249:
160:
accidents. For example, it was thought that turboprop airplanes had a greater ability to respond quickly in situations where altitude control was inadvertently neglected, as compared to turbojet airplanes. However, later studies, including investigations by the NTSB, analyzed CFIT accidents involving turboprop airplanes and found that many of these accidents could have been avoided if GPWS equipment had been used.
188:
ground proximity warning system (EGPWS). However, in the proposed final rule, the FAA is using the broader term "terrain awareness and warning system" (TAWS) because the FAA expects that a variety of systems may be developed in the near future that would meet the improved standards contained in the proposed final rule. The breakthrough that enabled successful EGPWS came after the
156:
routine altitude callouts whether or not there is any imminent danger. This requirement was considered necessary because of the complexity, size, speed, and flight performance characteristics of these airplanes. The GPWS equipment was considered essential in helping the pilots of these airplanes to regain altitude quickly and avoid what could have been a CFIT accident.
221:
be equipped with a terrain awareness and warning system. The technology had not yet been developed for the unique flight characteristics of helicopters in 2000. A fatal helicopter crash in the Gulf of Mexico, involving an Era
Aviation Sikorsky S-76A++ helicopter with two pilots transporting eight oil service personnel, was one of many crashes that prompted the decision.
688:"Part 121—Certification and operations: Domestic, flag, and supplemental air carriers and commercial operators of large aircraft; Part 123—Certification and operations: Air travel clubs using large airplanes; Part 135—Air taxi operators and commercial operators of small aircraft | Special Federal Aviation Regulation No. 30; Ground Proximity Warning System"
171:
33:
885:
220:
By 2006, aircraft upset accidents had overtaken CFIT as the leading cause of aircraft accident fatalities, credited to the widespread deployment of TAWS. On March 7, 2006, the NTSB called on the FAA to require all U.S.-registered turbine-powered helicopters certified to carry at least 6 passengers to
155:
In 1978, the FAA extended the GPWS requirement to Part 135 certificate holders operating smaller airplanes: turbojet-powered airplanes with ten or more passenger seats. These operators were required to install TSO-approved GPWS equipment or alternative ground proximity advisory systems that provide
196:
The TAWS improves on existing GPWS systems by providing the flight crew much earlier aural and visual warning of impending terrain, forward looking capability, and continued operation in the landing configuration. These improvements provide more time for the flight crew to make smoother and gradual
344:
Smolensk, Russia, in a possible CFIT accident killing all passengers and crew, including the Polish
President. The aircraft was equipped with TAWS made by Universal Avionics Systems of Tucson. According to the Russian Interstate Aviation Committee TAWS was turned on. However, the airport where the
320:
airplanes that are not required to install Class B equipment. This includes minimum operational performance standards intended for piston-powered and turbine-powered airplanes, when configured with fewer than six passenger seats, excluding any pilot seats. Class C TAWS equipment shall meet all the
212:
In 1998, the FAA issued Notice No. 98-11, Terrain
Awareness and Warning System, proposing that all turbine-powered U.S.-registered airplanes type certificated to have six or more passenger seats (exclusive of pilot and copilot seating), be equipped with an FAA-approved terrain awareness and warning
187:
After these rules were issued, advances in terrain mapping technology permitted the development of a new type of ground proximity warning system that provides greater situational awareness for flight crews. The FAA has approved certain installations of this type of equipment, known as the enhanced
159:
Installation of GPWS or alternative FAA-approved advisory systems was not required on turbo-propeller powered (turboprop) airplanes operated under Part 135 because, at that time, the general consensus was that the performance characteristics of turboprop airplanes made them less susceptible to CFIT
93:
Beginning in the early 1970s, a number of studies looked at the occurrence of CFIT accidents, where a properly functioning airplane under the control of a fully qualified and certificated crew is flown into terrain (or water or obstacles) with no apparent awareness on the part of the crew. In the
333:
accidents per year, falling to 2 per year in the mid-1970s. A 2006 report stated that from 1974, when the U.S. FAA made it a requirement for large aircraft to carry such equipment, until the time of the report, there had not been a single passenger fatality in a CFIT crash by a large jet in U.S.
