Types of volcanic eruptions

1726: 1672: 2126: 2486: 3124:. The distinguishing feature of phreatic explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit; no new magma is erupted. Because they are driven by the cracking of rock strata under pressure, phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption; if the rock face is strong enough to withstand the explosive force, outright eruptions may not occur, although cracks in the rock will probably develop and weaken it, furthering future eruptions. 1711: 2917: 999: 2740: 2535: 2193: 1234: 3053: 722: 1751: 2505: 1485: 1692: 1948: 1360: 7074: 250:, which are typically not very dangerous. On the other extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent, and highly dangerous explosive events. Volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style, and frequently display many different types, both passive and explosive, even in the span of a single eruptive cycle. Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak, either. Some volcanoes exhibit 3248: 7098: 1117: 1875: 194: 6845: 7110: 1181:, which erupted from a fissure in a cornfield in 1943. Two years into its life, pyroclastic activity began to wane, and the outpouring of lava from its base became its primary mode of activity. Eruptions ceased in 1952, and the final height was 424 m (1,391 ft). This was the first time that scientists are able to observe the complete life cycle of a volcano. 863: 7086: 50: 3032:

Viable microbial communities have been found living in deep (−2800 m) geothermal groundwater at 349 K and pressures >300 bar. Furthermore, microbes have been postulated to exist in basaltic rocks in rinds of altered volcanic glass. All of these conditions could exist in polar regions of Mars today

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lava flows are denser and more viscous than pahoehoe, and tend to move slower. Flows can measure 2 to 20 m (7 to 66 ft) thick. A'a flows are so thick that the outside layers cools into a rubble-like mass, insulating the still-hot interior and preventing it from cooling. A'a lava moves in a

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of magma when it comes in contact with water (as distinguished from magmatic eruptions, which are driven by thermal expansion). This temperature difference between the two causes violent water-lava interactions that make up the eruption. The products of phreatomagmatic eruptions are believed to be

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generated by material collapse, which move down the side of the mountain at extreme speeds of up to 700 km (435 mi) per hour and with the ability to extend the reach of the eruption hundreds of kilometers. The ejection of hot material from the volcano's summit melts snowbanks and ice

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pyroclastic flows that they drive. The mechanics of a Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a Vulcanian eruption, except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano's structure is able to withstand more pressure, hence the eruption occurs as one large explosion rather than several smaller ones.

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Products of volcano-ice interactions stand as various structures, whose shape is dependent on complex eruptive and environmental interactions. Glacial volcanism is a good indicator of past ice distribution, making it an important climatic marker. Since they are embedded in ice, as glacial ice

1316:, eventually popping the cap holding the magma down and resulting in an explosive eruption. Unlike Strombolian eruptions, ejected lava fragments are not aerodynamic; this is due to the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma and the greater incorporation of 1217:

itself. The namesake of the mild explosive activity that it possesses has been active throughout historical time; essentially continuous Strombolian eruptions, occasionally accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded at Stromboli for more than a

1556:, the site of a Peléan eruption in 1902 that is one of the worst natural disasters in history. In Peléan eruptions, a large amount of gas, dust, ash, and lava fragments are blown out the volcano's central crater, driven by the collapse of 1113:. The relative passivity of Strombolian eruptions, and its non-damaging nature to its source vent allow Strombolian eruptions to continue unabated for thousands of years, and also makes it one of the least dangerous eruptive types. 2025:. It is the model Plinian eruption. Mount Vesuvius has erupted several times since then. Its last eruption was in 1944 and caused problems for the allied armies as they advanced through Italy. It was the contemporary report by 1943:

airfall affecting an area 0.5 to 50 km (0 to 12 cu mi) in size. The material in the ash plume eventually finds its way back to the ground, covering the landscape in a thick layer of many cubic kilometers of ash.

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where that type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series.

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The volcanic explosivity index (commonly shortened to VEI) is a scale, from 0 to 8, for measuring the strength of eruptions but does not capture all of the properties that may be perceived to be important. It is used by the

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are another hydrovolcanic feature, generated by the explosive deposition of basaltic tephra (although they are not truly volcanic vents). They form when lava accumulates within cracks in lava, superheats and explodes in a

1840:. Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas contents of the column, and low-strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of the eruption, forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster. 2248:

A Surtseyan (or hydrovolcanic) eruption is a type of volcanic eruption characterized by shallow-water interactions between water and lava, named after its most famous example, the eruption and formation of the island of

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Plinian eruptions are similar to both Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions, except that rather than creating discrete explosive events, Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns. They are also similar to Hawaiian

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off the coast of Iceland in 1963. Initial hydrovolcanics were highly explosive, but as the volcano grew, rising lava interacted less with water and more with air, until finally Surtseyan activity waned and became more

2858:. The eruptive process that builds these structures, originally inferred in the paper, begins with volcanic growth below the glacier. At first the eruptions resemble those that occur in the deep sea, forming piles of 1836:. These bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size (about 75% of the total volume of the magma conduit) they explode. The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated magma up, forming an 835:(both continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery 1351:

holding the magma down, and it disintegrates, leading to much more quiet and continuous eruptions. Thus an early sign of future Vulcanian activity is lava dome growth, and its collapse generates an outpouring of

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peculiar way—the front of the flow steepens due to pressure from behind until it breaks off, after which the general mass behind it moves forward. Pahoehoe lava can sometimes become A'a lava due to increasing

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eruptive column, one that is denser overall than a regular volcanic column. The densest part of the cloud is nearest to the vent, resulting in a wedge shape. Associated with these laterally moving rings are

3023:, scientists have suggested that there may be subglacial volcanoes on the red planet. Several potential sites of such volcanism have been reviewed, and compared extensively with similar features in Iceland: 4611:"The Utilization of Remotely Sensed Data to Analyze the Estimated Volume of Pyroclastic Deposits and Morphological Changes Caused by the 2010–2015 Eruption of Sinabung Volcano, North Sumatra, Indonesia" 963: 816:. The volume of ejected material from Hawaiian eruptions is less than half of that found in other eruptive types. Steady production of small amounts of lava builds up the large, broad form of a 924:

Although Hawaiian eruptions are named after the volcanoes of Hawaii, they are not necessarily restricted to them; the highest lava fountain recorded was during the 23 November 2013 eruption of

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Bamber, Emily C.; Arzilli, Fabio; Polacci, Margherita; Hartley, Margaret E.; Fellowes, Jonathan; Di Genova, Danilo; Chavarría, David; Saballos, José Armando; Burton, Mike R. (February 2020).

2965:. There is evidence of past subglacial eruptive activity on the volcano in the form of a subglacial deposit on its summit. The eruptions originated about 10,000 years ago, during the last 4974:"A sequence of a plinian eruption preceded by dome destruction at Kelud volcano, Indonesia, on February 13, 2014, revealed from tephra fallout and pyroclastic density current deposits" 1643:

most active volcano. It has been the site of many different types of eruptions, Peléan included. Approximately 40 ravines radiate from the summit and provide pathways for frequent

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2,200 years ago. It is believed to be that this was the biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10,000 years. Volcanic ash deposits from the volcano were identified through an

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Bonaccorso, A.; Calvari, S.; Linde, A.; Sacks, S. (28 July 2014). "Eruptive processes leading to the most explosive lava fountain at Etna volcano: The 23 November 2013 episode".

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Hawaiian eruptions are responsible for several unique volcanological objects. Small volcanic particles are carried and formed by the wind, chilling quickly into teardrop-shaped

655:† There is a discontinuity between the 1st and 2nd VEI level; instead of increasing by a magnitude of 10, the value increases by a magnitude of 100 (from 10,000 to 1,000,000). 2504: 1658:. Prior to this eruption the peak had not even been recognized as a volcano. Over 3,000 people were killed, and it has become a benchmark for studying large Peléan eruptions. 3755:

Mike Burton; Patrick Allard; Filippo Muré; Alessandro La Spina (2007). "Magmatic Gas Composition Reveals the Source Depth of Slug-Driven Strombolian Explosive Activity".

831:, a so-called "curtain of fire." These die down as the lava begins to concentrate at a few of the vents. Central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large 1936:

in that both eruptive types produce sustained eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as the magma surrounding them.

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Kyle, P. R. (Ed.), Volcanological and Environmental Studies of Mount Erebus, Antarctica, Antarctic Research Series, American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 1994.

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Often a precursor of future volcanic activity, phreatic eruptions are generally weak, although there have been exceptions. Some phreatic events may be triggered by

5041:"Atmospheric resonant oscillations by the 2014 eruption of the Kelud volcano, Indonesia, observed with the ionospheric total electron contents and seismic signals" 5884: 5363: 5251: 5095: 4583: 4552: 4477: 4091: 3960: 3261: 2701:

are common in shallow-water environments. As plate movement starts to carry the volcanoes away from their eruptive source, eruption rates start to die down, and

2651:. Higher spreading rates are a probable cause for higher levels of volcanism. The technology for studying seamount eruptions did not exist until advancements in 1201:, the southernmost active volcano in the world, having been observed erupting since 1972. Eruptive activity at Erebus consists of frequent Strombolian activity. 1105:, often ejected high into the air. Columns can measure hundreds of meters in height. The lavas formed by Strombolian eruptions are a form of relatively viscous 7148: 928:

in Italy, which reached a stable height of around 2,500 m (8,200 ft) for 18 minutes, briefly peaking at a height of 3,400 m (11,000 ft).

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lava is a relatively smooth lava flow that can be billowy or ropey. They can move as one sheet, by the advancement of "toes", or as a snaking lava column.

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Initial Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short-lived explosions, lasting a few minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of

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flows. There are about 100,000 deepwater volcanoes in the world, although most are beyond the active stage of their life. Some exemplary seamounts are

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The term "Strombolian" has been used indiscriminately to describe a wide variety of volcanic eruptions, varying from small volcanic blasts to large

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Maeno, Fukashi; Nakada, Setsuya; Yoshimoto, Mitsuhiro; Shimano, Taketo; Hokanishi, Natsumi; Zaennudin, Akhmad; Iguchi, Masato (15 September 2019).

