing for longer than a century. Observation of the supernova
2603:
Nugent, Peter E.; Sullivan, Mark; Cenko, S. Bradley; Thomas, Rollin C.; Kasen, Daniel; Howell, D. Andrew; Bersier, David; Bloom, Joshua S.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Kandrashoff, Michael T.; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Silverman, Jeffrey M.; Marcy, Geoffrey W.; Howard, Andrew W.; Isaacson, Howard T.; Maguire,
229:
The current view among astronomers who model Type Ia supernova explosions, however, is that this limit is never actually attained and collapse is never initiated. Instead, the increase in pressure and density due to the increasing weight raises the temperature of the core, and as the white dwarf
657:
system may have wandered far from the region where it originally formed. Thereafter a close binary system may spend another million years in the mass transfer stage (possibly forming persistent nova outbursts) before the conditions are ripe for a Type Ia supernova to occur.
457:
or (if the orbit is sufficiently close) even a main sequence star. The actual evolutionary process during this accretion stage remains uncertain, as it can depend both on the rate of accretion and the transfer of angular momentum to the white dwarf companion.
2840:
Rodney, Steven A.; Brammer, Gabriel B.; Pierel, Justin D. R.; Richard, Johan; Toft, Sune; O’Connor, Kyle F.; Akhshik, Mohammad; Whitaker, Katherine E. (13 September 2021). "A gravitationally lensed supernova with an observable two-decade time delay".
669:
from the explosion was found to contain carbon and oxygen, making it likely the progenitor was a white dwarf primarily composed of these elements. Similarly, observations of the nearby SN PTF 11kx, discovered
January 16, 2011 (UT) by the
791:
and was shown by this group to be able to measure relative distances to 7% accuracy. The cause of this uniformity in peak brightness is related to the amount of nickel-56 produced in white dwarfs presumably exploding near the
Chandrasekhar limit.
688:
observed KSN 2011b, a Type Ia supernova in the process of exploding. Details of the pre-nova moments may help scientists better judge the quality of Type Ia supernovae as standard candles, which is an important link in the argument for
111:
is unable to prevent catastrophic collapse. If a white dwarf gradually accretes mass from a binary companion, or merges with a second white dwarf, the general hypothesis is that a white dwarf's core will reach the ignition temperature for
713:
134:
The Type Ia category of supernova produces a fairly consistent peak luminosity because of the fixed critical mass at which a white dwarf will explode. Their consistent peak luminosity allows these explosions to be used as
349:, in which a white dwarf accretes matter more slowly and does not approach the Chandrasekhar limit. In the case of a nova, the infalling matter causes a hydrogen fusion surface explosion that does not disrupt the star.
503:
spectra found 15 double systems of the 4,000 white dwarfs tested, implying a double white dwarf merger every 100 years in the Milky Way: this rate matches the number of Type Ia supernovae detected in our neighborhood.
342: = −19.3 (about 5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little variation. The Type Ia supernova leaves no compact remnant, but the whole mass of the former white dwarf dissipates through space.
843:
There is significant diversity within the class of Type Ia supernovae. Reflecting this, a plethora of sub-classes have been identified. Two prominent and well-studied examples include 1991T-likes, an overluminous
35:
433:
system. The progenitor binary system consists of main sequence stars, with the primary possessing more mass than the secondary. Being greater in mass, the primary is the first of the pair to evolve onto the
795:
The similarity in the absolute luminosity profiles of nearly all known Type Ia supernovae has led to their use as a secondary standard candle in extragalactic astronomy. Improved calibrations of the
495:). A likely scenario is a collision with a binary star system, or between two binary systems containing white dwarfs. This collision can leave behind a close binary system of two white dwarfs. Their
2449:
Ritter, Andreas; Parker, Quentin A.; Lykou, Foteini; Zijlstra, Albert A.; Guerrero, Martin A.; Le Du, Pascal (7 Nov 2023). "From an amateur PN candidate to the
Rosetta Stone of SN Iax research".
560:
is 30–50 times fainter than expected. X-ray radiation should be emitted by the accretion discs of Type Ia supernova progenitors. The missing radiation indicates that few white dwarfs possess
1867:
Langer, N.; Yoon, S.-C.; Wellstein, S.; Scheithauer, S. (2002). "On the evolution of interacting binaries which contain a white dwarf". In Gänsicke, B. T.; Beuermann, K.; Rein, K. (eds.).
1632:
Gamezo, V. N.; Khokhlov, A. M.; Oran, E. S.; Chtchelkanova, A. Y.; Rosenberg, R. O. (2003-01-03). "Thermonuclear
Supernovae: Simulations of the Deflagration Stage and Their Implications".
1012:
3641:
3147:
Macri, L. M.; Stanek, K. Z.; Bersier, D.; Greenhill, L. J.; Reid, M. J. (2006). "A New
Cepheid Distance to the Maser-Host Galaxy NGC 4258 and Its Implications for the Hubble Constant".
1893:
González Hernández, J. I.; Ruiz-Lapuente, P.; Tabernero, H. M.; Montes, D.; Canal, R.; Méndez, J.; Bedin, L. R. (2012). "No surviving evolved companions of the progenitor of SN 1006".
