Internet protocol suite

3056: 3197:(RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development. Postel stated, "We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering." Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues. In 3488: 3064: 3502: 4425: 3473:(as well as related protocols); the link layer, IP layer, transport layer, and application layer, along with support protocols. These have stood the test of time, as the IETF has never modified this structure. As such a model of networking, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems. 3225:. Using this design, it became possible to connect other networks to the ARPANET that used the same principle, irrespective of other local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem. A popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over "two tin cans and a string." Years later, as a 3548:, emphasizes architectural principles over layering. RFC 1122/23 are structured in sections referring to layers, but the documents refer to many other architectural principles, and do not emphasize layering. They loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows: 5458:

The inspiration for datagrams had two sources. One was Donald Davies' studies. He had done some simulation of datagram networks, although he had not built any, and it looked technically viable. The second inspiration was I like things simple. I didn't see any real technical motivation to overlay two

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In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who

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The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and

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The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated that Internet Protocol and architecture development is

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in TCP/IP parlance and is the lowest component layer of the suite. The link includes all hosts accessible without traversing a router. The size of the link is therefore determined by the networking hardware design. In principle, TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent and may be implemented on

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The transport layer establishes basic data channels that applications use for task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes host-to-host connectivity in the form of end-to-end message transfer services that are independent of the underlying network and independent of the structure of user data

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system. The internet layer provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination. The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets

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The Internet protocol suite does not presume any specific hardware or software environment. It only requires that hardware and a software layer exists that is capable of sending and receiving packets on a computer network. As a result, the suite has been implemented on essentially every computing

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is used to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers. The data is

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states: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still

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Conceptual data flow in a simple network topology of two hosts (A and B) connected by a link between their respective routers. The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. After establishment of

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The Internet protocol suite evolved through research and development funded over a period of time. In this process, the specifics of protocol components and their layering changed. In addition, parallel research and commercial interests from industry associations competed with design features. In

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has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content

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identified by an address like a cookie. At the transport layer the communication appears as process-to-process communication, each process addressed by a port number, without knowledge of the application data structures and the connecting routers. Finally, at the internetworking layer using the

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exchanges datagrams across network boundaries. It provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. It is therefore also the layer that establishes internetworking. Indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This layer

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defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer includes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed to effect the transmission of internet layer datagrams to

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The TCP/IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data and does not define additional layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). According to the TCP/IP model, such functions are the realm of

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The three top layers in the OSI model, i.e. the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer, are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model which only has an application layer above the transport layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as

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multi-connection TCP which runs atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983–84. Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded. Starting in 1985, Phil Karn created a multi-connection TCP application for ham radio systems (KA9Q TCP).

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this pipe, most details of the communication are hidden from each process, as the underlying principles of communication are implemented in the lower protocol layers. In a common application analogy, Host A's web browser appears directly connected to Host B's web server via an

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to develop operational versions of the protocol on several hardware platforms. During development of the protocol the version number of the packet routing layer progressed from version 1 to version 4, the latter of which was installed in the ARPANET in 1983. It became known as

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and other routing protocols defined by the IETF are transported over IP, and, for the purpose of sending and receiving routing protocol packets, routers act as hosts. As a consequence, routing protocols are included in the application layer. Some authors, such as Tanenbaum in

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led to a similar goal, but with a wider scope of networking in general. Efforts to consolidate the two principal schools of layering, which were superficially similar, but diverged sharply in detail, led independent textbook authors to formulate abridging teaching tools.

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The application layer includes the protocols used by most applications for providing user services or exchanging application data over the network connections established by the lower-level protocols. This may include some basic network support services such as

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The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. This

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The characteristic architecture of the Internet protocol suite is its broad division into operating scopes for the protocols that constitute its core functionality. The defining specifications of the suite are RFC 1122 and 1123, which broadly outlines four

4336:) issues, or whether TCP/IP assumes a hardware layer exists below the link layer. Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by 4368:(SIP). Session-layer functionality is also realized with the port numbering of the TCP and UDP protocols, which are included in the transport layer of the TCP/IP suite. Functions of the presentation layer are realized in the TCP/IP applications with the 3397:

into the public domain. Various corporate vendors, including IBM, included this code in commercial TCP/IP software releases. For Windows 3.1, the dominant PC operating system among consumers in the first half of the 1990s, Peter Tattam's release of the

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support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport

3102:(NCP). In the early 1970s, DARPA started work on several other data transmission technologies, including mobile packet radio, packet satellite service, local area networks, and other data networks in the public and private domains. In 1972, 3586:

performs host-to-host communications on either the local network or remote networks separated by routers. It provides a channel for the communication needs of applications. UDP is the basic transport layer protocol, providing an unreliable

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Although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the endpoint IP addresses and port numbers, application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as

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conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting.