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begins, building up flanks made up of mostly hyaloclastite. Eventually the lake boils off from continued volcanism, and the lava flows become more

6291: 1725: 1604: 5514: 954:"curtain of fire" on 3 January 1983. These gave way to centralized eruptions on the site of Kilauea's east rift, eventually building up the cone. 4743: 2170:

may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal contraction. Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by propagating

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make Peléan eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world, capable of tearing through populated areas and causing serious loss of life. The

5430: 231:. The former are characterized by gas-driven explosions that propel magma and tephra. The latter pour out lava without significant explosion. 6054: 3266: 2834:

The study of glaciovolcanism is still a relatively new field. Early accounts described the unusual flat-topped steep-sided volcanoes (called

2475: 1059: 527: 7198: 6099: 5824: 4128: 2788: 2359:, circular structures built of rapidly quenched lava. These structures are associated with single vent eruptions. If eruptions arise along 1664:, Indonesia. History of its eruptions since 2013 are showing the volcano emits pyroclastic flows with frequent collapses of its lava domes. 3410: 1843:

These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up 2 to 45 km (1 to 28 mi) into the

4710: 6703: 2575: 2241: 1998: 1290: 1070:, which has been erupting nearly continuously for centuries. Strombolian eruptions are driven by the bursting of gas bubbles within the 700: 4512: 4081: 3950: 2305:

eruptions do occur, albeit rarely), and like Strombolian eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous or otherwise rhythmic.

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and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is the

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that were suggested to have formed from eruptions below ice. The first English-language paper on the subject was published in 1947 by

2380:, breaking the rock apart and depositing it on the volcano's flank. Consecutive explosions of this type eventually generate the cone. 782: 340: 7114: 2291:(water-bearing rock formation) at shallow levels under the volcano can cause them. The products of Surtseyan eruptions are generally 820:. Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other volcanic types, and often occur at vents around the summit and from 3166: 2033: 1787: 1136:

fragments that travel in parabolic paths before landing around their source vent. The steady accumulation of small fragments builds

913:, the Hawaiian volcano deity). During especially high winds these chunks may even take the form of long drawn-out strands, known as 847:. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived; 556: 137:

are driven by the direct interaction of magma and water, as opposed to phreatic eruptions, where no fresh magma reaches the surface.

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Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength. On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions, which are characterized by

4775:"Pre- and syn-eruptive conditions of a basaltic Plinian eruption at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua: The Masaya Triple Layer (2.1 ka)" 6271: 5961: 5613: 3271: 2478:. Both of its vents exhibited Surtseyan activity for much of the time. It was also the site of an earlier eruption in May 1988. 2088: 586: 843:, they cannot cool off fast enough due to the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, the accumulation of which forms 5860: 5426: 4352: 3314: 3277: 1406:, the result of high gas contents within the magma. In some cases these have been found to be the result of interaction with 1101:. In reality, true Strombolian eruptions are characterized by short-lived and explosive eruptions of lavas with intermediate 613: 2590:

volcanic eruptions meant their details were virtually unknown until advances in the 1990s made it possible to observe them.

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Submarine eruptions occur underwater. An estimated 75% of volcanic eruptive volume is generated by submarine eruptions near

1386:" being especially common. These deeply cracked volcanic chunks form when the exterior of ejected lava cools quickly into a 5337: 3440:

Ruprecht, Philipp; Plank, Terry (August 2013). "Feeding andesitic eruptions with a high-speed connection from the mantle".

1579:, a bulge in the volcano's summit preempting its total collapse. The material collapses upon itself, forming a fast-moving 6070: 3361: 6046: 5039:

Nakashima, Yuki; Heki, Kosuke; Takeo, Akiko; Cahyadi, Mokhamad N.; Aditiya, Arif; Yoshizawa, Kazunori (15 January 2016).

3851:"Phreatomagmatic to Strombolian eruptive activity of basaltic cinder cones: Montaña Los Erales, Tenerife, Canary Islands" 2612:

of mantle rock that rises on an upwelling portion of a convection cell to the crustal surface. Eruptions associated with

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flow) that moves down the side of the mountain at tremendous speeds, often over 150 km (93 mi) per hour. These

797:, with this eruptive type is hallmark. Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic events, characterized by the 6640: 5553: 4303:

Gardner, M. F.; Troll, V. R.; Gamble, J. A.; Gertisser, R.; Hart, G. L.; Ellam, R. M.; Harris, C.; Wolff, J. A. (2013).

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Glaciovolcanic products have been identified in Iceland, the Canadian province of British Columbia, the U.S. states of

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at the base of the volcanic structure. Some of the lava shatters when it comes in contact with the cold ice, forming a

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may be dug out. Such eruptions tend to be more violent than those which form tuff rings or maars, an example being the

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Plinian volcanism being its 1947–48 eruption. The past 800 years have been a pattern of violent initial eruptions of

4248:"Grain size, mineralogical, and geochemistry of the 1996-2018 Volcanic Products of Anak Krakatau Volcano, Indonesia" 2461:. The volcano did not build tuff cones strong enough to withstand erosion and soon disappeared back below the waves. 7057: 7052: 6264: 6080: 5147: 4916: 4747: 4714: 4666:"Activity and hazards of the ongoing eruption of Sinabung Volcano, Indonesia, evaluated using UAS-derived datasets" 4516: 4190: 4132: 3734: 3645: 3535: 3414: 3226: 2160: 2045: 1391: 881:

Flows from Hawaiian eruptions are basaltic, and can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics.

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Richard V. Fisher & Grant Heiken (1982). "Mt. Pelée, Martinique: May 8 and 20 pyroclastic flows and surges".

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material broken off from the former cap. They are also more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts, with

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accompanied by the distinctive loud blasts. During eruptions, these blasts occur as often as every few minutes.

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The strongest types of eruptions, with a VEI of 8, are so-called "Ultra-Plinian" eruptions, such as the one at

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to the lowlands below. Mayon's most violent eruption occurred in 1814 and was responsible for over 1200 deaths.

1630: 1600: 1411: 1191:, which has displayed Strombolian activity in recent eruptions, for example in 1981, 1999, 2002–2003, and 2009. 351: 134: 5770:"Structure of volcanic landscape in the equatorial belt (A case study of the Kerinci Volcano, Sumatra Island)" 5492: 1398:. The center of the fragment expands, cracking the exterior. The bulk of Vulcanian deposits are fine grained 848: 7208: 7203: 6696: 5915: 5522: 5255: 5217: 4920: 2621: 1921: 1822: 1819: 642: 355: 347: 3995:

Spina, Laura; Del Bello, Elisabetta; Ricci, Tullio; Taddeucci, Jacopo; Scarlato, Piergiorgio (1 May 2021).

5371: 5324: 3186: 1167:), and produce fewer molten lava flows (although the eruptive material does tend to form small rivulets). 681: 5608: 7297: 6024: 5992: 5184: 3020: 2843: 2706: 1078:. These grow large enough to rise through the lava column. Upon reaching the surface, the difference in 128: 7090: 855:, erupted continuously for over 35 years. Another Hawaiian volcanic feature is the formation of active 5526: 5040: 4861:

Jolis, E. M.; Troll, V. R.; Harris, C.; Freda, C.; Gaeta, M.; Orsi, G.; Siebe, C. (15 November 2015).

3997:"Multi-parametric characterization of explosive activity at Batu Tara Volcano (Flores Sea, Indonesia)" 3996: 3705:

To the best of our knowledge, it reached the highest value ever measured for a lava fountain on Earth.

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Walker, G.P. (1980). "The Taupo pumice: product of the most powerful known (ultraplinian) eruption?".

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There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions, and some scientists believe that

651:* This is the minimum eruptive volume necessary for the eruption to be considered within the category. 7234: 6346: 6153: 6006: 5970: 5924: 5893: 5781: 5622: 5422: 5333: 5104: 5052: 4985: 4878: 4862: 4786: 4751: 4677: 4622: 4486: 4316: 4259: 4063: 4008: 3862: 3850: 3766: 3680: 3500: 3449: 2752: 2660: 2338: 2329:-shaped depositions of rock left behind by the lateral movement. These are occasionally disrupted by 2258: 1003: 993: 437: 150: 68: 7213: 5658: 5317:"The Geological History of Deep-Sea Volcanoes: Biosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere Interactions" 5151: 3649: 2886: 2795:

Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized by interactions between lava and

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which erupted continuously from 1983 to 2018. The eruptions began with a 6 km (4 mi)-long

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in assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows. It operates in a way similar to the

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Scarlato, P.; Del Bello, E.; Gaudin, D.; Taddeucci, J.; Ricci, T.; Cesaroni, C. (1 December 2015).

2992: 2744: 2734: 1909:. Eruptions can last anywhere from hours to days, with longer eruptions being associated with more 1794:

Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian eruptions) are a type of volcanic eruption named for the historical

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volcanoes. Although they are usually associated with felsic magma, Plinian eruptions can occur at

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Spreading rates along mid-ocean ridges vary widely, from 2 cm (0.8 in) per year at the

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74 thousand years ago, which put out 2800 times the material erupted by Mount St. Helens in 1980.

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Ardian, D N; Darmawan, H; Wahyudi; Mutaqin, B W; Suratman; Haerani, N; Wikanti (1 August 2022).

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Phreatic eruptions (or steam-blast eruptions) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of

1489: 1479: 515: 5888:. Volcanic Eruption Mechanisms – Insights from intercomparison of models of conduit processes. 5099:. Volcanic Eruption Mechanisms – Insights from intercomparison of models of conduit processes. 4450: 3418: 1324:

often reaching between 5 and 10 km (3 and 6 mi) high. Lastly, Vulcanian deposits are

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of 4, but acoustic waves travel well in water and over long periods of time. A system in the

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It is important when studying the products of explosive eruptions to distinguish between...:

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causes the bubble to burst with a loud pop, throwing magma in the air in a way similar to a

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Pyle, D. M. (January 1989). "The thickness, volume and grainsize of tephra fall deposits".

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than the products of magmatic eruptions because of the differences in eruptive mechanisms.