4077:
1320:
752:, their graph of luminosity as a function of time after the explosion. Near the time of maximal luminosity, the spectrum contains lines of intermediate-mass elements from oxygen to
884:
103:", they reignite and in some cases trigger a supernova explosion; this critical mass is often referred to as the Chandrasekhar mass, but is marginally different from the absolute
3457:
Taubenberger, S.; Hachinger, S.; Pignata, G.; Mazzali, P. A.; Contreras, C.; Valenti, S.; Pastorello, A.; Elias-Rosa, N.; Bärnbantner, O.; Barwig, H.; Benetti, S. (2008-03-01).
2669:
Quimby, R. M.; Sternberg, A.; Suzuki, N.; Tytler, D. R.; Xu, D.; Bloom, J. S.; Gal-Yam, A.; et al. (2012). "PTF11kx: A Type-Ia
Supernova with a Symbiotic Nova Progenitor".
930:
536:
space telescope ruled out existing supergiant or giant companion stars of every Type Ia supernova studied. The supergiant companion's blown out outer shell should emit
2808:
661:
SN 2011fe has provided useful constraints. Previous observations with the Hubble Space
Telescope did not show a star at the position of the event, thereby excluding a
2971:
Hamuy, M.; Phillips, M. M.; Suntzeff, Nicholas B.; Schommer, Robert A.; Maza, José; Aviles, R. (1996). "The
Absolute Luminosities of the Calan/Tololo Type IA Supernovae".
214:, beyond which it can no longer support its weight with electron degeneracy pressure. In the absence of a countervailing process, the white dwarf would collapse to form a
1579:
Röpke, F. K.; Hillebrandt, W. (2004). "The case against the progenitor's carbon-to-oxygen ratio as a source of peak luminosity variations in Type Ia supernovae".
2024:
116:
as it approaches the
Chandrasekhar mass. Within a few seconds of initiation of nuclear fusion, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes a
2542:
Hoeflich, N.; Deutschmann, A.; Wellstein, S.; Höflich, P. (1999). "The evolution of main sequence star + white dwarf binary systems towards Type Ia supernovae".
438:, where the star's envelope expands considerably. If the two stars share a common envelope then the system can lose significant amounts of mass, reducing the
178:. There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form, but they share a common underlying mechanism. Theoretical astronomers long believed the
4292:
473:. The resulting merger is called a super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf. In such a case, the total mass would not be constrained by the Chandrasekhar limit.
996:
2304:
3059:
Hamuy, M.; Phillips, M. M.; Maza, Jose; Suntzeff, Nicholas B.; Schommer, R. A.; Aviles, R. (1996). "A Hubble diagram of distant type IA supernovae".
2203:
4272:
632:, which is the result of a merger of a CO white dwarf and an ONe white dwarf. This makes Pa 30 and IRAS 00500+6713 the only SN Iax remnant in the
411:
1060:
3880:
564:, ruling out the common, accretion-based model of Ia supernovae. Inward spiraling white dwarf pairs are strongly-inferred candidate sources of
2207:
1993:
1473:
1408:
3358:
3669:
932:
subclass characterized by strong early titanium absorption features and rapid photometric and spectral evolution. Despite their abnormal
4287:
273:
is independent of temperature; white dwarfs are unable to regulate temperature in the manner of normal stars, so they are vulnerable to
2730:
2179:"Important Clue Uncovered for the Origins of a Type of Supernovae Explosion, Thanks to a Research Team at the University of Pittsburgh"
2080:
469:
A second possible mechanism for triggering a Type Ia supernova is the merger of two white dwarfs whose combined mass exceeds the
3426:"The nebular spectra of the Type Ia supernova 1991bg: further evidence of a non-standard explosion: The nebular spectra of SN 1991bg"
1972:
1225:
Matheson, Thomas; Kirshner, Robert; Challis, Pete; Jha, Saurabh; et al. (2008). "Optical Spectroscopy of Type Ia Supernovae".
356:, which are caused by the cataclysmic explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core collapses, powered by release of
2253:
Schaefer, Bradley E.; Pagnotta, Ashley (2012). "An absence of ex-companion stars in the type Ia supernova remnant SNR 0509-67.5".
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963:
784:
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278:
59:
each are expected to merge and create a Type Ia supernova destroying both in about 700 million years (artist's impression).
4108:
2579:
Kotak, R. (December 2008). "Progenitors of Type Ia Supernovae". In Evans, A.; Bode, M.F.; O'Brien, T.J.; Darnley, M.J. (eds.).
783:
The use of Type Ia supernovae to measure precise distances was pioneered by a collaboration of Chilean and US astronomers, the
4049:
3623:
3586:
3094:
Freedman, W.; et al. (2001). "Final Results from the Hubble Space Telescope Key Project to Measure the Hubble Constant".
1705:
Khokhlov, A.; Müller, E.; Höflich, P. (1993). "Light curves of Type Ia supernova models with different explosion mechanisms".
218:, in an accretion-induced non-ejective process, as normally occurs in the case of a white dwarf that is primarily composed of
4317:
3732:
3552:
357:
725:) versus time shows the characteristic light curve for a Type Ia supernova. The peak is primarily due to the decay of
1084:
Mazzali, P. A.; Röpke, F. K.; Benetti, S.; Hillebrandt, W. (2007). "A Common Explosion Mechanism for Type Ia Supernovae".
533:
170:
is a subcategory in the Minkowski–Zwicky supernova classification scheme, which was devised by German-American astronomer
3267:; et al. (1998). "Observational evidence from supernovae for an accelerating Universe and a cosmological constant".
484:; far less frequently than the appearance of novae. Collisions occur with greater frequency in the dense core regions of
4307:
4282:
4093:
3792:
312:
108:
2356:
Wang, Bo; Justham, Stephen; Han, Zhanwen (2013). "Double-detonation explosions as progenitors of Type Iax supernovae".