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Some of the early TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few programmers. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively. In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a

3560:, create user data and communicate this data to other applications on another or the same host. The applications make use of the services provided by the underlying lower layers, especially the transport layer which provides 3839:(SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented, not byte-stream-oriented like TCP, and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides 4351:

For example, the session and presentation layers of the OSI suite are considered to be included in the application layer of the TCP/IP suite. The functionality of the session layer can be found in protocols like

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The link layer is used to move packets between the internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on the link can be controlled in the

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The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts and to locate them on the network. The original address system of the

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across potentially multiple networks. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet.

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series. As experience with the protocol grew, collaborators recommended division of functionality into layers of distinct protocols, allowing users direct access to datagram service. Advocates included

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In 1975, a two-network IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London. In November 1977, a three-network IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and

4005:. Support protocols provide services to a system of network infrastructure. User protocols are used for actual user applications. For example, FTP is a user protocol and DNS is a support protocol. 4321:, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the 4013:

which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate. The transport layer and lower-level layers are unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and

3329:) held a three-day TCP/IP workshop for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. In 1985, the first 2004: 3522:

clear)." "The second part of the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features."

5439: 3110:, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, 3963:. The application layer in the TCP/IP model is often compared to a combination of the fifth (session), sixth (presentation), and seventh (application) layers of the OSI model. 5624:

We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international from the beginning.

3603:. Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next host, functioning as an IP router, that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination. 5857: 5387: 3904:

is rapidly emerging as an alternative transport protocol. Whilst it is technically carried via UDP packets it seeks to offer enhanced transport connectivity relative to TCP.

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By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common

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networking. This is the layer in which all application protocols, such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, operate. Processes are addressed via ports which essentially represent

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Mar '82 – Norway leaves the ARPANET and become an Internet connection via TCP/IP over SATNET. Nov '82 – UCL leaves the ARPANET and becomes an Internet connection.

4047: 5099: 3133:, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the existing ARPANET protocols, this function was delegated to the hosts. Cerf credits 468:, which classify all related protocols according to each protocol's scope of networking. An implementation of the layers for a particular application forms a 4332:

Different authors have interpreted the TCP/IP model differently, and disagree whether the link layer, or any aspect of the TCP/IP model, covers OSI layer 1 (

3789:. This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these 3599:

defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines

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3.11 and a native stack in Windows 95. These events helped cement TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols on Microsoft-based networks, which included IBM's

5929: 5607: 5070: 4551: 3667:. The TCP/IP model includes specifications for translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to link-layer addresses, such as 1584: 646: 6032: 5593: 5536: 4446: 3497:

Internet Protocol (IP), packets of bytes traverse individual network boundaries as each router forwards a packet towards its destination IP address.

3303: 3107: 1676: 4404:, describe routing protocols in the same layer as IP, reasoning that routing protocols inform decisions made by the forwarding process of routers. 3671:(MAC) addresses. All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist and are not explicitly defined in the TCP/IP model. 1931: 1874: 4348:

not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, referring to the internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".

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The protocols of the link layer operate within the scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the

4344:). This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2. 3898:

The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds roughly to the fourth layer in the OSI model, also called the transport layer.

6947: 6909: 6771: 6732: 6093: 5022: 4961: 4889: 3345:'s group did TCP/IP development. They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including 381: 108: 5445: 3836: 3735:

and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated in 1998 by the standardization of

3659:. These perform functions, such as framing, to prepare the internet layer packets for transmission, and finally transmit the frames to the 1913: 238: 233: 203: 4967: 4925: 3994:, i.e., port numbers assigned only for the duration of the transaction at random or from a specific range configured in the application. 7155: 7098: 3975: 3940: 3119: 2044: 1635: 1448: 1147: 1090: 734: 446: 63: 3591:

datagram service. The Transmission Control Protocol provides flow-control, connection establishment, and reliable transmission of data.