2109:, Indonesia erupted in 2014 and ejected around 120,000,000 to 160,000,000 cubic metres (4.2 721: 7229: 7176: 6971: 6834: 6746: 6736: 6486: 6240: 5548: 4272: 4247: 4159: 3194: 3105: 2962: 2617: 2605: 2583: 2377: 2352: 2317: 2209: 1955: 1925: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1837: 1750: 1716: 1572: 1321: 1156: 1098: 947: 895: 875: 738: 696: 493: 219:

Thermal contraction from chilling on contact with water, causing phreatomagmatic eruptions

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are the most well-observed type of eruption. They involve the decompression of gas within

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liberation during Pompeii and Pollena eruptions, Vesuvius volcanic system, central Italy"

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caused tremendous destruction, killing more than 30,000 people and completely destroying

1462:, Indonesia, repeated vulcanian activities since its rise in 1930 until the present time. 1160: 1159:, do not produce some volcanic products associated with Hawaiian volcanism (specifically 906: 6010: 5974: 5928: 5897: 5785: 5626: 5456: 5108: 4989: 4980:. Lessons learned from the recent eruptions of Sinabung and Kelud Volcanoes, Indonesia. 4882: 4790: 4681: 4665: 4626: 4490: 4320: 4067: 4051: 4012: 3866: 3770: 3684: 3504: 3453: 1484: 1074:. These gas bubbles within the magma accumulate and coalesce into large bubbles, called 7047: 6976: 6794: 6774: 6439: 6355: 6230: 5580: 4836: 4396: 4164: 3827: 3148: 3132: 3121: 3010: 2873:. After a while the ice finally melts into a lake, and the more explosive eruptions of 2863: 2784: 2722: 2714: 2695: 2691: 2567: 2511: 2420: 2395: 2368: 2277: 2237: 2100: 2080: 2002: 1959: 1947: 1732: 1702: 1661: 1622: 1596: 1584: 1549: 1533: 1439: 1407: 1387: 1375: 1344: 1286: 1278: 1204: 1164: 1055: 1043: 936: 914: 902: 817: 790: 778: 766: 582: 497: 41: 4391: 1359: 53:

Some of the eruptive structures formed during volcanic activity (counterclockwise): a

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associated with submarine volcanic eruptions. The reason for this is that land-based

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and leaving only 3 survivors. The eruption was directly preceded by lava dome growth.

1611: 1529: 1505: 1459: 1402:. The ash is only moderately dispersed, and its abundance indicates a high degree of 1383: 1379: 1340: 1282: 1258: 1250: 1155:, but there are differences. Strombolian eruptions are noisier, produce no sustained 1129: 1051: 1023: 1019: 844: 832: 774: 734: 693: 685: 609: 574: 362:, in that each interval in value represents a tenfold increasing in magnitude (it is 263: 240: 170: 36:"Volcanic eruption" and "Volcanic eruptions" redirect here. For the short story, see 3802: 7255: 7239: 7171: 7037: 6981: 6819: 6751: 6645: 6567: 6562: 6395: 6360: 6308: 4942:

Stephen Self; Jing-Xia Zhao; Rick E. Holasek; Ronnie C. Torres & Alan J. King.

3477: 3225:, all historical eruptions of this volcano have been phreatic including the deadly 3222: 3176: 3113: 3101: 3073: 2764: 2609: 2270: 2221: 2205: 2178:

that ultimately leads to rapid cooling and explosive contraction-driven eruptions.

2175: 2018: 2006: 1864: 1860: 1799: 1775: 1767: 1588: 1517: 1497: 1399: 1313: 1270: 1254: 1194: 1090:

associated with the lavas, continued activity is generally in the form of episodic

1079: 1035: 1015: 980: 951: 910: 828: 821: 813: 758: 674: 630: 116: 83: 6076: 4890: 1174: 1116: 216:

Ejection of entrained particles during steam eruptions, causing phreatic eruptions

5995:(September 1947). ""Tuyas," flat-topped volcanoes in northern British Columbia". 5854: 4943: 2628:. Each process generates different rock; mid-ocean ridge volcanics are primarily 2280:, but they are not confined to seamounts. They can happen on land as well, where 1304:'s observations of its 1888–1890 eruptions. In Vulcanian eruptions, intermediate 1120:

An example of the lava arcs formed during Strombolian activity. This image is of

6931: 6886: 6861: 6769: 6741: 6731: 6660: 6546: 6479: 6458: 6453: 6331: 5692: 3180: 3100:. When cold ground or surface water come into contact with hot rock or magma it 3081: 3061: 2859: 2772: 2748: 2687: 2664: 2571: 2543: 2468: 2446: 2434: 2424: 2321: 2201: 2157: 2084: 2014: 1807: 1682: 1640: 1629:. The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée completely devastated the island, destroying 1317: 1137: 1083: 939: 87: 5064: 4329: 3375: 3247: 1312:

to escape. Similar to Strombolian eruptions, this leads to the buildup of high

266:

before climbing upward—a process estimated to take several thousands of years.

7224: 7218: 6956: 6906: 6881: 6341: 6091: 6086: 5793: 4634: 3243: 3204: 3190: 3136: 3128: 2977: 2847: 2819:. This meltwater mix means that subglacial eruptions often generate dangerous 2652: 2613: 2410: 2334: 2295: 1852: 1851:. As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense, 1844: 1698: 1626: 1576: 1553: 1449: 1421: 1198: 1184: 1066:

Strombolian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption named after the volcano

970: 925: 918: 420: 359: 5801: 5384: 5072: 5017: 4898: 4642: 4281: 4028: 3882: 3786: 3627: 3016:

in 1996, which occurred under an estimated 2,500 ft (762 m) of ice.

2143:

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are eruptions that arise from interactions between

7271: 6941: 6926: 6911: 6844: 6759: 6670: 6665: 6613: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6321: 6316: 5769: 5488: 4610: 3849:

Clarke, Hilary; Troll, Valentin R.; Carracedo, Juan Carlos (10 March 2009).

3778: 3152: 3144: 3009:, is often a site of subglacial eruptions. An example an eruption under the 2980: 2958: 2898: 2816: 2680: 2495: 2428: 2364: 2356: 2326: 2302: 2117:

10 cu ft) volcanic ashes which caused economic disruptions across

2074: 2052: 1902: 1874: 1867:. At the top of the plume, powerful winds may drive the plume away from the 1759: 1592: 1575:. An early sign of a coming eruption is the growth of a so-called Peléan or 1568: 1501: 1493: 1353: 1348: 1325: 1305: 1296:

Vulcanian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption named after the volcano

1242: 1214: 1208: 1141: 1121: 1102: 1067: 1027: 1007: 891: 859:, self-maintaining pools of raw lava with a thin crust of semi-cooled rock. 856: 802: 794: 742: 730: 638: 445: 363: 259: 244: 5720: 3794: 3469: 2269:

and expands violently, fragmenting the magma it contacts into fine-grained

862: 6018: 5825:"Mount Kerinci Spews Ash, National Park Management Closes Climbing Routes" 3607: 2705:

grinds the volcano down. The final stages of eruption cap the seamount in

193: 6986: 6961: 6936: 6866: 6620: 6608: 6513: 6413: 6196: 5983: 5461: 3692: 2808: 2804: 2803:. The nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of high 2594: 2587: 2438: 2330: 2292: 2274: 1565: 1557: 1467: 1431: 1363: 1075: 882: 867: 746: 274:

in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the

5952:

Colleen M. Riley; William I. Rose; Gregg J. S. Bluth (28 October 2003).

4809: 3897: 3461: 3108:, fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of steam, 1466:

Vulcanian eruptions are estimated to make up at least half of all known

366:). The vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2. 141:

Within these broad eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are

6916: 6901: 6726: 6712: 6603: 6577: 6538: 6474: 6405: 6326: 5936: 5008: 4357:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. p. 37. 3924: 3077: 3013: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2966: 2928: 2910: 2902: 2866: 2839: 2800: 2768: 2702: 2637: 2551: 2491: 2391: 2387: 2288: 2254: 2250: 2225: 2095:

magma, a 40 km (25 mi) high eruption column, and released 17

2092: 2062: 2010: 1983: 1898: 1868: 1803: 1779: 1648: 1521: 1329: 1297: 1274: 1246: 1133: 1039: 1011: 943: 871: 852: 762: 704: 470: 91: 79: 49: 5634: 2257:

in 1963. Surtseyan eruptions are the "wet" equivalent of ground-based

7126: 6966: 6951: 6921: 6896: 6891: 6871: 6824: 3131:

activity, another volcanic precursor, and they may also travel along

2939: 2935: 2855: 2629: 2454: 2414: 2406: 2349: 2298: 2070: 2066: 2044:, which ripped apart the volcano's summit, was a Plinian eruption of 2022: 1987: 1975: 1962: 1940: 1914: 1910: 1561: 1428:

has been the site of Vulcanian activity near-continuously since 1955.

1403: 1333: 1178: 1145: 1144:. This form of accumulation tends to result in well-ordered rings of 1110: 1106: 958: 836: 805: 671: 202: 185:

scale, ranging from 0 to 8, that often correlates to eruptive types.

4052:"Dynamics of strombolian eruptions at Batu Tara volcano (Indonesia)" 886: 684:

from gas release. They range in intensity from the relatively small

314:- the extent of destruction of life or property (real or potential); 5879: 5090: 3583:

Volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis : a complete introduction

3213:, has frequent geyser like phreatic eruptions from its crater lake. 3165:, which exhibited phreatic activity just prior to its catastrophic 2690:, a rounded lava flow named for its unusual shape. Less common are 2600:

Submarine volcanism is driven by various processes. Volcanoes near

2333:, rock that was flung out by the explosive eruption and followed a 827:

Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a

789:

Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption named after the

7157: 6434: 6388: 6130: 4305:"Crustal Differentiation Processes at Krakatau Volcano, Indonesia" 3140: 3109: 3097: 3051: 2915: 2828: 2824: 2738: 2547: 2533: 2472: 2450: 2284: 2266: 2213: 2191: 2148: 2144: 2124: 2106: 2096: 2058: 1979: 1951: 1946: 1873: 1833: 1749: 1525: 1483: 1425: 1358: 1232: 1188: 1115: 1071: 1047: 997: 974: 861: 840: 770: 720: 667: 192: 124: 120: 106: 48: 4948:

FIRE and MUD: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

2337:

path to the ground. Accumulations of wet, spherical ash known as

2308:

A defining feature of a Surtseyan eruption is the formation of a

1986:

with the consistency of wet concrete that move at the speed of a

262:. Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the 6991: 6764: 6571: 6064: 6028: 5696: 5662: 5558: 5289: 4951: 4220: 3334: 3069: 2951: 2924: 2894: 2835: 2812: 2760: 2555: 2345: 2217: 2118: 2029:

that led scientists to refer to Vesuvian eruptions as "Plinian".