835:
4312:
3820:
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461:
It has been estimated that single degenerate progenitors account for no more than 20% of all Type Ia supernovae.
242:. The details of the ignition are still unknown, including the location and number of points where the flame begins.
4368:
4113:
4103:
3722:
2507:
van Dyk, Schuyler D. (1992). "Association of supernovae with recent star formation regions in late type galaxies".
1465:
1017:
968:
3357:
Sasdelli, Michele; Mazzali, P. A.; Pian, E.; Nomoto, K.; Hachinger, S.; Cappellaro, E.; Benetti, S. (2014-09-30).
597:. This type of supernova may not always completely destroy the white dwarf progenitor, but instead leave behind a
3777:
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2334:
2125:
671:
549:
397:
An accretion disc forms around a compact body (such as a white dwarf) stripping gas from a companion giant star.
524:, as all possible models with only one white dwarf have been ruled out. It has also been strongly suggested for
90:
Physically, carbon–oxygen white dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below 1.44 solar masses (
4302:
4297:
3662:
3529:
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2182:
500:
417:
Supercomputer simulation of the explosion phase of the deflagration-to-detonation model of supernova formation.
202:
3742:
249:
4322:
3727:
3717:
2895:
1147:"The Impact of Type Ia Supernovae in Quiescent Galaxies. I. Formation of the Multiphase Interstellar Medium"
435:
266:
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243:
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2583:. ASP Conference Series. Vol. 401. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p. 150.
507:
A double degenerate scenario is one of several explanations proposed for the anomalously massive (2
331:. The energy released in the explosion also causes an extreme increase in luminosity. The typical visual
4118:
3772:
3264:
2211:
1338:
937:
893:
824:
788:
4171:
1459:
186:, and empirical evidence for this was found in 2014 when a Type Ia supernova was observed in the
3930:
3767:
3480:
3380:
3286:
3226:
3166:
3113:
3068:
3033:
2990:
2945:
2910:
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2623:
2584:
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2516:
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2401:
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2094:
2033:
1912:
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1821:
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3799:
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1957:
682:
553:
470:
447:
270:
104:
100:
819:
In 1998, observations of distant Type Ia supernovae indicated the unexpected result that the
571:
Double degenerate scenarios raise questions about the applicability of Type Ia supernovae as
4418:
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4098:
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3983:
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3835:
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is too massive for the single-degenerate scenario, and fits better the core-degenerate scenario.
588:
565:
332:
160:
3540:
453:
The white dwarf companion could also accrete matter from other types of companions, including a
2593:
Proceedings of the conference held 12–14 June 2007, at Keele University, Keele, United Kingdom.
1204:
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978:
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761:
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353:
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171:
2123:
Middleditch, J. (2004). "A White Dwarf Merger Paradigm for Supernovae and Gamma-Ray Bursts".
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797:
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666:
629:
557:
485:
439:
140:
44:
3207:; et al. (1999). "Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 high redshift supernovae".
269:
can expand and cool which automatically regulates the increase in thermal energy. However,
3925:
3830:
3544:
3533:
3459:"The underluminous Type Ia supernova 2005bl and the class of objects similar to SN 1991bg"
3200:
2748:
Soker, Noam; Kashi, Amit; García Berro, Enrique; Torres, Santiago; Camacho, Judit (2013).
1433:
827:. Three members from two teams were subsequently awarded Nobel Prizes for this discovery.
813:
572:
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ensues, lasting approximately 1,000 years. At some point in this simmering phase, a
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is initiated shortly thereafter, but this fuel is not consumed as completely as carbon.
143:
of a type Ia supernova, as observed from Earth, indicates its distance from Earth.
3957:
3913:
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2056:
2019:
1844:
1799:
1256:
809:
561:
492:
443:
328:
316:
293:
3359:"Abundance stratification in Type Ia supernovae – IV. The luminous, peculiar SN 1991T"
1555:
1554:. ASC / Alliances Center for Astrophysical Thermonuclear Flashes. 2004. Archived from
1333:
839:
Supernova remnant SNR 0454-67.2 is likely the result of a Type Ia supernova explosion.
4442:
4161:
3493:
3458:
3442:
3425:
3246:
3133:
2880:
2651:
2421:
2413:
1997:
1761:
1373:
Canal, R.; Gutiérrez, J. (1997). "The Possible White Dwarf-Neutron Star Connection".
1307:
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It has been proposed that a group of sub-luminous supernovae should be classified as
521:
496:
262:
72:
3510:
3410:
3306:
3186:
3010:
2716:
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1869:
The Physics of Cataclysmic Variables and Related Objects, ASP Conference Proceedings
1537:
1264:
1145:
Li, Miao; Li, Yuan; Bryan, Greg L.; Ostriker, Eve C.; Quataert, Eliot (2020-05-05).
1131:
528:, given that no companion star remnant has been found there. Observations made with
151:
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4139:
4039:
4012:
3990:
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3590:
3332:
2793:
2290:
1948:
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is believed to be associated with the supernova remnant Pa 30 and its central star
285:. It is still a matter of considerable debate whether this flare transforms into a
235:
215:
175:
48:
3571:
3556:
315:
the star; that is, the individual particles making up the white dwarf gain enough
205:
matter from a companion, it can exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.44
2750:"Explaining the Type Ia supernova PTF 11kx with a violent prompt merger scenario"
1610:
1048:
575:, since total mass of the two merging white dwarfs varies significantly, meaning
17:
4241:
4149:
4044:
4034:
4022:
3947:
3860:
2482:
2330:
1400:
780:, which dominate the energy output of the ejecta at intermediate to late times.