216:
On March 23, 2000, the FAA issued
Amendments 91–263, 121–273, and 135-75 (Correction 135.154). These amendments amended the operating rules to require that all U.S. registered turbine-powered airplanes with six or more passenger seats (exclusive of pilot and copilot seating) be equipped with an
239:
A modern TAWS works by using digital elevation data and airplane instrumental values to predict if a likely future position of the aircraft intersects with the ground. The flight crew is thus provided with "earlier aural and visual warning of impending terrain, forward looking capability, and
1023:
Definitions copied from U.S. FAA Circular AC23-18. As a work of the United States government, there is no copyright on the work, and it may be freely copied, and is thus included here. Additional text, formatting, and boldface not included in the original have been added here for clarity and
163:
Some of these studies also compared the effectiveness of the alternative ground proximity advisory system to the GPWS. GPWS was found to be superior in that it would warn only when necessary, provide maximum warning time with minimal unwanted alarms, and use command-type warnings.
116:
jetliner involved. Bateman's earliest devices, developed in the 1960s, used radio waves to measure altitude and triggered an alarm when the aircraft was too low, but it was not aimed forward and could not provide sufficient warning of steeply rising terrain ahead.
574:. As a work of the United States government, there is no copyright on the work, and it may be freely copied, and is thus included here. Additional or reduced text and formatting, not included in the original, have been added here for clarity and emphasis.
125:
Findings from these early studies indicated that many such accidents could have been avoided if a GPWS had been used. As a result of these studies and recommendations from the U.S. National
Transportation Safety Board
192:
in 1991; the USSR had created detailed terrain maps of the world, and
Bateman convinced his director of engineering to purchase them after the political chaos made them available, enabling earlier terrain warnings.
423:
367:
567:
73:
Several factors can still place aircraft at risk for CFIT accidents: older TAWS systems, deactivation of the EGPWS system, or ignoring TAWS warnings when an airport is not in the TAWS database.
1405:
1416:
1388:
785:
340:
Older TAWS, or deactivation of the EGPWS, or ignoring its warnings when airport is not in its database, still leave aircraft vulnerable to possible CFIT incidents. In April 2010, a
337:
After 1974, there were still some CFIT accidents that GPWS was unable to help prevent, due to the "blind spot" of those early GPWS systems. More advanced systems were developed.
321:
requirements of a Class B TAWS with the small aircraft modifications described by the FAA. The FAA has developed Class C to make voluntary TAWS usage easier for small aircraft.
167:
Based on these reports and NTSB recommendations, in 1992 the FAA amended §135.153 to require GPWS equipment on all turbine-powered airplanes with ten or more passenger seats.
420:
272:
Required: Class A TAWS installations shall provide a terrain awareness display that shows either the surrounding terrain or obstacles relative to the airplane, or both.
1145:
309:
Optional: Class B TAWS installation may provide a terrain awareness display that shows either the surrounding terrain or obstacles relative to the airplane, or both.
647:"Part 121—Certification and operations: Domestic, flag, and supplemental air carriers and commercial operators of large aircraft | Ground Proximity Warning Systems"
349:
crashed in a CFIT accident near Mirosławiec, Poland, despite being equipped with EGPWS; the investigation found the EGPWS warning sounds had been disabled, and the
480:
1446:
565:
712:
671:
630:
621:
228:
141:
132:
63:
to encompass all terrain-avoidance systems that meet the relevant FAA standards, which include GPWS, EGPWS and any future system that might replace them.
1305:
284:
94:
1960s and 70s, there was an average of one CFIT accident per month, and CFIT was the single largest cause of air travel fatalities during that time.
1402:
82:
1225:
476:
67:
1413:
1385:
999:
793:
306:
Descent of the airplane to 500 feet above the terrain or nearest runway elevation (voice callout "Five
Hundred") during a non-precision approach.
841:
1044:
1320:
393:
1033:
Text was originally copied from TSO-C151a. These specifications may have changed in TSO-C151b and should be verified for current accuracy.
372:
1100:
506:
259:
TAWS includes all the requirements of Class B TAWS, below, and adds the following additional three alerts and display requirements of:
341:
1273:
443:
1247:
1079:
789:
416:
388:
189:
105:
56:
52:
377:
330:
48:
1181:
886:"NTSB Calls for Terrain Collision Avoidance Systems for All Turbine Powered Helicopters That Carry at Least 6 Passengers"
1203:
202:
70:
examined 51 accidents and incidents and found that pilots did not adequately respond to a TAWS warning in 47% of cases.