1771: 1513: 1266: 1262: 1031: 809: 754: 750: 247: 64: 7130: 6685: 6260: 6095: 5880:"A transient model for explosive and phreatomagmatic eruptions" 5091:"A transient model for explosive and phreatomagmatic eruptions" 2394:. The volcano built itself up from depth and emerged above the 7182: 5177:"X. Classification of Volcanic Eruptions: Surtseyan Eruptions" 2881:

and thicken as the lava cools much more slowly, often forming

2796: 2756: 2316:), a ground hugging radial cloud that develops along with the 1825: 127:. This type exhibits no magmatic release, instead causing the 2885:. Well-preserved tuyas show all of these stages, for example 1939:

Regions affected by Plinian eruptions are subjected to heavy

6681: 4944:"The Atmospheric Impact of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo Eruption" 4609:

Yulianto, Fajar; Suwarsono; Sofan, Parwati (1 August 2016).

2320:. Base surges are caused by the gravitational collapse of a 6060: 3556:

Dosseto, A.; Turner, S. P.; Van-Orman, J. A., eds. (2011).

2901:. Evidence of volcanic-glacial interactions are evident in 1610:

Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the

213:

Gas release under decompression, causing magmatic eruptions

5878:

A.B. Starostin, A.A. Barmin & O.E. Melnik (May 2005).

5089:

A.B. Starostin; A.A. Barmin & O.E. Melnik (May 2005).

2694:, marginal sheet flows, indicative of larger-scale flows. 1548:) are a type of volcanic eruption named after the volcano 1417:

Volcanoes that have exhibited Vulcanian activity include:

964:

List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain

5742:

Esguerra, Darryl John; Cinco, Maricar (12 January 2020).

3558:

Timescales of Magmatic Processes: From Core to Atmosphere

3309:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 246. 2597:, which may break the surface and form volcanic islands. 5954:"Quantitative shape measurements of distal volcanic ash" 2897:

and other structures may destabilize, resulting in mass

2417:, 1957, both examples of above-water Surtseyan activity. 699:

more than 30 km (19 mi) high, bigger than the

209:

Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms:

5744:"BREAKING: Taal volcano spews ash in phreatic eruption" 3235:, Indonesia, produces almost annual phreatic eruptions. 2954:. Volcanoes known to have subglacial activity include: 2683:, has detected an event on average every 2 to 3 years. 1814:. The process powering Plinian eruptions starts in the 1211:, exhibited continuous Strombolian eruption since 2014. 270:

volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica's

4252:

IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

3158:

Volcanoes known to exhibit phreatic activity include:

1170:

Volcanoes known to have Strombolian activity include:

5607:

Leonid N. Germanovich & Robert P. Lowell (1995).

5602: 5600: 5598: 5242:"Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai: Index of Monthly Reports" 2383:

Volcanoes known to have Surtseyan activity include:

2077:

of basaltic lava from the lower part of the volcano.