749:
690:
598:
430:
183:
80:
52:
2872:
2232:
1871:. San Francisco, California: Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p. 252.
1498:
Hillebrandt, W.; Niemeyer, J. C. (2000). "Type Ia Supernova Explosion Models".
1461:
Cosmic Catastrophes: Supernovae, Gamma-Ray Bursts, and Adventures in Hyperspace
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and abnormally small silicon features, and 1991bg-likes, an exceptionally dim
576:
508:
320:
289:
286:
282:
231:
206:
190:
91:
84:
56:
3502:
3402:
2731:"The First-Ever Direct Observations of a Type 1a Supernova Progenitor System"
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219:
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68:
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2065:
1940:
1853:
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1683:
1123:
2046:
1779:. Cambridge, England: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co. pp. 75–80.
601:. Known examples of type Iax supernovae include: the historical supernova
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4181:
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4000:
3840:
3281:
3221:
3161:
3108:
2985:
2936:
Phillips, M. M. (1993). "The absolute magnitudes of Type Ia supernovae".
2556:
2139:
1816:
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1512:
1383:
1377:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 214. pp. 49–55.
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to fly apart from each other. The star explodes violently and releases a
277:
fusion reactions. The flare accelerates dramatically, in part due to the
3024:
Colgate, S. A. (1979). "Supernovae as a standard candle for cosmology".
2635:
2274:
1924:
1834:
1334:"A rigorous examination of the Chandrasekhar theory of stellar collapse"
812:
of the Type Ia supernova distances have led to an improved value of the
476:
Collisions of solitary stars within the Milky Way occur only once every
4196:
4166:
4144:
1932:
1299:
773:
753:
625:
602:
525:
2436:"Hubble finds supernova star system linked to potential 'zombie star'"
2178:
1775:
Paczynski, B. (July 28 – August 1, 1975). "Common Envelope Binaries".
712:
4191:
3995:
777:
730:
726:
537:
429:
One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close
198:
194:
187:
2362:
1732:
Gilmore, Gerry (2004). "The Short Spectacular Life of a Superstar".
936:, members of both peculiar groups can be standardized by use of the
737:
261:
Once fusion begins, the temperature of the white dwarf increases. A
4389:
3526:
3298:
3238:
3178:
3125:
3080:
3045:
3002:
2957:
2922:
2855:
2528:
2459:
2156:
1359:
1163:
3475:
3375:
2766:
2683:
2618:
2396:
1907:
1239:
834:
805:
736:
711:
649:
643:
307:
248:
150:
127:
29:
2382:(2012). "Type Iax Supernovae: A New Class of Stellar Explosion".
1321:
Type 1a Supernovae: Why Our Standard Candle Isn’t Really Standard
3855:
2813:
2809:"NASA Spacecraft Capture Rare, Early Moments of Baby Supernovae"
1013:"Presupernova Evolution of Accreting White Dwarfs with Rotation"
529:
399:
346:
223:
76:
3651:
2305:"NASA'S Swift Narrows Down Origin of Important Supernova Class"
1278:
da Silva, L. A. L. (1993). "The Classification of Supernovae".
499:
and they merge through their shared envelope. A study based on
323:
in which matter is typically ejected at speeds on the order of
159:, a type Ia supernova, one day after maximum light in the
2081:"A Thousand Blazing Suns: The Inner Life of Globular Clusters"
545:
3647:
800:
distance scale and direct geometric distance measurements to
3642:
SNFactory Shows Type Ia ‘Standard Candles’ Have Many Masses
345:
The theory of this type of supernova is similar to that of
1994:"Brightest supernova discovery hints at stellar collision"
2331:"NASA's Chandra Reveals Origin of Key Cosmic Explosions"
700:
had taken three images of a Type Ia supernova through a
4078:
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
2483:"Search for stellar survivor of a supernova explosion"
4366:
1955:
Matson, John (December 2012). "No Star Left Behind".
896:
850:
544:, the companion star must have been smaller than the
79:
orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a
3537:
3424:
Mazzali, Paolo A.; Hachinger, Stephan (2012-08-21).
2581:
RS Ophiuchi (2006) and the Recurrent Nova Phenomenon
139:
to measure the distance to their host galaxies: the
4265:
4127:
4086:
4060:
3971:
3896:
3808:
3750:
3685:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
924:
878:
3430:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3363:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3322:, Steven Weinberg, Oxford University Press, 2008.
2807:Johnson, Michele; Chandler, Lynn (May 20, 2015).
2754:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
696:In September 2021, astronomers reported that the
568:, although they have not been directly observed.
1888:
1886:
886:subclass that exhibits particularly strong iron
2663:
2661:
2025:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1777:Structure and Evolution of Close Binary Systems
1438:Gravitational Waves from Gravitational Collapse
300:to billions of degrees. The energy released (1–
230:approaches about 99% of the limit, a period of
131:) to unbind the star in a supernova explosion.