962:
469:
109:
548:"Installation of Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS) Approved for Part 23 Airplanes, Advisory Circular 23-18"
346:
936:
362:
1163:
729:"14 CFR Part 135 [Docket No. 26202; Amendment No. 135–42] RIN 2120–AD29 | Ground Proximity Warning System"
280:
149:
112:, the device provided sufficient warning for a small plane to avoid the terrain, but not enough for the larger
1123:
864:
Controlled Flight into
Terrain, Era Aviation, Sikorsky S-76A++, N579EH | Aviation Accident Report (AAR) 06-02
728:
687:
646:
89:, which crashed in Antarctica in 1979, despite being equipped with a GPWS. All 257 people on the plane died.
547:
596:
224:
863:
1101:""Lotniska w Smoleńsku mogło nie być w bazie GPWS" – Polska – Informacje – portal TVN24.pl – 27.04.2010"
507:""Lotniska w Smoleńsku mogło nie być w bazie GPWS" – Polska – Informacje – portal TVN24.pl – 27.04.2010"
252:
The FAA specifications have detailed requirements for when certain warnings should sound in the cockpit.
86:
1397:
468:"Section 10 - Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) / Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS)".
209:
was equipped with the earlier GPWS, the terrain warning was issued only 13 seconds before the crash.
47:) is generally an on-board system aimed at preventing unintentional impacts with the ground, termed "
139:(Part 121) certificate holders (that is, those operating large turbine-powered airplanes) and some
1052:
1331:
248:
1356:
816:
1441:
1425:
1299:
1226:"Wprost 24 – Nie było nacisków na załogę Tu-154, zapis czarnych skrzynek będzie upubliczniony"
1139:
1075:
148:(Part 135) certificate holders (that is, those operating large turbojet airplanes) to install
97:
911:
769:
753:
720:
679:
638:
350:
345:
aircraft was going to land (Smolensk (XUBS)) is not in the TAWS database. In
January 2008 a
317:
81:
1420:
1409:
1392:
1280:
571:
427:
421:
Installation of
Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS) Approved for Part 23 Airplanes
198:
217:
FAA-approved TAWS. The mandate only affects aircraft manufactured after March 29, 2002.
715:
674:
633:
624:
772:
756:
1251:
329:
Prior to the development of GPWS, large passenger aircraft were involved in 3.5 fatal
231:
to Bateman in 2010 for his invention of GPWS and its later evolution into EGPWS/TAWS.
66:
As of 2007, 5% of the world's commercial airlines still lacked a TAWS. A study by the
1435:
553:. Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. June 14, 2000
144:
135:
383:
287:
DO-161A. As a minimum, it will provide alerts for the following circumstances:
206:
205:
in 1995 convinced that carrier to add EGPWS to all its aircraft; although the
175:
113:
470:
IATA Controlled Flight Into Terrain Accident Analysis Report (2008-2017 Data)
279:
TAWS is defined by the U.S. FAA as: A class of equipment that is defined in
101:
969:
682:
641:
1045:"Avionics Magazine :: Terrain Avoidance Technology: What Lies Ahead?"
723:
55:(GPWS) and the enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS). The U.S.
940:
104:, is credited with developing the first ground proximity warning system (
174:
A Mode 5 warning in EGPWS alerts the pilots if they descend below the
170:
32:
368:
List of aviation, avionics, aerospace and aeronautical abbreviations
51:" accidents, or CFIT. The specific systems currently in use are the
27:
Technological equipment to prevent pilots from flying into obstacles
17:
597:"Thanks to This Man, Airplanes Don't Crash Into Mountains Anymore"
247:
169:
80:
31:
127:
866:(Report). National Transportation Safety Board. March 7, 2006
266:
Flight into terrain when not in landing configuration alert
1381:
Honeywell Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS)
564:
Note: Original text copied from U.S. FAA Circular AC23-18
444:"Forecasts 2009 – Safety and security are in the doldrums"
201:
was an early adopter of the EGPWS technology. The CFIT of
269:
Excessive downward deviation from an ILS glideslope alert
1380:
1319:
Universal Avionics Systems Corporation (July 12, 2011).
542:
540:
538:
536:
534:
532:
530:
528:
526:
524:
1386:
FAR Sec. 121.354 – Terrain awareness and warning system
108:); in an early test, conducted after the 1971 crash of
1357:"ASN Aircraft accident CASA C-295M 019 Miroslawiec AB"
844:. National Transportation Safety Board. March 24, 2006
342:
Polish Air Force Tupolev Tu-154M aircraft crashed near
1122:
Wacław Radziwinowicz, Moskwa, mich (April 19, 2010).