1410:, suggesting that Vulcanian eruptions are partially 7248: 7191: 7164: 7010: 6852: 6719: 6633: 6596: 6555: 6537: 6506: 6499: 6467: 6433: 6426: 6404: 6374: 6340: 6307: 6298: 6213: 6195: 6167: 6129: 5310: 5308: 5306: 3857:. Models and products of mafic explosive activity. 3155:able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption. 2909:, and it is even possible that they play a role in 2273:. Surtseyan eruptions are typical of shallow-water 931:Volcanoes known to have Hawaiian activity include: 5423:"Glaciovolcanism – University of British Columbia" 2969:, when the summit of Mauna Kea was covered in ice. 2091:, which produced 5 km (1 cu mi) of 5653: 5651: 5275: 5273: 4513:"How Volcanoes Work: Mount Pelée Eruption (1902)" 4418:Donald Hyndman & David Hyndman (April 2008). 3612:. Troll, V. R. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 1618:Volcanoes known to have Peléan activity include: 839:fragments; when the air is especially thick with 98:There are three main types of volcanic eruption: 6061:USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) homepage 5450: 5448: 4738: 4736: 3585:(Illustrated ed.). London: Teach Yourself. 2494:, erupting 13 days after breaching the water. A 484:10,000,000 m (353,000,000 cu ft) 5362:Paul Wessel; David T. Sandwell; Seung-Sep Kim. 5171: 5169: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5132: 5130: 5128: 5126: 3219:, well known for its sudden phreatic eruptions. 3030: 2445:, breached sea level in July 1831 and caused a 1374:Deposits near the source vent consist of large 1308:magma within the volcano make it difficult for 898:, but A'a lava never turns into pahoehoe flow. 458:1,000,000 m (35,300,000 cu ft) 281: 29:"Eruption" redirects here. For other uses, see 5885:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 5715: 5713: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5252:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History 5210:Alwyn Scarth & Jean-Claude Tanguy (2001). 5096:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 4978:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 4779:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 4584:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History 4553:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History 4478:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 4092:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History 4001:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 3961:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History 3855:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 3493:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 3262:List of volcanic eruptions in the 21st century 258:. Notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start from 7142: 6697: 6272: 6107: 5686: 5684: 5682: 5680: 4830: 4828: 3274: – Research to predict volcanic activity 2679:and originally intended for the detection of 8: 6087:Live-Stream: Earth's Volcanoes and Eruptions 3725: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 2667:cannot detect sea-based earthquakes below a 2647:, to up to 16 cm (6 in) along the 1969:The most dangerous eruptive feature are the 1394:shell, but the inside continues to cool and 5853:Grant Heiken & Kenneth Wohletz (1985). 5144:"How Volcanoes Work: Hydrovolcic Eruptions" 4705: 4703: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4695: 4693: 4691: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3731:"How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions" 3356: 3354: 3352: 2893:retreats worldwide there are concerns that 2655:technology made it possible to "listen" to 2510:The fissure formed by the 1886 eruption of 2344:Over time Surtseyan eruptions tend to form 511:100,000,000 m (0.024 cu mi) 7149: 7135: 7127: 6704: 6690: 6682: 6503: 6430: 6304: 6279: 6265: 6257: 6114: 6100: 6092: 5084: 5082: 4451:"Volcanoes, Magma, and Volcanic Eruptions" 3532:"How Volcanoes Work: Eruption Variability" 3300: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3292: 1974:deposits on the volcano, which mixes with 1897:are usually associated with volatile-rich 1701:that developed after the 1902 eruption of 78:—during which material is expelled from a 6023:. This is the original landmark paper by 5982: 5007: 4997: 4808: 4798: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4328: 4271: 4129:"How Volcanoes Work: Vulcanian Eruptions" 3526: 3524: 3522: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3362:"Volcanoes of Canada: Volcanic eruptions" 921:, the lowest density rock type on earth. 5315:Hubert Straudigal & David A Clauge. 4664:Carr, B. B.; Lev, E. (1 December 2018). 4449:Nelson, Stephan A. (30 September 2007). 4217:"VHP Photo Glossary: Vulcanian eruption" 4187:"How Volcanoes Work: Sakurajima Volcano" 3411:"How Volcanoes Work: Hawaiian Eruptions" 3305:Heiken, Grant; Wohletz, Kenneth (1985). 3033:where subglacial volcanism has occurred. 1832:and accumulate as they rise through the 1605:worst volcanic event in the 20th century 433:10,000 m (353,000 cu ft) 368: 5823:Bhwana, Petir Garda (20 October 2022). 5659:"VHP Photo Glossary: Phreatic eruption" 4711:"How Volcanoes Work: Plinian Eruptions" 3606:Carracedo, J. C. (Juan Carlos) (2016). 3288: 2976:reported a volcanic eruption under the 2481: 1993:Major Plinian eruptive events include: 1719:following the devastating 1951 eruption 1667: 102: 2987:, buried under later snowfalls in the 2815:into the ice covering them, producing 2632:, whereas subduction flows are mostly 2616:, meanwhile, are driven by subducting 1810:and, specifically, for its chronicler 957:For a list of all of the volcanoes of 409:1,000 m (35,300 cu ft) 5609:"The mechanism of phreatic eruptions" 5485:"Tuya or Subglacial Volcano, Iceland" 5433:from the original on 2 September 2004 5282:"Recent Submarine Volcanic Eruptions" 3267:List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions 3151:"rain." They may also release deadly 1151:Strombolian eruptions are similar to 430:100–1,000 m (300–3,300 ft) 169:; the strongest eruptions are called 90:. These are often named after famous 7: 7085: 4744:"How Volcanoes Work: Eruption Model" 2341:are another common surge indicator. 1109:lava, and its end product is mostly 627:1,000 km (200 cu mi) 7109: 5045:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3642:"How Volcanoes Work: Basaltic Lava" 2686:The most common underwater flow is 1905:lavas, and occur most typically at 1828:are stored in the magma. The gases 1356:material down the volcano's slope. 701:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD 5457:"Ancient Antarctic eruption noted" 5455:Black, Richard (20 January 2008). 5280:Chadwick, Bill (10 January 2006). 2624:to the rising plate, lowering its 1863:drive it even further up into the 1438:, one of several volcanoes in the 341:List of largest volcanic eruptions 161:. The stronger eruptive types are 25: 5721:"Phreatic Eruptions – John Seach" 4863:"Skarn xenolith record crustal CO 3609:The geology of the Canary Islands 2174:, widening cracks and increasing 1886:, as viewed to the west from the 600:100 km (20 cu mi) 541:1 km (0.24 cu mi) 42:Volcanic Eruptions (film company) 7108: 7096: 7084: 7073: 7072: 6843: 5906:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.09.014 5768:Belyanin, P. S. (1 April 2017). 5691:Watson, John (5 February 1997). 5117:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.09.014 4999:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.03.002 4800:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.106761 4021:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107199 3875:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.11.014 3246: 2659:, known as T-waves, released by 2593:Submarine eruptions may produce 2503: 2484: 2287:that comes into contact with an 1796:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 1724: 1709: 1690: 1670: 1656:1951 eruption of Mount Lamington 1452:exhibited Vulcanian activity in 1347:. These eruptions wear down the 1140:composed completely of basaltic 917:. Sometimes basalt aerates into 370:Volcanic eruptions by VEI index 223:In terms of activity, there are 5962:Journal of Geophysical Research 5774:Geography and Natural Resources 5614:Journal of Geophysical Research 5549:"Iceland's subglacial eruption" 4273:10.1088/1755-1315/1071/1/012017 3272:Prediction of volcanic activity 3135:lines. Phreatic eruptions form 2369:1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera 1928:, or if magma ascends rapidly. 653:** Values are a rough estimate. 570:10 km (2 cu mi) 5861:University of California Press 5581:"Subglacial Volcanoes On Mars" 5427:University of British Columbia 4913:"How Volcanoes Work: Calderas" 4835:Cain, Fraser (22 April 2009). 4390:Cain, Fraser (22 April 2009). 3821:Cain, Fraser (22 April 2010). 3374:. 2 April 2009. Archived from 3278:Timeline of volcanism on Earth 123:due to the close proximity of 1: 6071:Distinguishing eruptive types 5693:"Types of volcanic eruptions" 5515:"Kinds of Volcanic Eruptions" 4891:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.09.003 4421:Natural Hazards and Disasters 3331:"Glossary: Effusive Eruption" 983:in 1986 (see above paragraph) 824:radiating out of the center. 508:10–25 km (6–16 mi) 406:<100 m (330 ft) 308:- the importance of momentum; 197:Diagram showing the scale of 67:flows, and a lava arc from a 6641:Potentially hazardous object 5554:Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 5364:"The Global Seamount Census" 4499:10.1016/0377-0273(82)90056-7 4158:Cain, Fraser (20 May 2009). 3673:Geophysical Research Letters 3513:10.1016/0377-0273(80)90008-6 2431:in 1886, killing 150 people. 1924:with upper portions rich in 1597:1902 eruption of Mount Pelée 1300:. It was named so following 1128:Strombolian eruptions eject 624:>25 km (16 mi) 597:>25 km (16 mi) 567:>25 km (16 mi) 538:>25 km (16 mi) 86:—have been distinguished by 40:. For the film company, see 6123:Types of volcanic eruptions 6047:Category:Volcanic eruptions 5998:American Journal of Science 5583:. Space Daily. 27 June 2001 5375:. Seamounts Special Issue. 5328:. Seamounts Special Issue. 4615:Pure and Applied Geophysics 3925:"Mt Etna Volcano Eruptions" 3898:"Mt Etna Volcano Eruptions" 3367:Geological Survey of Canada 481:3–15 km (2–9 mi) 76:types of volcanic eruptions 7314: 7199:Fractional crystallization 6081:San Diego State University 5148:San Diego State University 5065:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.029 4917:San Diego State University 4748:San Diego State University 4715:San Diego State University 4574:"Lamington: Photo Gallery" 4517:San Diego State University 4191:San Diego State University 4133:San Diego State University 3735:San Diego State University 3646:San Diego State University 3581:Rothery, David A. (2016). 3536:San Diego State University 3415:San Diego State University 3045: 2946:of western North America, 2732: 2586:alone. Problems detecting 2527: 2476:breached sea level in 2009 2185: 2156:more regular in shape and 2136: 2046:Volcanic Explosivity Index 1954:from the 1985 eruption of 1743: 1477: 1226: 991: 714: 455:1–5 km (1–3 mi) 338: 335:Volcanic explosivity index 332: 329:Volcanic explosivity index 302:- the extent of dispersal; 179:Volcanic Explosivity Index 35: 28: 18:Types of volcanic eruption 7068: 6841: 5794:10.1134/S1875372817020111 4635:10.1007/s00024-016-1342-8 3207:, West Indies, 1995–2012. 2636:, and more explosive and 2355:dug into the ground, and 1571:that often creates large 1291:Click for larger version. 649: 135:Phreatomagmatic eruptions 38:Volcanic Eruption (manga) 31:Eruption (disambiguation) 6747:Cryptovolcanic structure 5247:Global Volcanism Program 4579:Global Volcanism Program 4548:Global Volcanism Program 4330:10.1093/petrology/egs066 4087:Global Volcanism Program 3956:Global Volcanism Program 3372:Natural Resources Canada 2974:British Antarctic Survey 2789:Click for larger version 2242:Click for larger version 2139:Phreatomagmatic eruption 1788:Click for larger version 1538:Click for larger version 1060:Click for larger version 783:Click for larger version 352:Global Volcanism Program 278:over just a few months. 109:that propels it forward. 7293:Volcanic eruption types 7028:Eruptions by death toll 5916:Bulletin of Volcanology 5523:Oregon State University 5218:Oxford University Press 5057:2016E&PSL.434..112N 4264:2022E&ES.1071a2017A 3779:10.1126/science.1141900 3021:search for life on Mars 2950:and even on the planet 393: 348:Smithsonian Institution 201:correlation with total 7249:Surface manifestations 7181:Dissolved and exolved 4354:Volcanoes of the world 3823:"Strombolian Eruption" 3197:), 1975–1976 activity. 