1800:"The Evolution of Compact Binary Star Systems"
748:Type Ia supernovae have a characteristic
716:This plot of luminosity (relative to the Sun,
3663:
3574:. Sloan Digital Sky Survey. February 27, 2007
1079:
1077:
997:HubbleSite - Dark Energy - Type Ia Supernovae
8:
4293:Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey
3608:. Pole Star Publications Ltd. August 6, 2003
1500:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
3670:
3656:
3648:
3555:. Johns Hopkins University. Archived from
1432:Fryer, C. L.; New, K. C. B. (2006-01-24).
729:(Ni), while the later stage is powered by
552:revealed that the X-ray radiation of five
520:. It is the only possible explanation for
3492:
3474:
3441:
3392:
3374:
3280:
3220:
3160:
3107:
2984:
2854:
2783:
2765:
2682:
2617:
2555:
2458:
2395:
2361:
2138:
2055:
2045:
1906:
1843:
1833:
1815:
1798:Postnov, K. A.; Yungelson, L. R. (2006).
1665:
1647:
1592:
1511:
1382:
1238:
1180:
1162:
1097:
1030:
904:
895:
858:
849:
3553:"Type Ia Supernova Cosmology with ADEPT"
2896:"The 1990 Calan/Tololo Supernova Search"
2233:"Bizarre Supernova Breaks All The Rules"
1961:. Vol. 307, no. 6. p. 16.
1574:
1572:
1006:
1004:
83:. The other star can be anything from a
4373:
3624:"Novae and Supernovae explosions found"
989:
3708:Type II (IIP, IIL, IIn, and IIb)
2208:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
2079:Rubin, V. C.; Ford, W. K. J. (1999).
879:{\displaystyle (M_{V}\lesssim -19.5)}
7:
4351:
3606:"Source for major type of supernova"
3527:List of all known Type Ia supernovae
2204:"The Weirdest Type Ia Supernova Yet"
1205:"Introduction to Supernova Remnants"
681:In May 2015, NASA reported that the
652:taken by the Hubble Space Telescope.
4288:Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope
2020:"Supernovae and Stellar Collisions"
120:reaction, releasing enough energy (
27:Type of supernova in binary systems
3626:. peripatus.gen.nz. Archived from
3589:. peripatus.gen.nz. Archived from
925:{\displaystyle (M_{V}\gtrsim -18)}
67:(read: "type one-A") is a type of
25:
808:emission when combined with the
4424:
4412:
4400:
4388:
4376:
4350:
4341:
4340:
4073:History of supernova observation
3741:
3494:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.12843.x
3443:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21433.x
1458:Wheeler, J. Craig (2000-01-15).
1332:Lieb, E. H.; Yau, H.-T. (1987).
1011:Yoon, S.-C.; Langer, L. (2004).
964:History of supernova observation
410:
390:
376:
238:flame front is born, powered by
182:for this type of supernova is a
87:to an even smaller white dwarf.
2894:Hamuy, M.; et al. (1993).
1973:"Type Ia Supernova Progenitors"
352:Type Ia supernovae differ from
4318:SuperNova Early Warning System
3733:Common envelope jets supernova
2451:IAU 384 Conference Proceedings
1530:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.191
1280:Astrophysics and Space Science
1207:. NASA Goddard/SAO. 2006-09-07
919:
897:
873:
851:
358:gravitational potential energy
335:of Type Ia supernovae is
1:
2938:Astrophysical Journal Letters
785:Calán/Tololo Supernova Survey
665:as the source. The expanding
465:Double degenerate progenitors
425:Single degenerate progenitors
311:) is more than sufficient to
4308:Supernova/Acceleration Probe
4283:High-Z Supernova Search Team
3881:pulsational pair-instability
3617:(A Type Ia progenitor found)
2438:. SpaceDaily. 6 August 2014.
2210:. 2006-09-20. Archived from
1804:Living Reviews in Relativity
1257:10.1088/0004-6256/135/4/1598
109:electron degeneracy pressure
4313:Supernova Cosmology Project
3821:Fast blue optical transient
3205:Supernova Cosmology Project
2235:. New Scientist. 2006-09-20
1401:10.1007/978-94-011-5542-7_7
279:Rayleigh–Taylor instability
4465:
3538:The Open Supernova Catalog
3333:"Tangled — cosmic edition"
2873:10.1038/s41550-021-01450-9
2544:Astronomy and Astrophysics
2414:10.1088/0004-637X/767/1/57
1707:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1611:10.1051/0004-6361:20040135
1581:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1466:Cambridge University Press
1049:10.1051/0004-6361:20035822
1018:Astronomy and Astrophysics
969:List of supernova remnants
586:
4336:
3739:
2384:The Astrophysical Journal
2335:Chandra X-ray Observatory
2126:The Astrophysical Journal
2018:Whipple, Fred L. (1939).
1440:. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
1151:The Astrophysical Journal
672:Palomar Transient Factory
550:Chandra X-ray Observatory
193:. When a slowly-rotating
55:stars slightly under one
4298:Nearby Supernova Factory
3572:"Sloan Supernova Survey"
2183:University of Pittsburgh
1953:See also lay reference:
1182:10.3847/1538-4357/ab86b4
741:Light curve for type Ia
4323:Supernova Legacy Survey
3551:Falck, Bridget (2006).