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Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may conflict with the intent of RFC 1122 and other

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In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking. In the same year,

3099: 3086:, the Internet protocol suite has its roots in research and development sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( 320: 290: 5844: 5472: 5378: 3703:

The internet layer does not distinguish between the various transport layer protocols. IP carries data for a variety of different

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formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested two years later. 10 years later still, it was adapted for IPv6.

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top of virtually any link-layer technology. This includes not only hardware implementations but also virtual link layers such as

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TCP/IP stack was key to bringing the Internet to home users. Trumpet Winsock allowed TCP/IP operations over a serial connection (

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Machines and romances: the technical and narrative construction of networked computing as a general-purpose platform, 1960–1995

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For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels for applications, the layer establishes the concept of the

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have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of

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ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994 Information technology — Open Systems Interconnection — Basic Reference Model: The Basic Model

30:

This article is about the protocols that make up the Internet architecture. For the IP network protocol only, see

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The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention, certain

3874:, etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like 3311: 3245: 2840: 1949: 1613: 1241: 5933: 5611: 7147: 5039: 4435: 4054:

The following table shows various such networking models. The number of layers varies between three and seven.

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to other processes. The communications partners are characterized by the application architecture, such as the

3410:). The typical home PC of the time had an external Hayes-compatible modem connected via an RS-232 port with an 3169: 1986: 1847: 193: 133: 3754:

and the logistics of exchanging information. Connectivity at the transport layer can be categorized as either

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do not typically examine the encapsulated traffic, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some

3632: 3449:, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite, would result in the best and most robust computer networks. 3407: 2901: 1203: 516: 360: 350: 143: 58: 4387:

for delivering packets from one router to another, but defines its own layer-3 encapsulation. In contrast,

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using a checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video,

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UART which required this type of stack. Later, Microsoft would release their own TCP/IP add-on stack for

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Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were

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IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, this despite having competing

4329:(RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport. 7206: 6830: 6316: 6259: 5659: 5581: 5524: 5157: 4817: 4725: 4643: 4022: 4018: 3948: 3812: 3805: 3767: 3704: 3668: 3518: 3510: 3338: 3218: 3194: 3161: 2817: 2261: 1617: 476:, containing communication methods for data that remains within a single network segment (link); the 457: 138: 6410:"Enabling "Protocol Routing": Revisiting Transport Layer Protocol Design in Internet Communications" 3739:(IPv6) which uses 128-bit addresses. IPv6 production implementations emerged in approximately 2006. 7061: 5380:"Industrial Legislatures": Consensus Standardization in the Second and Third Industrial Revolutions 5243: 3956: 3771: 3755: 3664: 3557: 3319: 3241: 3226: 1894: 833: 3201:, written in 1978, Postel split the Transmission Control Program into two distinct protocols, the 7120: 7039: 7017: 6995: 6500: 6162: 5881: 3987: 3845: 3775: 3691:

requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called

3636: 3458: 3275: 3271:. Several other IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983. 2738: 1015: 496: 345: 73: 5014:

The innovators : how a group of hackers, geniuses, and geeks created the digital revolution

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IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunnelling protocols such as

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TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a

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underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols have been delegated to the

6653: 5414:"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate" 7110: 7069: 7047: 7025: 7003: 6981: 6962: 6943: 6924: 6905: 6886: 6867: 6767: 6728: 6694: 6657: 6617: 6583: 6549: 6510: 6468: 6429: 6387: 6346: 6180: 6089: 5701: 5573: 5062: 5018: 4957: 4951: 4915: 4909: 4885: 4793: 4487: 3947:

into transport layer protocol units (such as TCP streams or UDP datagrams), which in turn use

3917: 3882:(RTP) is a datagram protocol that is used over UDP and is designed for real-time data such as 3866:

protocol. Like IP, it is a best-effort, unreliable protocol. Reliability is addressed through

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Reliability can also be achieved by running IP over a reliable data-link protocol such as the

3798: 3794: 3553: 3487: 3470: 3370: 3307: 3255:(IPv4) as the protocol that is still in use in the Internet, alongside its current successor, 3202: 3157: 3138: 3114:

joined Kahn with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET to enable

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TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP, and the UNIX Domain Protocols

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lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large.

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The link layer in the TCP/IP model has corresponding functions in Layer 2 of the OSI model.

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network, with important influences on this design. The new protocol was implemented as the

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underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols are maintained by the

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Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968–1988

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Cerf, Vinton G. & Cain, Edward (October 1983). "The DoD Internet Architecture Model".