3093: 3035: 3001:, well known for both 2931: 2792: 2579: 2245: 2168:fuel-coolant reactions 2129: 2073:followed by prolonged 1966: 1890: 1791: 1541: 1454:its 1963–1965 eruption 1371: 1293: 1281:10. Magma conduit 11. 1125: 1086:. Because of the high 1063: 894:or increasing rate of 878: 786: 382: 317: 206: 71: 6214:Other classifications 6027:that first described 6025:William Henry Mathews 6019:10.2475/ajs.245.9.560 5993:William Henry Mathews 5748:newsinfo.inquirer.net 5185:University of Alabama 4351:Siebert, Lee (2010). 4160:"Vulcanian Eruptions" 3055: 2985:airborne radar survey 2919: 2844:William Henry Mathews 2742: 2661:submarine earthquakes 2610:decompression melting 2537: 2259:Strombolian eruptions 2195: 2151:. They are driven by 2128: 1950: 1877: 1753: 1677:Pyroclastic flows at 1544:Peléan eruptions (or 1487: 1362: 1236: 1119: 1001: 865: 851:, a volcanic cone on 724: 312:destructive potential 196: 52: 7235:Anorogenic magmatism 6033:subglacial eruptions 5984:10.1029/2001JB000818 5334:Oceanography Society 5258:on 30 September 2004 4590:on 30 September 2004 4428:. pp. 134–135. 4309:Journal of Petrology 3693:10.1002/2014GL060623 2675:, maintained by the 2339:accretionary lapilli 1004:Strombolian eruption 994:Strombolian eruption 296:- the emission rate; 69:Strombolian eruption 7266:Geothermal gradient 7165:Components of magma 6011:1947AmJS..245..560M 5975:2003JGRB..108.2504R 5929:1989BVol...51....1P 5898:2005JVGR..143..133S 5786:2017GNR....38..196B 5627:1995JGR...100.8417G 5213:Volcanoes of Europe 5109:2005JVGR..143..133S 4990:2019JVGR..382...24M 4883:2015ChGeo.415...17J 4791:2020JVGR..39206761B 4682:2018AGUFM.V23D0108C 4627:2016PApGe.173.2711Y 4491:1982JVGR...13..339F 4321:2013JPet...54..149G 4068:2015AGUFM.V51D3058S 4013:2021JVGR..41307199S 3867:2009JVGR..180..225C 3771:2007Sci...317..227B 3685:2014GeoRL..41.4912B 3560:. Wiley-Blackwell. 3505:1980JVGR....8...69W 3462:10.1038/nature12342 3454:2013Natur.500...68R 3378:on 20 February 2010 2993:Pine Island Glacier 2850:field in northwest 2745:Subglacial eruption 2735:Subglacial eruption 2498:surrounds the vent. 2153:thermal contraction 1895:explosive eruptions 1798:AD that buried the 1092:explosive eruptions 905:fragments known as 371: 321:George P. L. Walker 290:- the total volume; 268:Columbia University 225:explosive eruptions 7261:Geothermal systems 7158:Magmatic processes 7023:Lists of volcanoes 6810:Subglacial volcano 6785:Pyroclastic shield 6292:list by death toll 6077:How Volcanoes Work 5937:10.1007/BF01086757 5495:on 5 February 2009 4837:"Plinian Eruption" 4754:on 21 January 2013 3169:(which was itself 3094: 2932: 2875:Surtseyan activity 2793: 2713:(formerly Loihi), 2677:United States Navy 2645:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 2580: 2540:Submarine eruption 2530:Submarine eruption 2514:, an example of a 2466:underwater volcano 2246: 2198:Surtseyan eruption 2188:Surtseyan eruption 2130: 1967: 1917:volcanoes, if the 1891: 1792: 1770:rain 4. Layers of 1542: 1382:, with so-called " 1372: 1294: 1239:Vulcanian eruption 1229:Vulcanian eruption 1153:Hawaiian eruptions 1126: 1064: 879: 791:Hawaiian volcanoes 787: 670:eruptions produce 369: 229:effusive eruptions 207: 183:order-of-magnitude 115:are driven by the 113:Phreatic eruptions 103:Magmatic eruptions 72: 7280: 7279: 7124: 7123: 6877:Basaltic andesite 6815:Submarine volcano 6679: 6678: 6656:Geomagnetic storm 6629: 6628: 6495: 6494: 6422: 6421: 6366:Soil liquefaction 6288:Natural disasters 6254: 6253: 6051:Wikimedia Commons 5635:10.1029/94JB03096 5621:(B5): 8417–8434. 5561:. 11 October 1996 4721:on 8 October 2018 4455:Tulane University 4392:"Pelean Eruption" 3765:(5835): 227–230. 3679:(14): 4912–4919. 3652:on 8 October 2018 3062:Water vapor cloud 3058:phreatic eruption 3048:Phreatic eruption 2883:columnar jointing 2846:, describing the 2749:Water vapor cloud 2719:Davidson Seamount 2699:sedimentary rocks 2649:East Pacific Rise 2608:are built by the 2544:Water vapor cloud 2443:Mediterranean Sea 2310:pyroclastic surge 2253:off the coast of 2027:Pliny the Younger 2017:under a layer of 1971:pyroclastic flows 1857:thermal expansion 1812:Pliny the Younger 1731:2016 eruption of 1645:pyroclastic flows 1384:bread-crust bombs 1302:Giuseppe Mercalli 948:island of Hawaiʻi 799:effusive eruption 727:Hawaiian eruption 717:Hawaiian eruption 660: 659: 656: 256:fissure eruptions 167:Plinian eruptions 131:of existing rock. 16:(Redirected from 7305: 7177:Igneous minerals 7151: 7144: 7137: 7128: 7112: 7111: 7100: 7088: 7087: 7076: 7075: 7033:Decade Volcanoes 7011:Lists and groups 7002:Pyroclastic flow 6997:Pyroclastic fall 6847: 6780:Pyroclastic cone 6706: 6699: 6692: 6683: 6588:Tropical cyclone 6582:Tornado outbreak 6504: 6431: 6384:Pyroclastic flow 6376:Volcano eruption 6305: 6281: 6274: 6267: 6258: 6116: 6109: 6102: 6093: 6022: 5988: 5986: 5958: 5948: 5909: 5892:(1–3): 133–151. 5874: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5765: 5759: 5758: 5756: 5754: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5717: 5708: 5707: 5705: 5703: 5688: 5675: 5674: 5672: 5670: 5655: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5641: 5604: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5525:. Archived from 5511: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5500: 5491:. Archived from 5480: 5474: 5473: 5471: 5469: 5452: 5443: 5442: 5440: 5438: 5419: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5393: 5387:. Archived from 5368: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5342: 5336:. Archived from 5321: 5312: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5277: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5263: 5254:. Archived from 5238: 5232: 5231: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5196: 5191:on 29 April 2010 5187:. Archived from 5173: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5150:. Archived from 5140: 5121: 5120: 5103:(1–3): 133–151. 5086: 5077: 5076: 5036: 5030: 5029: 5011: 5001: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4958: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4923:on 25 April 2015 4919:. Archived from 4909: 4903: 4902: 4871:Chemical Geology 4858: 4852: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4832: 4823: 4822: 4812: 4802: 4770: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4759: 4750:. Archived from 4740: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4717:. Archived from 4707: 4686: 4685: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4621:(8): 2711–2725. 4606: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4586:. Archived from 4570: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4530: 4528: 4519:. Archived from 4509: 4503: 4502: 4485:(3–4): 339–371. 4472: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4426:Cengage Learning 4415: 4409: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4387: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4371: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4332: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4275: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4223:. Archived from 4213: 4207: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4193:. Archived from 4183: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4172: 4155: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4135:. Archived from 4125: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4094:. Archived from 4078: 4072: 4071: 4047: 4041: 4040: 3992: 3986: 3983: 3977: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3963:. Archived from 3947: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3929:Recent eruptions 3920: 3914: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3818: 3807: 3806: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3727: 3708: 3707: 3668: 3662: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3648:. Archived from 3638: 3632: 3631: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3553: 3547: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3528: 3517: 3516: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3437: 3431: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3417:. Archived from 3407: 3388: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3358: 3347: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3302: 3256: 3254:Volcanoes portal 3251: 3250: 3163:Mount St. Helens 2989:Hudson Mountains 2907:British Columbia 2852:British Columbia 2799:, often under a 2711:Kamaʻehuakanaloa 2614:subducting zones 2606:mid-ocean ridges 2602:plate boundaries 2584:mid ocean ridges 2576:Click to enlarge 2507: 2488: 2449:dispute between 2427:erupted along a 2353:volcanic craters 2116: 2112: 2065:, an example of 2038:Mount St. Helens 1958:, which totally 1756:Plinian eruption 1746:Plinian eruption 1728: 1713: 1694: 1674: 1581:pyroclastic flow 1573:eruptive columns 1510:Pyroclastic flow 1436:Papua New Guinea 1368:Papua New Guinea 1322:eruptive columns 1310:vesiculate gases 1157:eruptive columns 1099:eruptive columns 697:eruption columns 692:to catastrophic 650: 553:Mount St. Helens 524:Eyjafjallajökull 381:Eruptive volume 372: 324: 300:dispersive power 163:Pelean eruptions 21: 7313: 7312: 7308: 7307: 7306: 7304: 7303: 7302: 7283: 7282: 7281: 7276: 7244: 7230:Partial melting 7187: 7160: 7155: 7125: 7120: 7064: 7006: 6972:Tephriphonolite 6848: 6839: 6835:Harmonic tremor 6737:Complex volcano 6715: 6710: 6680: 6675: 6625: 6592: 6556:Cyclonic storms 6551: 6533: 6491: 6487:Limnic eruption 6463: 6437: 6418: 6406:Natural erosion 6400: 6370: 6344: 6336: 6294: 6285: 6255: 6250: 6209: 6191: 6169:Phreatomagmatic 6163: 6125: 6120: 6043: 6038: 5991: 5956: 5951: 5912: 5877: 5871: 5863:. p. 258. 5852: 5848: 5846:Further reading 5843: 5833: 5831: 5822: 5821: 5817: 5767: 5766: 5762: 5752: 5750: 5741: 5740: 5736: 5726: 5724: 5723:. Volcano World 5719: 5718: 5711: 5701: 5699: 5690: 5689: 5678: 5668: 5666: 5657: 5656: 5649: 5639: 5637: 5617:. Solid Earth. 5606: 5605: 5596: 5586: 5584: 5579: 5578: 5574: 5564: 5562: 5547: 5546: 5542: 5532: 5530: 5529:on 15 July 2010 5513: 5512: 5508: 5498: 5496: 5483:Alden, Andrew. 5482: 5481: 5477: 5467: 5465: 5454: 5453: 5446: 5436: 5434: 5421: 5420: 5407: 5397: 5395: 5394:on 13 June 2010 5391: 5366: 5361: 5360: 5356: 5346: 5344: 5343:on 13 June 2010 5340: 5319: 5314: 5313: 5304: 5294: 5292: 5279: 5278: 5271: 5261: 5259: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5228: 5220:. p. 264. 5209: 5208: 5204: 5194: 5192: 5175: 5174: 5167: 5157: 5155: 5154:on 3 March 2001 5142: 5141: 5124: 5088: 5087: 5080: 5038: 5037: 5033: 4971: 4970: 4966: 4956: 4954: 4941: 4940: 4936: 4926: 4924: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4866: 4860: 4859: 4855: 4845: 4843: 4834: 4833: 4826: 4772: 4771: 4767: 4757: 4755: 4742: 4741: 4734: 4724: 4722: 4709: 4708: 4689: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4608: 4607: 4603: 4593: 4591: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4557: 4555: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4526: 4524: 4523:on 3 March 2001 4511: 4510: 4506: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4457: 4448: 4447: 4443: 4436: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4402: 4400: 4389: 4388: 4379: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4350: 4349: 4345: 4335: 4333: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4245: 4244: 4240: 4230: 4228: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4200: 4198: 4197:on 28 June 2017 4185: 4184: 4180: 4170: 4168: 4157: 4156: 4152: 4142: 4140: 4139:on 6 March 2001 4127: 4126: 4111: 4101: 4099: 4098:on 23 July 2004 4080: 4079: 4075: 4049: 4048: 4044: 3994: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3980: 3970: 3968: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3907: 3905: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3833: 3831: 3820: 3819: 3810: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3739: 3737: 3729: 3728: 3711: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3655: 3653: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3620: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3593: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3555: 3554: 3550: 3540: 3538: 3530: 3529: 3520: 3490: 3489: 3485: 3448:(7460): 68–72. 