2701:10.1126/science.1219164
2566:2000A&A...362.1046L
1746:10.1126/science.1100370
1719:1993A&A...270..223K
1676:10.1126/science.1078129
1603:2004A&A...420L...1R
1522:2000ARA&A..38..191H
1434:"2.1 Collapse scenario"
1292:1993Ap&SS.202..215D
1116:10.1126/science.1136259
1041:2004A&A...419..623Y
436:asymptotic giant branch
4328:Texas Supernova Search
4303:Sloan Supernova Survey
3921:Luminous blue variable
3587:"Novae and Supernovae"
3337:www.spacetelescope.org
2487:www.spacetelescope.org
2307:. NASA. Archived from
1975:. Swinburne University
959:Cosmic distance ladder
926:
880:
840:
825:accelerating expansion
745:
734:
698:Hubble Space Telescope
676:circumstellar material
653:
325:5,000–20,000 km/s
281:and interactions with
258:
163:
60:
3773:Phillips relationship
3394:10.1093/mnras/stu1777
3265:Supernova Search Team
3209:Astrophysical Journal
3149:Astrophysical Journal
3096:Astrophysical Journal
3026:Astrophysical Journal
2378:M.; Reichart, D. E.;
2047:10.1073/pnas.25.3.118
1339:Astrophysical Journal
927:
881:
838:
804:from the dynamics of
789:Phillips relationship
776:produces high-energy
740:
715:
647:
556:and the bulge of the
548:, if it existed. The
442:, orbital radius and
252:
174:and Swiss astronomer
154:
42:
3269:Astronomical Journal
3061:Astronomical Journal
2973:Astronomical Journal
2903:Astronomical Journal
2785:10.1093/mnras/stt271
2509:Astronomical Journal
1227:Astronomical Journal
974:Near-Earth supernova
894:
848:
823:seems to undergo an
327:, roughly 6% of the
4346:Category:Supernovae
4278:Calán/Tololo Survey
3963:Population III star
3871:Soft gamma repeater
3703:Type Ib and Ic
3485:2008MNRAS.385...75T
3385:2014MNRAS.445..711S
3291:1998AJ....116.1009R
3231:1999ApJ...517..565P
3171:2006ApJ...652.1133M
3118:2001ApJ...553...47F
3073:1995AJ....109....1H
3038:1979ApJ...232..404C
2995:1996AJ....112.2391H
2950:1993ApJ...413L.105P
2915:1993AJ....106.2392H
2865:2021NatAs...5.1118R
2821:on November 8, 2020
2776:2013MNRAS.431.1541S
2693:2012Sci...337..942D
2636:10.1038/nature10644
2628:2011Natur.480..344N
2589:2008ASPC..401..150K
2521:1992AJ....103.1788V
2469:2023arXiv231103700R
2406:2013ApJ...767...57F
2275:10.1038/nature10692
2267:2012Natur.481..164S
2149:2004ApJ...601L.167M
2099:1999Mercu..28d..26M
2038:1939PNAS...25..118W
1958:Scientific American
1925:10.1038/nature11447
1917:2012Natur.489..533G
1877:2002ASPC..261..252L
1835:10.12942/lrr-2006-6
1826:2006LRR.....9....6P
1785:1976IAUS...73...75P
1740:(5697): 1915–1916.
1658:2003Sci...299...77G
1393:1997ASSL..214...49C
1352:1987ApJ...323..140L
1249:2008AJ....135.1598M
1173:2020ApJ...894...44L
1108:2007Sci...315..825M
566:gravitational waves
554:elliptical galaxies
471:Chandrasekhar limit
448:Chandrasekhar limit
271:degeneracy pressure
105:Chandrasekhar limit
4356:Commons:Supernovae
4008:Stellar black hole
3984:Pulsar wind nebula
3836:Gravitational wave
3543:2016-03-03 at the
3532:2022-02-02 at the
1300:10.1007/BF00626878
922:
876:
841:
746:
735:
702:gravitational lens
654:
648:Supernova remnant
589:Type Iax supernova
522:SNR 0509-67.5
354:Type II supernovae
333:absolute magnitude
265:star supported by
259:
253:G299 Type Ia
164:
61:
4364:
4363:
3979:Supernova remnant
3846:Luminous red nova
3758:Carbon detonation
2849:(11): 1118–1125.
2677:(6097): 942–945.
2612:(7377): 344–347.
2261:(7380): 164–166.
1901:(7417): 533–536.
1552:"Science Summary"
1475:978-0-521-65195-0
1464:. Cambridge, UK:
1410:978-0-7923-4585-5
1092:(5813): 825–828.
979:Supernova remnant
954:Carbon detonation
938:Phillips relation
762:radioactive decay
686:space observatory
486:globular clusters
383:Formation process
255:supernova remnant
172:Rudolph Minkowski
65:Type Ia supernova
43:At the core of a
40:
18:Type 1a supernova
16:(Redirected from
4456:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4393:
4392:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4372:
4354:
4353:
4344:
4343:
4207:Remnant G1.9+0.3
3826:Fast radio burst
3745:
3723:Pair-instability
3672:
3665:
3658:
3649:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3601:
3599:
3598:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3515:
3514:
3496:
3478:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3436:(4): 2926–2935.
3421:
3415:
3414:
3396:
3378:
3354:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3343:
3329:
3323:
3317:
3311:
3310:
3284:
3282:astro-ph/9805201
3275:(3): 1009–1038.
3257:
3251:
3250:
3224:
3222:astro-ph/9812133
3197:
3191:
3190:
3164:
3162:astro-ph/0608211
3155:(2): 1133–1149.
3144:
3138:
3137:
3111:
3109:astro-ph/0012376
3091:
3085:
3084:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3021:
3015:
3014:
2988:
2986:astro-ph/9609059
2968:
2962:
2961:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2900:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2858:
2843:Nature Astronomy
2837:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2817:. Archived from
2804:
2798:
2797:
2787:
2769:
2760:(2): 1541–1546.