4535: 3883: 3867: 3748: 3688: 3583: 3399: 3186: 3115: 2317: 1773: 485: 481: 214: 6204:"Rethinking the design of the Internet: The end-to-end arguments vs. the brave new world" 5441:

Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968-1988

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A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at remote Terminals

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Proceedings of the Sigcomm '88 Symposium on Communications Architectures and Protocols

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Davies, Donald; Bartlett, Keith; Scantlebury, Roger; Wilkinson, Peter (October 1967).

4411:(GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunnelling at the network layer. 7248: 6027: 4779: 3871: 3763: 3644: 3505:

Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122

3446: 3222: 3095: 3034: 2993: 2945: 2881:, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service 2756: 2243: 1566: 608: 5698:

Physical and Logical Security Convergence: Powered By Enterprise Security Management

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established a "Networking Working Group" which developed a host-host protocol, the

2681: 2567: 2526: 2280: 1072: 183: 6448: 6151:"IETF Protocol Suite for the Internet of Things: Overview and Recent Advancements" 5497:"all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control" 421:

according to functional criteria. The foundational protocols in the suite are the

6761: 6688: 6611: 6577: 6543: 6464: 6150: 5237: 7227:– A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedure and processes involved 7209: 7190: 6842: 6833: 6814: 6328: 6319: 6300: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6176: 5821: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5662: 5643: 5584: 5553: 5527: 5508: 5274: 5169: 5137: 5133: 4820: 4801: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4728: 4709: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4646: 4627: 4590: 4510:(IGMP). In addition to IP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, Internet Protocol version 6 requires 4424: 3840: 3541: 3537: 3501: 3150: 3111: 2897: 2878: 2205: 1851: 1750: 1547: 1166: 589: 6271: 6262: 6239: 5160: 5141: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 7168: 6409: 6235: 5960: 5784: 5311: 5058: 4829: 4797: 4705: 4623: 3732: 3696: 3695:

and is supported by host addressing and identification using the hierarchical

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Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:

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A History of International Research Networking: The People who Made it Happen

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For records of discussions leading up to the TCP/IP split, see the series of

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was pioneered by Louis Pouzin in the CYCLADES network, based on the ideas of

7185:– Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn). 7139: 6504: 5767: 5751: 5355: 5222: 5182: 5121:

included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.

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and host configuration. Examples of application layer protocols include the

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The TCP/IP Guide: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Internet Protocols Reference

6124: 507:, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems. 7182: 6794: 5315: 5186: 2967: 1987:

ICANN begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names

7143: 6367: 5915: 5187:"Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol TCP (Version 2)" 5087:

S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.

4325:(XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called 3863: 3656: 3652: 3394: 3165: 3142: 3103: 3011: 2989: 2760: 2586: 2469: 2336: 1505: 911: 753: 680: 414: 7106: 6383: 6368:"Service location protocol: automatic discovery of IP network services" 4884:. Internet Archive. New York : Simon & Schuster. p. 263. 3724: 3692: 3330: 3118:. They drew on the experience from the ARPANET research community, the 3091: 2919: 2836: 2798: 2700: 2643: 2605: 2488: 2374: 851: 810: 627: 6056:"Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War" 2820:, a collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all living species 7201: 6825: 6311: 6254: 5785:"The Internet: On its International Origins and Collaborative Vision" 5654: 5568: 5519: 5152: 4812: 4720: 4638: 4515: 4486:

platform. A minimal implementation of TCP/IP includes the following:

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Internetworking with TCP/IP – Principles, Protocols and Architecture

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Internetworking with TCP/IP: Principles, protocols, and architecture

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January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.

6449:"Cross layer link adaptation scheme in wireless local area network" 6167: 4911:

Open standards and the digital age: history, ideology, and networks

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dial-up service provider, email, instant messaging, and web browser

7224: 7219: 5438:

Pelkey, James. "8.3 CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin 1971-1972".