3439: 3438: 3434: 3424: 3422: 3421:on 3 March 2001 3409: 3408: 3391: 3381: 3379: 3360: 3359: 3350: 3340: 3338: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3317: 3304: 3303: 3290: 3286: 3252: 3245: 3242: 3201:Soufrière Hills 3195:Lesser Antilles 3122:volcanic blocks 3050: 3044: 3019:As part of the 2743:A diagram of a 2737: 2731: 2532: 2526: 2519: 2508: 2499: 2489: 2378:steam explosion 2318:eruption column 2278:oceanic islands 2190: 2184: 2141: 2135: 2133:Phreatomagmatic 2114: 2110: 1956:Nevado del Ruiz 1926:silicon dioxide 1907:stratovolcanoes 1888:Kenai Peninsula 1884:Redoubt Volcano 1880:eruptive column 1838:eruptive column 1748: 1742: 1735: 1729: 1720: 1717:Mount Lamington 1714: 1705: 1695: 1686: 1675: 1490:Peléan eruption 1482: 1480:Peléan eruption 1476: 1376:volcanic blocks 1231: 1225: 996: 990: 814:gaseous content 719: 713: 665: 654: 652: 606:500–1000 years 494:Nevado del Ruiz 388: 343: 337: 331: 326: 319: 237: 191: 58:eruption column 45: 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7311: 7309: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7285: 7284: 7278: 7277: 7275: 7274: 7269: 7263: 7258: 7252: 7250: 7246: 7245: 7243: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7216: 7214:Magma mingling 7211: 7206: 7201: 7195: 7193: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7185: 7179: 7174: 7168: 7166: 7162: 7161: 7156: 7154: 7153: 7146: 7139: 7131: 7122: 7121: 7119: 7118: 7106: 7094: 7082: 7069: 7066: 7065: 7063: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7055: 7048:Volcanic field 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7014: 7012: 7008: 7007: 7005: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6977:Trachyandesite 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6858: 6856: 6854:Volcanic rocks 6850: 6849: 6842: 6840: 6838: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6795:Shield volcano 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6775:Parasitic cone 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6723: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6709: 6708: 6701: 6694: 6686: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6637: 6635: 6631: 6630: 6627: 6626: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6617: 6616: 6606: 6600: 6598: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6575: 6565: 6559: 6557: 6553: 6552: 6550: 6549: 6543: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6532: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6510: 6508: 6501: 6500:Meteorological 6497: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6484: 6483: 6482: 6471: 6469: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6445: 6443: 6428: 6424: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6417: 6416: 6410: 6408: 6402: 6401: 6399: 6398: 6393: 6392: 6391: 6380: 6378: 6372: 6371: 6369: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6356:Seismic hazard 6352: 6350: 6338: 6337: 6335: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6313: 6311: 6302: 6296: 6295: 6286: 6284: 6283: 6276: 6269: 6261: 6252: 6251: 6249: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6210: 6208: 6207: 6201: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6173: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6135: 6133: 6127: 6126: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6111: 6104: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6084: 6074: 6068: 6058: 6042: 6041:External links 6039: 6037: 6036: 6005:(9): 560–570. 5989: 5949: 5910: 5875: 5870:978-0520052413 5869: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5841: 5815: 5780:(2): 196–203. 5760: 5734: 5709: 5676: 5665:. 17 July 2008 5647: 5594: 5572: 5540: 5506: 5475: 5444: 5405: 5354: 5302: 5269: 5233: 5227:978-0195217544 5226: 5202: 5165: 5122: 5078: 5031: 4964: 4934: 4904: 4864: 4853: 4841:Universe Today 4824: 4765: 4732: 4687: 4656: 4601: 4565: 4534: 4504: 4467: 4441: 4435:978-0495316671 4434: 4410: 4397:Universe Today 4377: 4364:978-0520947931 4363: 4343: 4295: 4238: 4227:on 27 May 2010 4208: 4178: 4165:Universe Today 4150: 4109: 4073: 4042: 3987: 3978: 3967:on 8 July 2006 3942: 3915: 3888: 3861:(2): 225–245. 3841: 3828:Universe Today 3808: 3747: 3709: 3663: 3633: 3619:978-0128096642 3618: 3598: 3592:978-1473601703 3591: 3573: 3567:978-1444332605 3566: 3548: 3518: 3483: 3432: 3389: 3348: 3337:. 12 July 2017 3322: 3315: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3281: 3280: 3275: 3269: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3241: 3238: 3237: 3236: 3230: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3198: 3184: 3174: 3149:volcanic block 3118:volcanic bombs 3046:Main article: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3038: 3037: 3036: 3025: 3024: 3017: 2996: 2970: 2887:Hjorleifshofdi 2733:Main article: 2730: 2727: 2723:Axial Seamount 2715:Bowie Seamount 2696:Volcaniclastic 2657:acoustic waves 2528:Main article: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2520: 2512:Mount Tarawera 2509: 2502: 2500: 2490: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2462: 2432: 2421:Mount Tarawera 2418: 2400: 2396:Atlantic Ocean 2373:Littoral cones 2361:fracture zones 2206:Compressed ash 2186:Main article: 2183: 2180: 2137:Main article: 2134: 2131: 2123: 2122: 2104: 2101:sulfur dioxide 2078: 2056: 2049: 2030: 2003:Mount Vesuvius 1999:AD 79 eruption 1982:, fast moving 1934:lava fountains 1922:differentiates 1878:21 April 1990 1744:Main article: 1741: 1738: 1737: 1736: 1733:Mount Sinabung 1730: 1723: 1721: 1715: 1708: 1706: 1696: 1689: 1687: 1676: 1669: 1666: 1665: 1662:Mount Sinabung 1659: 1652: 1634: 1478:Main article: 1475: 1472: 1464: 1463: 1457: 1443: 1440:Rabaul Caldera 1429: 1408:meteoric water 1341:volcanic bombs 1227:Main article: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1219: 1212: 1205:Mount Batutara 1202: 1192: 1182: 1130:volcanic bombs 992:Main article: 989: 986: 985: 984: 978: 968: 955: 833:lava fountains 818:shield volcano 715:Main article: 712: 709: 686:lava fountains 664: 661: 658: 657: 647: 646: 636: 635:50,000+ years 633: 628: 625: 622: 618: 617: 607: 604: 603:Ultra-Plinian 601: 598: 595: 591: 590: 583:Mount Pinatubo 580: 577: 571: 568: 565: 561: 560: 550: 547: 542: 539: 536: 532: 531: 521: 518: 512: 509: 506: 502: 501: 491: 488: 485: 482: 479: 475: 474: 468: 465: 459: 456: 453: 449: 448: 443: 440: 434: 431: 428: 424: 423: 418: 415: 410: 407: 404: 400: 399: 396: 390: 389:eruption type 385: 379: 376: 333:Main article: 330: 327: 316: 315: 309: 303: 297: 291: 280: 241:lava fountains 236: 233: 221: 220: 217: 214: 190: 187: 165:, followed by 153:, followed by 139: 138: 132: 110: 88:volcanologists 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7310: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7290: 7288: 7273: 7270: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7251: 7247: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7196: 7194: 7190: 7184: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7152: 7147: 7145: 7140: 7138: 7133: 7132: 7129: 7117: 7116: 7107: 7105: 7104: 7099: 7095: 7093: 7092: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7071: 7070: 7067: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7043:Volcanic belt 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7015: 7013: 7009: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6947:Phonotephrite 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6855: 6851: 6846: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6830:Volcanic cone 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6805:Stratovolcano 6803: 6801: 6800:Somma volcano 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6790:Rootless cone 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6724: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6707: 6702: 6700: 6695: 6693: 6688: 6687: 6684: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6651:Meteor shower 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6636: 6632: 6622: 6619: 6615: 6612: 6611: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6599: 6595: 6589: 6586: 6583: 6579: 6576: 6573: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6505: 6502: 6498: 6488: 6485: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6473: 6472: 6470: 6466: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6449:Coastal flood 6447: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6436: 6432: 6429: 6425: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6409: 6407: 6403: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6379: 6377: 6373: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6343: 6339: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6312: 6310: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6277: 6275: 6270: 6268: 6263: 6262: 6259: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6218: 6216: 6212: 6206: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6117: 6112: 6110: 6105: 6103: 6098: 6097: 6094: 6088: 6085: 6082: 6078: 6075: 6072: 6069: 6066: 6062: 6059: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5999: 5994: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5969:(B10): 2504. 5968: 5964: 5963: 5955: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5917: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5872: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5845: 5830: 5826: 5819: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5764: 5761: 5749: 5745: 5738: 5735: 5722: 5716: 5714: 5710: 5698: 5694: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5681: 5677: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5652: 5648: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5615: 5610: 5603: 5601: 5599: 5595: 5582: 5576: 5573: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5544: 5541: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5519:Volcano World 5516: 5510: 5507: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5479: 5476: 5464: 5463: 5458: 5451: 5449: 5445: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5418: 5416: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5373: 5365: 5358: 5355: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5326: 5318: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5291: 5287: 5286:Vents Program 5283: 5276: 5274: 5270: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5248: 5243: 5237: 5234: 5229: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5214: 5206: 5203: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5181:Lecture Notes 5178: 5172: 5170: 5166: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5127: 5123: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5092: 5085: 5083: 5079: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5035: 5032: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4965: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4938: 4935: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4857: 4854: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4829: 4825: 4820: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4769: 4766: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4739: 4737: 4733: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4676:: V23D–0108. 4675: 4671: 4667: 4660: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4605: 4602: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4580: 4575: 4569: 4566: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4538: 4535: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4508: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4479: 4471: 4468: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4442: 4437: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4414: 4411: 4399: 4398: 4393: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4378: 4366: 4360: 4356: 4355: 4347: 4344: 4331: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4299: 4296: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4258:(1): 012017. 4257: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4239: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4212: 4209: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4182: 4179: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4154: 4151: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4088: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4069: 4065: 4062:: V51D–3058. 