2745:
2739:
2738:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2686:
2665:
2656:
2655:
2621:
2600:
2594:
2592:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2559:
2557:astro-ph/0008444
2539:
2533:
2532:
2515:(6): 1788–1803.
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2462:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2399:
2380:Soderberg, A. M.
2374:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2142:
2140:astro-ph/0311484
2133:(2): L167–L170.
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2101:. Archived from
2076:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2049:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1952:
1910:
1890:
1881:
1880:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1847:
1837:
1819:
1817:astro-ph/0701059
1795:
1789:
1788:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1713:(1–2): 223–248.
1702:
1696:
1695:
1669:
1651:
1649:astro-ph/0212054
1629:
1623:
1622:
1596:
1594:astro-ph/0403509
1576:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1563:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1515:
1513:astro-ph/0006305
1495:
1480:
1479:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1386:
1384:astro-ph/9701225
1370:
1364:
1363:
1329:
1323:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1242:
1233:(4): 1598–1615.
1222:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1212:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1184:
1166:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1101:
1099:astro-ph/0702351
1081:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1059:. Archived from
1034:
1032:astro-ph/0402287
1008:
999:
994:
931:
929:
928:
923:
909:
908:
888:absorption lines
885:
883:
882:
877:
863:
862:
798:Cepheid variable
573:standard candles
558:Andromeda Galaxy
516:) progenitor of
483:
479:
440:angular momentum
414:
394:
380:
326:
310:
305:
267:thermal pressure
141:visual magnitude
137:standard candles
130:
125:
99:). Beyond this "
45:planetary nebula
41:
21:
4464:
4463:
4459:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4439:
4438:
4435:
4425:
4423:
4413:
4411:
4401:
4399:
4387:
4377:
4375:
4367:
4365:
4360:
4332:
4261:
4247:SN 2016aps
4227:SN Refsdal
4123:
4082:
4056:
3967:
3953:Wolf–Rayet star
3892:
3831:Gamma-ray burst
3804:
3778:Nucleosynthesis
3746:
3737:
3681:
3676:
3644:(March 4, 2014)
3633:
3631:
3622:
3611:
3609:
3604:
3596:
3594:
3585:
3577:
3575:
3570:
3562:
3560:
3550:
3545:Wayback Machine
3534:Wayback Machine
3523:
3518:
3456:
3455:
3451:
3423:
3422:
3418:
3356:
3355:
3351:
3341:
3339:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3318:
3314:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3199:
3198:
3194:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3023:
3022:
3018:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2898:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2824:
2822:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2729:
2728:
2724:
2667:
2666:
2659:
2602:
2601:
2597:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2489:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2448:
2447:
2443:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2340:
2338:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2314:
2312:
2311:on 12 June 2020
2303:
2302:
2298:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2238:
2236:
2231:
2230:
2226:
2217:
2215:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2185:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2108:
2106:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2017:
2016:
2012:
2003:
2001:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1978:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1954:
1892:
1891:
1884:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1667:10.1.1.257.3251
1642:(5603): 77–81.
1631:
1630:
1626:
1578:
1577:
1570:
1561:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1497:
1496:
1483:
1476:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1443:
1441:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1411:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1315:
1277:
1276:
1272:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1210:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1083:
1082:
1075:
1066:
1064:
1010:
1009:
1002:
995:
991:
987:
950:
900:
892:
891:
854:
846:
845:
833:
814:Hubble constant
760:elements). The
723:
710:
642:
630:IRAS 00500+6713
591:
585:
562:accretion discs
514:
511:
493:blue stragglers
481:
477:
467:
427:
422:
421:
420:
419:
418:
415:
406:
405:
404:
395:
386:
385:
384:
381:
370:
341:
324:
303:
301:
212:
209:
180:progenitor star
149:
147:Consensus model
123:
121:
97:
94:
71:that occurs in
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4462:
4460:
4452:
4451:
4441:
4440:
4434:
4433:
4421:
4409:
4397:
4385:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4358:
4348:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4237:SN 2006gy
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4217:SN 2011fe
4214:
4212:SN 2007bi
4209:
4204:
4202:SN 2003fg
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4153:
4152:
4142:
4137:
4135:Barnard's Loop
4131:
4129:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4083:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4064:
4062:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4054:
4053:
4052:
4050:Orion–Eridanus
4042:
4037:
4032:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4010:
4005:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3965:
3960:
3958:Super-AGB star
3955:
3950:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3923:
3918:
3917:
3916:
3911:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3888:Symbiotic nova
3885:
3884:
3883:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3802:
3797:
3796:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3747:
3740:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3689:
3687:
3683:
3682:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3667:
3660:
3652:
3646:
3645:
3639:
3619:
3618:
3602:
3583:
3568:
3548:
3522:
3521:External links
3519:
3517:
3516:
3449:
3416:
3369:(1): 711–725.
3349:
3324:
3312:
3299:10.1086/300499
3261:Riess, Adam G.
3252:
3239:10.1086/307221
3201:Perlmutter, S.
3192:
3179:10.1086/508530
3139:
3126:10.1086/320638
3086:
3081:10.1086/117251
3051:
3046:10.1086/157300
3032:(1): 404–408.