786:"Sec. 121.354 – Terrain awareness and warning system"
438:
436:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
240:continued operation in the landing configuration."
1403:TSO-C151b Terrain Avoidance and Warning System PDF
968:. Aircraft Electronics Association. Archived from
303:Negative climb rate or altitude loss after takeoff
1398:Terrain Awareness and Warning System; Final Rule
1182:"Tu-154 miał system ostrzegania. Nie zadziałał?"
994:
992:
990:
939:. Eastern Avionics International. Archived from
389:Ground proximity warning system / enhanced GPWS
316:defines voluntary equipment intended for small
1204:"Smolot prezydenta nie miał prawa się rozbić!"
1426:TAWS - FAA Mandates A New Proximity to Safety
937:"Our Opinions on Collision Avoidance Systems"
412:
410:
408:
8:
1144:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
229:National Medal of Technology and Innovation
775:, March 29, 2000; effective March 29, 2001
912:"C. Donald Bateman, Aerospace Technology"
1164:"Device spurs questions in Polish crash"
1157:
1155:
1076:"Downward Pressure on the Accident Rate"
477:International Air Transport Association
404:
263:Excessive closure rate to terrain alert
68:International Air Transport Association
1304:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1297:
1137:
486:from the original on January 27, 2020
353:was not properly trained with EGPWS.
7:
1447:Aircraft collision avoidance systems
1124:"Śledztwo. Jak doszło do katastrofy"
815:Burin, James M. (January 26, 2013).
394:Runway Awareness and Advisory System
41:terrain awareness and warning system
660:(248): 44439–40. December 18, 1974.
373:Airborne collision avoidance system
1000:"Current Technical Standard Order"
291:Reduced required terrain clearance
59:(FAA) introduced the generic term
25:
1043:William Reynish (April 1, 2006).
842:"Safety Recommendation A-06-019"
130:), in 1974 the FAA required all
1080:Federal Aviation Administration
790:Federal Aviation Administration
701:(126): 28176–77. June 29, 1978.
595:Levin, Alan (August 10, 2016).
417:Federal Aviation Administration
190:dissolution of the Soviet Union
57:Federal Aviation Administration
53:ground proximity warning system
1162:Levin, Alan (April 13, 2010).
742:(55): 9944–51. March 20, 1992.
378:Controlled flight into terrain
49:controlled flight into terrain
1:
183:Evolution to EGPWS & TAWS
347:Polish Air Force Casa C-295M
203:American Airlines Flight 965
1228:. Wprost.pl. April 16, 2010
110:Alaska Airlines Flight 1866
85:A piece of the wreckage of
1463:
1184:. Tvp.Info. April 15, 2010
1103:. Tvn24.pl. April 27, 2010
363:Index of aviation articles
300:Excessive rates of descent
178:during a landing approach.
152:-approved GPWS equipment.
87:Air New Zealand Flight 901
1391:December 8, 2016, at the
1206:. Fakt.pl. April 19, 2010
817:"CFIT's unwelcome return"
570:December 1, 2017, at the
426:January 19, 2016, at the
821:Flight Safety Foundation
1419:March 20, 2017, at the
505:fika (April 27, 2010).
294:Imminent terrain impact
1408:July 22, 2011, at the
963:"Avionics Intel: TAWS"
325:Effects and statistics
253:
225:President Barack Obama
179:
90:
36:
1359:. Aviation-safety.net
1321:"Unknown Datum Codes"
719:, as published in 57
678:, as published in 43
637:, as published in 39
251:
173:
84:
35:
1074:Sabatini, Nicholas.
910:Dunn, Sydni (2010).
479:. 2018. p. 25.
448:Flight International
916:The National Medals
796:on December 8, 2016
384:Digital fly-by-wire
197:corrective action.