4061: 4057: 4053: 4046: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3988: 3982: 3979: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3957: 3952: 3946: 3943: 3931:. Volcanolive 3930: 3926: 3923:Seach, John. 3919: 3916: 3904:. Volcanolive 3903: 3902:Old eruptions 3899: 3896:Seach, John. 3892: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3845: 3842: 3830: 3829: 3824: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3759: 3751: 3748: 3736: 3732: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3667: 3664: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3637: 3634: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3611: 3610: 3602: 3599: 3594: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3549: 3537: 3533: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3519: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3436: 3433: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3390: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3368: 3363: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3336: 3332: 3326: 3323: 3318: 3312: 3308: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3270: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3233:Mount Kerinci 3231: 3228: 3227:2014 eruption 3224: 3221: 3218: 3217:Mount Bulusan 3215: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3168: 3167:1980 eruption 3164: 3161: 3160: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3091: 3090:Magma chamber 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3068:3. Layers of 3067: 3066:Magma conduit 3063: 3059: 3056:Diagram of a 3054: 3049: 3041: 3034: 3029: 3028: 3027: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2979: 2975: 2972:In 2008, the 2971: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2957: 2956: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2948:South America 2945: 2944:Cascade Range 2941: 2937: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2912: 2908: 2905:and parts of 2904: 2900: 2896: 2890: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2871:hyaloclastite 2868: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2781:Magma chamber 2778: 2777:Magma conduit 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2759:4. Layers of 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2703:water erosion 2700: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2684: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2673:North Pacific 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2639: 2635: 2634:calc-alkaline 2631: 2627: 2626:melting point 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2598: 2596: 2591: 2589: 2585: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2564:Magma chamber 2561: 2560:Magma conduit 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2538:Diagram of a 2536: 2531: 2523: 2517: 2516:fracture zone 2513: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2474: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2460: 2459:Great Britain 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2433: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2419: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2403:Ukinrek maars 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2386: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2304: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2234:Magma chamber 2231: 2230:Magma conduit 2227: 2223: 2219: 2216:5. Layers of 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2196:Diagram of a 2194: 2189: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2132: 2127: 2120: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2034:1980 eruption 2031: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1994: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1964: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1920: 1919:magma chamber 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1893:These highly 1889: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1849:gas expansion 1846: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1834:magma conduit 1831: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1817: 1816:magma chamber 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1789: 1785: 1784:Magma chamber 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1764:Magma conduit 1761: 1757: 1754:Diagram of a 1752: 1747: 1739: 1734: 1727: 1722: 1718: 1712: 1707: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1679:Mayon Volcano 1673: 1668: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1637:Mayon Volcano 1635: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1530:Magma chamber 1527: 1526:Magma conduit 1523: 1519: 1515: 1512:6. Layers of 1511: 1507: 1506:Volcanic bomb 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1461: 1460:Anak Krakatoa 1458: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1446:Irazú Volcano 1444: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1412:hydrovolcanic 1409: 1405: 1404:fragmentation 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1355: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1283:Magma chamber 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1265:7. Layers of 1264: 1260: 1259:Volcanic bomb 1256: 1252: 1251:Lava fountain 1248: 1244: 1240: 1237:Diagram of a 1235: 1230: 1222: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1089: 1088:gas pressures 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1052:Magma chamber 1049: 1048:Magma conduit 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1030:7. Layers of 1029: 1025: 1024:Volcanic bomb 1021: 1020:Lava fountain 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1002:Diagram of a 1000: 995: 987: 982: 979: 976: 972: 969: 966: 965: 960: 956: 953: 952:fissure-based 949: 945: 941: 938: 935:Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a 934: 933: 932: 929: 927: 922: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 899: 897: 893: 888: 884: 877: 873: 869: 864: 860: 858: 854: 850: 846: 845:spatter cones 842: 838: 834: 830: 825: 823: 822:fissure vents 819: 815: 811: 807: 804: 800: 796: 792: 784: 780: 776: 775:Magma chamber 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 753:7. Layers of 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 735:Lava fountain 732: 728: 725:Diagram of a 723: 718: 710: 708: 706: 702: 698: 695: 694:Ultra-Plinian 691: 687: 683: 682:decompression 680: 676: 673: 669: 662: 648: 644: 640: 637: 634: 632: 631:Supervolcanic 629: 626: 623: 620: 619: 615: 611: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 592: 588: 584: 581: 579:50–100 years 578: 576: 575:Ultra-Plinian 572: 569: 566: 563: 562: 558: 554: 551: 548: 546: 543: 540: 537: 534: 533: 529: 525: 522: 519: 517: 513: 510: 507: 504: 503: 499: 495: 492: 489: 486: 483: 480: 477: 476: 472: 469: 466: 464: 460: 457: 454: 451: 450: 447: 444: 441: 439: 435: 432: 429: 426: 425: 422: 419: 416: 414: 411: 408: 405: 402: 401: 397: 395: 391: 386: 384: 380: 378:Plume height 377: 374: 373: 367: 365: 361: 357: 356:Richter scale 353: 349: 342: 336: 328: 325: 322: 313: 310: 307: 304: 301: 298: 295: 292: 289: 286: 285: 284: 279: 277: 273: 272:Irazú Volcano 269: 265: 264:magma chamber 261: 257: 253: 249: 246: 242: 234: 232: 230: 226: 218: 215: 212: 211: 210: 204: 200: 195: 188: 186: 184: 180: 176: 172: 171:Ultra-Plinian 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 136: 133: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 111: 108: 104: 101: 100: 99: 96: 93: 89: 85: 81: 80:volcanic vent 77: 70: 66: 63: 59: 56: 51: 47: 43: 39: 32: 27: 19: 7298:Weather lore 7256:Igneous rock 7240:Flux melting 7209:Magma mixing 7204:Assimilation 7172:Liquid phase 7113: 7101: 7089: 7077: 7038:Volcanic arc 6982:Trachybasalt 6820:Supervolcano 6752:Fissure vent 6646:Impact event 6634:Astronomical 6568:Thunderstorm 6563:Bomb cyclone 6427:Hydrological 6396:Volcanic ash 6375: 6361:Seismic risk 6309:Mass wasting 6122: 6002: 5996: 5966: 5960: 5920: 5914: 5889: 5883: 5856:Volcanic Ash 5855: 5832:. Retrieved 5828: 5818: 5777: 5773: 5763: 5751:. Retrieved 5747: 5737: 5725:. Retrieved 5700:. Retrieved 5667:. Retrieved 5638:. Retrieved 5618: 5612: 5585:. Retrieved 5575: 5563:. Retrieved 5552: 5543: 5531:. Retrieved 5527:the original 5518: 5509: 5497:. Retrieved 5493:the original 5478: 5466:. Retrieved 5460: 5437:13 September 5435:. Retrieved 5396:. Retrieved 5389:the original 5376: 5372:Oceanography 5370: 5357: 5345:. Retrieved 5338:the original 5329: 5325:Oceanography 5323: 5293:. Retrieved 5285: 5260:. Retrieved 5256:the original 5245: 5236: 5212: 5205: 5193:. Retrieved 5189:the original 5180: 5156:. Retrieved 5152:the original 5100: 5094: 5048: 5044: 5034: 4981: 4977: 4967: 4955:. Retrieved 4947: 4937: 4925:. Retrieved 4921:the original 4907: 4874: 4870: 4856: 4844:. Retrieved 4840: 4810:11581/457982 4782: 4778: 4768: 4756:. Retrieved 4752:the original 4723:. Retrieved 4719:the original 4673: 4669: 4659: 4618: 4614: 4604: 4592:. Retrieved 4588:the original 4577: 4568: 4556:. Retrieved 4546: 4537: 4525:. Retrieved 4521:the original 4507: 4482: 4476: 4470: 4458:. Retrieved 4444: 4420: 4413: 4401:. Retrieved 4395: 4368:. Retrieved 4353: 4346: 4334:. Retrieved 4312: 4308: 4298: 4255: 4251: 4241: 4229:. Retrieved 4225:the original 4211: 4199:. Retrieved 4195:the original 4181: 4169:. Retrieved 4163: 4153: 4141:. Retrieved 4137:the original 4100:. Retrieved 4096:the original 4085: 4076: 4059: 4055: 4045: 4004: 4000: 3990: 3981: 3969:. Retrieved 3965:the original 3954: 3945: 3933:. Retrieved 3928: 3918: 3906:. Retrieved 3901: 3891: 3858: 3854: 3844: 3832:. Retrieved 3826: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3738:. Retrieved 3704: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3654:. Retrieved 3650:the original 3636: 3608: 3601: 3582: 3576: 3557: 3551: 3539:. Retrieved 3499:(1): 69–94. 3496: 3492: 3486: 3445: 3441: 3435: 3423:. Retrieved 3419:the original 3380:. Retrieved 3376:the original 3365: 3339:. Retrieved 3325: 3307:Volcanic ash 3306: 3223:Mount Ontake 3211:Poás Volcano 3187:La Soufrière 3177:Taal Volcano 3157: 3126: 3095: 3031: 2961:in tropical 2933: 2911:deglaciation 2891: 2889:in Iceland. 2833: 2794: 2685: 2665:seismometers 2642: 2599: 2592: 2581: 2409:, 1977, and 2399:Strombolian. 2382: 2348:, broad low- 2343: 2313: 2307: 2247: 2176:surface area 2172:stress waves 2165: 2142: 2089:15 June 1991 1992: 1968: 1938: 1930: 1892: 1865:stratosphere 1861:volcanic ash 1842: 1793: 1768:Volcanic ash 1617: 1612:incandescent 1609: 1583:(known as a 1546:nuée ardente 1543: 1498:Volcanic ash 1465: 1416: 1392:fine-grained 1373: 1338: 1332:rather than 1314:gas pressure 1295: 1255:Volcanic ash 1195:Mount Erebus 1169: 1161:Pele's tears 1150: 1138:cinder cones 1127: 1096: 1080:air pressure 1065: 1016:Volcanic ash 981:Mount Mihara 962: 930: 923: 907:Pele's tears 900: 880: 829:fissure vent 826: 788: 773:conduit 11. 703:that buried 666: 549:10–15 years 467:Fortnightly 461:Strombolian/ 344: 323:, Quoted 318: 311: 305: 299: 293: 287: 282: 238: 222: 208: 140: 117:superheating 97: 75: 73: 46: 26: 7115:WikiProject 7058:polygenetic 7053:monogenetic 6932:Nephelinite 6887:Blairmorite 6862:Agglomerate 6770:Mud volcano 6742:Cryovolcano 6732:Cinder cone 6661:Solar flare 6547:Megadrought 6507:Temperature 6480:Megatsunami 6459:Storm surge 6454:Flash flood 6332:Debris flow 6154:Strombolian 5923:(1): 1–15. 5834:28 November 5051:: 112–116. 5009:2433/241765 4670:ADS Harvard 4370:13 December 4336:28 November 4082:"Stromboli" 4056:ADS Harvard 3341:12 December 3203:volcano on 3183:, 1965 2020 3181:Philippines 3137:base surges 3082:Water table 3060:. (key: 1. 3011:Vatnajökull 2991:, close to 2860:pillow lava 2821:jökulhlaups 2773:Pillow lava 2753:Crater lake 2747:. (key: 1. 2688:pillow lava 2572:Pillow lava 2542:. (key: 1. 2469:Hunga Tonga 2447:sovereignty 2435:Ferdinandea 2425:New Zealand 2202:Water vapor 2200:. (key: 1. 2085:Philippines 2015:Herculaneum 2005:buried the 1988:river rapid 1965:in Colombia 1952:Lahar flows 1808:Herculaneum 1758:. (key: 1. 1703:Mount Pelée 1683:Philippines 1641:Philippines 1623:Mount Pelée 1550:Mount Pelée 1492:. (key: 1. 1488:Diagram of 1470:eruptions. 1354:pyroclastic 1318:crystalline 1241:. (key: 1. 1218:millennium. 1165:Pele's hair 1084:soap bubble 1006:. (key: 1. 988:Strombolian 942:located on 940:cinder cone 915:Pele's hair 729:. (key: 1. 438:Strombolian 417:Continuous 364:logarithmic 360:earthquakes 151:Strombolian 129:granulation 7287:Categories 7225:Outgassing 7219:Exsolution 6957:Rhyodacite 6907:Ignimbrite 6882:Benmoreite 6342:Earthquake 6300:Geological 6177:Subglacial 5753:12 January 4785:: 106761. 4315:(1): 149. 4007:: 107199. 3316:0520052412 3284:References 3205:Montserrat 3191:Guadeloupe 3145:avalanches 3129:earthquake 3102:superheats 2978:Antarctica 2921:Herðubreið 2899:landslides 2848:Tuya Butte 2729:Subglacial 2681:submarines 2653:hydrophone 2411:Capelinhos 2365:rift zones 2357:tuff rings 2314:base surge 2296:palagonite 2042:Washington 1853:convection 1845:atmosphere 1830:vesiculate 1699:lava spine 1631:St. Pierre 1627:Martinique 1601:St. Pierre 1593:landslides 1577:lava spine 1569:lava domes 1554:Martinique 1450:Costa Rica 1422:Sakurajima 1396:vesiculate 1199:Antarctica 1185:Mount Etna 1142:pyroclasts 971:Mount Etna 926:Mount Etna 919:reticulite 870:lava from 857:lava lakes 793:, such as 520:18 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