3016:
3003:10.1086/118190
2963:
2958:10.1086/186970
2928:
2923:10.1086/116811
2886:
2832:
2799:
2740:
2722:
2657:
2595:
2571:
2534:
2529:10.1086/116195
2499:
2474:
2441:
2427:
2369:
2348:
2322:
2296:
2245:
2224:
2195:
2170:
2157:10.1086/382074
2115:
2071:
2032:(3): 118–125.
2010:
1985:
1964:
1882:
1859:
1790:
1767:
1724:
1697:
1624:
1568:
1543:
1506:(1): 191–230.
1481:
1474:
1468:. p. 96.
1450:
1424:
1409:
1365:
1360:10.1086/165813
1346:(1): 140–144.
1324:
1313:
1286:(2): 215–236.
1270:
1217:
1196:
1137:
1073:
1025:(2): 623–644.
1000:
988:
986:
983:
982:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
949:
946:
921:
918:
915:
912:
907:
903:
899:
875:
872:
869:
866:
861:
857:
853:
832:
829:
810:Hubble diagram
721:
709:
706:
641:
638:
624:The supernova
587:Main article:
584:
581:
518:SN 2003fg
512:
509:
466:
463:
426:
423:
416:
409:
408:
407:
396:
389:
388:
387:
382:
375:
374:
373:
372:
371:
369:
366:
339:
329:speed of light
317:kinetic energy
296:deflagration.
226:, and oxygen.
210:
207:
157:SN 1998aq
148:
145:
95:
92:
73:binary systems
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4461:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4437:
4432:
4422:
4420:
4410:
4408:
4398:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4384:
4374:
4370:
4357:
4349:
4347:
4339:
4338:
4335:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4222:SN 2014J
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4187:SN 1994D
4185:
4183:
4182:SN 1987A
4180:
4178:
4177:SN 1885A
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4151:
4148:
4147:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4126:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4104:Massive stars
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4085:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3977:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3928:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3895:
3889:
3886:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3798:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3749:
3744:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3718:Superluminous
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3698:Type Iax
3696:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3673:
3668:
3666:
3661:
3659:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3643:
3640:
3630:on 2007-08-15
3629:
3625:
3621:
3620:
3607:
3603:
3593:on 2007-08-15
3592:
3588:
3584:
3573:
3569:
3559:on 2007-10-30
3558:
3554:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3450:
3444:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3417:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3353:
3350:
3338:
3334:
3328:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3256:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3215:(2): 565–86.
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3196:
3193:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3143:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2897:
2890:
2887:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2836:
2833:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2803:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2744:
2741:
2737:. 2012-08-24.
2736:
2735:Scitech Daily
2732:
2726:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2599:
2596:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2575:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2550:: 1046–1064.
2549:
2545:
2538:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2500:
2488:
2484:
2478:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2442:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2373:
2370:
2364:
2359:
2352:
2349:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2323:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2246:
2234:
2228:
2225:
2214:on 2017-10-08
2213:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2196:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2119:
2116:
2105:on 2006-05-21
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2014:
2011:
1999:
1998:New Scientist
1995:
1989:
1986:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1959:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1628:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1558:on 2017-05-05
1557:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1477:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1454:
1451:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1274:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1206:
1200:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1063:on 2007-10-25
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1007:
1005:
1001:
998:
993:
990:
984:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
951:
947:
945:
943:
940:to determine
939:
935:
916:
913:
910:
905:
901:
889:
870:
867:
864:
859:
855:
837:
830:
828:
826:
822:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
793:
790:
786:
781:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
744:
739:
732:
728:
724:
720:
714:
707:
705:
703:
699:
694:
692:
687:
685:
679:
677:
673:
668:
664:
658:
651:
646:
639:
637:
635:
631:
627:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
595:Type Iax
590:
582:
580:
579:also varies.
578:
574:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
505:
502:
498:
494:
491:
487:
482:10 years
474:
472:
464:
462:
459:
456:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
432:
424:
413:
403:
401:
393:
379:
367:
365:
363:
359:
355:
350:
348:
343:
338:
334:
330:
322:
318:
314:
309:
297:
295:
291:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
263:main sequence
256:
251:
247:
245:
244:Oxygen fusion
241:
240:carbon fusion
237:
233:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
204:
200:
196:
192:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
162:
158:
153:
146:
144:
142:
138:
132:
129:
119:
115:
114:carbon fusion
110:
106:
102:
101:critical mass
98:
88:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
58:
54:
50:
46:
19:
4436:
4431:Solar System
4232:Vela Remnant
4197:SN 1006
4162:SN 1000+0216
4140:Cassiopeia A
4109:Most distant
4040:Local Bubble
4013:Compact star
3991:Neutron star
3728:Calcium-rich
3693:Type Ia
3692:
3632:. Retrieved
3628:the original
3610:. Retrieved
3595:. Retrieved
3591:the original
3576:. Retrieved
3561:. Retrieved
3557:the original
3469:(1): 75–96.
3466:
3462:
3452:
3433:
3429:
3419:
3366:
3362:
3352:
3340:. Retrieved
3336:
3327:
3319:
3315:
3272:
3268:
3255:
3212:
3208:
3195:
3152:
3148:
3142:
3102:(1): 47–72.
3099:
3095:
3089:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3029:
3025:
3019:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2906:
2902:
2889:
2846:
2842:
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64:
62:
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4045:Superbubble
4035:Zombie star
4018:electroweak
3948:White dwarf
3897:Progenitors
3861:Pulsar kick
3342:26 November
2944:(2): L105.
2909:(6): 2392.
2363:1301.1047v1
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3403:0035-8711
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2093:(4): 26.
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