121:Early GPWS mandates
1414:TSO-C151b Web Page
254:
180:
91:
37:
1254:on March 25, 2010
1055:on March 17, 2007
1049:AviationToday.com
759:, August 26, 1998
297:Premature descent
100:, an engineer at
98:C. Donald Bateman
16:(Redirected from
1454:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1337:on July 17, 2011
1336:
1330:. Archived from
1325:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1303:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1286:on July 17, 2011
1285:
1279:. Archived from
1278:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1250:. Archived from
1244:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1159:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1051:. Archived from
1040:
1034:
1031:
1025:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1010:
996:
985:
984:
982:
980:
974:
967:
959:
953:
952:
950:
948:
943:on April 6, 2007
933:
927:
926:
924:
922:
907:
901:
900:
898:
896:
882:
876:
875:
873:
871:
860:
854:
853:
851:
849:
838:
832:
831:
829:
827:
812:
806:
805:
803:
801:
792:. Archived from
782:
776:
766:
760:
750:
744:
743:
736:Federal Register
733:
718:
709:
703:
702:
695:Federal Register
692:
677:
668:
662:
661:
654:Federal Register
651:
636:
627:
618:
612:
611:
609:
607:
592:
575:
562:
560:
558:
552:
544:
519:
518:
516:
514:
502:
496:
495:
493:
491:
485:
474:
465:
459:
458:
456:
454:
440:
431:
414:
351:pilot-in-command
318:general aviation
147:
138:
21:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1432:
1431:
1421:Wayback Machine
1410:Wayback Machine
1393:Wayback Machine
1377:
1372:
1362:
1360:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1323:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1296:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1274:"Archived copy"
1272:
1271:
1267:
1257:
1255:
1248:"Untitled Page"
1246:
1245:
1241:
1231:
1229:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1209:
1207:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1161:
1160:
1153:
1136:
1129:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1106:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1084:
1082:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1058:
1056:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1022:
1018:
1008:
1006:
998:
997:
988:
978:
976:
975:on May 28, 2006
972:
965:
961:
960:
956:
946:
944:
935:
934:
930:
920:
918:
909:
908:
904:
894:
892:
884:
883:
879:
869:
867:
862:
861:
857:
847:
845:
840:
839:
835:
825:
823:
814:
813:
809:
799:
797:
784:
783:
779:
767:
763:
751:
747:
731:
727:
711:
710:
706:
690:
686:
670:
669:
665:
649:
645:
629:
620:
619:
615:
605:
603:
594:
593:
578:
572:Wayback Machine
563:
556:
554:
550:
546:
545:
522:
512:
510:
504:
503:
499:
489:
487:
483:
472:
467:
466:
462:
452:
450:
442:
441:
434:
428:Wayback Machine
415:
406:
402:
359:
327:
246:
237:
199:United Airlines
185:
140:
131:
123:
79:
39:In aviation, a
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1460:
1458:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1423:
1400:
1395:
1383:
1376:
1375:External links
1373:
1371:
1370:
1348:
1311:
1265:
1239:
1217:
1195:
1173:
1151:
1114:
1092:
1066:
1035:
1026:
1016:
986:
954:
928:
902:
877:
855:
833:
807:
777:
761:
745:
704:
663:
613:
576:
520:
497:
460:
432:
430:, 14 June 2000
403:
401:
398:
397:
396:
391:
386:
381:
375:
370:
365:
358:
355:
326:
323:
311:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
295:
292:
274:
273:
270:
267:
264:
245:
242:
236:
233:
184:
181:
122:
119:
78:
75:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1459:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1428:by Gary Picou
1427:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1315:
1312:
1307:
1301:
1282:
1275:
1269:
1266:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1183:
1177:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1141:
1126:. Wyborcza.pl
1125:
1118:
1115:
1102:
1096:
1093:
1081:
1077:
1070:
1067:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1020:
1017:
1005:
1001:
995:
993:
991:
987:
971:
964:
958:
955:
942:
938:
932:
929:
917:
913:
906:
903:
891:
887:
881:
878:
865:
859:
856:
843:
837:
834:
822:
818:
811:
808:
795:
791:
787:
781:
778:
774:
771:
765:
762:
758:
755:
749:
746:
741:
737:
730:
725:
722:
717:
714:
708:
705:
700:
696:
689:
684:
681:
676:
673:
667:
664:
659:
655:
648:
643:
640:
635:
632:
626:
623:
617:
614:
602:
598:
591:
589:
587:
585:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
566:
549:
543:
541:
539:
537:
535:
533:
531:
529:
527:
525:
521:
508:
501:
498:
482:
478:
471:
464:
461:
449:
445:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
422:
418:
413:
411:
409:
405:
399:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
356:
354:
352:
348:
343:
338:
335:
332:
324:
322:
319:
315:
308:
305:
302:
299:
296:
293:
290:
289:
288:
286:
282:
278:
271:
268:
265:
262:
261:
260:
258:
250:
243:
241:
234:
232:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
208:
204:
200:
194:
191:
182:
177:
172:
168:
165:
161:
157:
153:
151:
146:
143:
137:
134:
129:
120:
118:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
88:
83:
76:
74:
71:
69:
64:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
34:
30:
19:
1361:. Retrieved
1351:
1341:February 11,
1339:. Retrieved
1332:the original
1327:
1314:
1288:. Retrieved
1281:the original
1268:
1256:. Retrieved
1252:the original
1242:
1230:. Retrieved
1220:
1208:. Retrieved
1198:
1186:. Retrieved
1176:
1167:
1128:. Retrieved
1117:
1105:. Retrieved
1095:
1083:. Retrieved
1069:
1057:. Retrieved
1053:the original
1048:
1038:
1029:
1019:
1007:. Retrieved
1003:
977:. Retrieved
970:the original
957:
945:. Retrieved
941:the original
931:
919:. Retrieved
915:
905:
893:. Retrieved
889:
880:
868:. Retrieved
858:
846:. Retrieved
836:
824:. Retrieved
820:
810:
798:. Retrieved
794:the original
780:
764:
748:
739:
735:
707:
698:
694:
666:
657:
653:
616:
604:. Retrieved
600:
555:. Retrieved
511:. Retrieved
500:
488:. Retrieved
463:
451:. Retrieved
447:
339:
336:
328:
313:
312:
276:
275:
256:
255:
238:
227:awarded the
223:
219:
215:
211:
195:
186:
166:
162:
158:
154:
124:
96:
92:
72:
65:
60:
44:
40:
38:
29:
1363:October 17,
1232:October 17,
1210:October 17,
1188:October 17,
1130:October 17,
1107:October 17,
1059:October 18,
1009:October 18,
1004:RGL.FAA.gov
921:February 1,
895:January 16,
870:January 31,
848:January 31,
826:February 1,
713:14 CFR
672:14 CFR
631:14 CFR
622:14 CFR
606:February 1,
557:January 31,
513:October 18,
490:January 27,
453:January 27,
283:-C151b and
142:14 CFR
133:14 CFR
1436:Categories
509:. Tvn24.pl
475:(Report).
400:References
334:airspace.
244:TAWS types
207:Boeing 757
176:glideslope
114:Boeing 727
1290:April 18,
1258:April 24,
1168:USA Today
1085:March 19,
1024:emphasis.
979:April 29,
947:April 29,
800:April 29,
601:Bloomberg
102:Honeywell
1442:Avionics
1417:Archived
1406:Archived
1389:Archived
1328:uasc.com
1300:cite web
1140:cite web
890:sirs.com
568:Archived
481:Archived
424:Archived
357:See also
235:Workings
213:system.
716:135.153
675:135.153
634:135.153
625:121.360
314:Class C
277:Class B
257:Class A
77:History
380:(CFIT)
1335:(PDF)
1324:(PDF)
1284:(PDF)
1277:(PDF)
973:(PDF)
966:(PDF)
773:16736
757:45628
732:(PDF)
691:(PDF)
683:28176
650:(PDF)
642:44439
551:(PDF)
484:(PDF)
473:(PDF)
1365:2011
1343:2022
1306:link
1292:2010
1260:2010
1234:2011
1212:2011
1190:2011
1146:link
1132:2011
1109:2011
1087:2009
1061:2011
1011:2011
981:2007
949:2007
923:2020
897:2016
872:2020
850:2020
828:2020
802:2007
724:9944
628:and
608:2020
559:2020
515:2011
492:2020
455:2020
331:CFIT
285:RTCA
128:NTSB
106:GPWS
61:TAWS
45:TAWS
18:TAWS
768:65
752:63
281:TSO
150:TSO
145:135
136:121
1438::
1412:,
1326:.
1302:}}
1298:{{
1166:.
1154:^
1142:}}
1138:{{
1078:.
1047:.
1002:.
989:^
914:.
888:.
819:.
788:.
770:FR
754:FR
740:57
738:.
734:.
726::
721:FR
699:43
697:.
693:.
685::
680:FR
658:39
656:.
652:.
644::
639:FR
599:.
579:^
523:^
446:.
435:^
419:,
407:^
1367:.
1345:.
1308:)
1294:.
1262:.
1236:.
1214:.
1192:.
1170:.
1148:)
1134:.
1111:.
1089:.
1063:.
1013:.
983:.
951:.
925:.
899:.
874:.
852:.
830:.
804:.
610:.
561:.
517:.
494:.
457:.
126:(
43:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