5419:. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. pp. 7, 11 4523: 4380: 4318: 3415: 3286:, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of 3087: 3062: 3054: 2544: 2507: 2393: 2224: 2110: 2040: 1855: 1732: 1654: 1317: 1128: 958: 570: 460:

specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted,

450: 315: 93: 6241:

INTERNET PROTOCOL - DARPA INTERNET PROGRAM PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION

5510:

A Standard for the Transmission of IP Datagrams on Avian Carriers

3997:

At the application layer, the TCP/IP model distinguishes between

3966:

Application layer protocols are often associated with particular

3943:(DHCP). Data coded according to application layer protocols are 6245: 5358:(October 1980). "Protocols for Interconnected Packet Networks". 4388: 4384: 4369: 4357: 4353: 4337: 4299: 3901: 3493: 3411: 3354: 3198: 2148: 2091: 2047:

oversight passes to the global Internet community on October 1st

1791: 1694: 893: 829: 551: 433:(IP). Early versions of this networking model were known as the 283: 278: 248: 198: 118: 83: 5983: 3389:

The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when the

492:, providing process-to-process data exchange for applications. 4418: 4396: 4341: 3875: 3762:, implemented in UDP. The protocols in this layer may provide 3366: 3346: 2072: 1713: 1524: 103: 4881:

Where wizards stay up late : the origins of the Internet

6687:

Forouzan, Behrouz A.; Fegan, Sophia Chung (August 1, 2003).

6542:

Dye, Mark; McDonald, Rick; Rufi, Antoon (October 29, 2007).

3282:

back and forth between them. Originally a router was called

6883:

Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services

6119: 6117: 3514:

caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.

3278:

is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards

3160:

did not then exist as a separate protocol) provided only a

1733:

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

27:

Framework for communication protocols used in IP networking

5908:"Using Wollongong TCP/IP with Windows for Workgroups 3.11" 5017:. Internet Archive. New York : Simon & Schuster. 4711:

Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Application and Support

3090:) in the late 1960s. After DARPA initiated the pioneering 2005:

Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation

520: 464:, and received. This functionality is organized into four 6061:. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. Archived from 5886:

Stanford Oral History Collections - Spotlight at Stanford

5696:

Crowell, William; Contos, Brian; DeRodeff, Colby (2011).

5459:

levels of end-to-end protocols. I thought one was enough.

1875:

UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) phase I

4041:

Layering evolution and representations in the literature

3314:

adopted the protocol. The migration of the ARPANET from

445:

because the research and development were funded by the

7088:"The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols" 4629:

Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers

3357:. At the same time, several smaller companies, such as 6545:

Network Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide

5143:

SPECIFICATION OF INTERNET TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROGRAM

1968:

First internationalized country code top-level domains

6816:

Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and Philosophy

5223:"Final Report of the Stanford University TCP Project" 4383:

belongs to the network layer, and does not depend on

2023:

NetMundial international Internet governance proposal

664:

NPL followed by the ARPANET carry their first packets

6082:

Davies, Howard; Bressan, Beatrice (April 26, 2010).

3808:, some transport-layer protocols offer reliability. 3377:

TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.

718:

Merit Network's packet-switched network operational

7148:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" 6645: 5040:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" 4095:TCP/IP protocol suite or Five-layer Internet model 3707:. These protocols are each identified by a unique 5606:by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba (1993). 5480:. ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. 4029:to interpret application data. An example is the 3156:Initially, the Transmission Control Program (the 503:(IETF). The Internet protocol suite predates the 7022:TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation 6265:. IEN 128, 123, 111, 80, 54, 44, 41, 28, 26. 4522:(MLD) and is often accompanied by an integrated 3918:Application layer § Internet protocol suite 6149:Morabito, Roberto; Jimenez, Jaime (June 2020). 5930:"A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN" 4914:. New York: Cambridge Univ Press. p. 196. 3483:Communication protocol § Software layering 1677:very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) 941:Merging the networks and creating the Internet: 488:, handling host-to-host communication; and the 4048:International Organization for Standardization 3393:agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for 3168:. Several versions were developed through the 3059:Diagram of the first internetworked connection 1950:First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum 1914:UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG) 5317:2.3.3.2 Comments on Internet Protocol and TCP 4312:OSI model § Comparison with TCP/IP model 472:. From lowest to highest, the layers are the 382: 8: 3719:(IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively. 3325:In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later 1716:changes pricing model from hourly to monthly 7000:TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols 6485:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 ( 4453:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4033:(RSVP). It is also sometimes necessary for 3895:are associated with specific applications. 3556:is the scope within which applications, or 3189:of the University of Southern California's 2043:contract with U.S. Dept. of Commerce ends, 1242:Federal Internet Exchanges (FIX East|FIXes) 409:, is a framework for organizing the set of 6808: 6806: 6077: 6075: 5634: 5632: 5172:. NIC 2. INWG 72. 4552:List of information technology initialisms 4375:Another difference is in the treatment of 3822:data has minimal error (i.e., correctness) 3532:An early pair of architectural documents, 3447:polarized over the issue of which standard 1612:New Internet architecture with commercial 389: 375: 38: 7200: 6824: 6721:Kurose, James F.; Ross, Keith W. (2008). 6345:(3rd ed.). O'Reilly. pp. 9–10. 6310: 6253: 6166: 5653: 5567: 5518: 5360:ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 5151: 4811: 4719: 4700: 4698: 4696: 4637: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4473:Learn how and when to remove this message 3122:, which Cerf chaired, and researchers at 647:Symposium on Operating Systems Principles 6881:Joseph G. Davies; Thomas F. Lee (2003). 6724:Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach 6644:Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (January 1, 2003). 6576:Kozierok, Charles M. (January 1, 2005). 6302:Architectural Principles of the Internet 5719: 5717: 5386:(PhD thesis). Johns Hopkins University. 4991:"Oral History of Robert (Bob) W. Taylor" 4803:THE REQUEST FOR COMMENTS REFERENCE GUIDE 4056: 3500: 3486: 3108:Information Processing Technology Office 7189:T. Socolofsky; C. Kale (January 1991). 5882:"Vinton G. Cerf : An Oral History" 4606: 4578: 3970:applications, and common services have 1585:North American Network Operators' Group 330: 263: 213: 48: 41: 6760:Stallings, William (January 1, 2007). 6478: 6155:IEEE Communications Standards Magazine 5843:Leiner, Barry M.; et al. (1997), 5393:from the original on December 28, 2022 5216: 5214: 5000:, CHM Reference number: X5059.2009: 28 4928:from the original on December 28, 2022 4360:and is more evident in protocols like 3426:(SNA), and on other platforms such as 3318:to TCP/IP was officially completed on 6866:. CET Computer Equipment and Trade. 6741:from the original on January 23, 2016 6403: 6401: 6102:from the original on January 17, 2023 5990:from the original on November 5, 2011 5863:from the original on January 18, 2018 5645:Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers 5594:April Fools' Day Request for Comments 5537:April Fools' Day Request for Comments 5487:from the original on October 10, 2022 5250:from the original on January 17, 2023 5076:from the original on October 10, 2022 4970:from the original on January 17, 2023 4878:Hafner, Katie; Lyon, Matthew (1996). 4306:Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering 4037:to consider the application payload. 456:The Internet protocol suite provides 7: 7233:A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest 6216:from the original on October 8, 2022 5283:from the original on October 8, 2022 4903: 4901: 4451:adding citations to reliable sources 3990:connecting to a service usually use 3837:Stream Control Transmission Protocol 3828:lost or discarded packets are resent 3727:and its successor, the Internet, is 3529:further encapsulated at each level. 2722:anonymous news and information leaks 2281:Yahoo Groups (formerly Yahoo! Clubs) 1830:New top-level domain names activated 7156:IEEE Transactions on Communications 6976:Ajit Mungale (September 29, 2004). 6813:R. Bush; D. Meyer (December 2002). 6523:from the original on April 22, 2012 6035:from the original on August 1, 2017 6021:Andrew L. Russell (July 30, 2013). 5412:Bennett, Richard (September 2009). 5110:from the original on April 19, 2020 5047:IEEE Transactions on Communications 4591:the Internet Experiment Notes Index 3976:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority 3941:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 3831:includes traffic congestion control 3365:, began offering TCP/IP stacks for 3120:International Network Working Group 735:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority 447:United States Department of Defense 6690:Data Communications and Networking 6610:Comer, Douglas (January 1, 2006). 6447:Huang, Jing-lian (April 7, 2009). 5982:Romkey, John (February 17, 2011). 5955:Baker, Steven; Gillies, Donald W. 5732:from the original on July 21, 2009 5726:"From the ARPANET to the Internet" 4508:Internet Group Management Protocol 3961:application programming interfaces 3717:Internet Group Management Protocol 3453:Formal specification and standards 3391:University of California, Berkeley 1225:founded, allows commercial traffic 832:protocol approved and deployed on 813:commercial packet-switched network 484:between independent networks; the 25: 6506:TCP/IP Illustrated: the protocols 5324:from the original on May 16, 2019 5221:Cerf, Vinton G. (April 1, 1980). 5199:from the original on May 25, 2022 4496:Internet Control Message Protocol 3713:Internet Control Message Protocol 1073:First .COM domain name registered 6978:Pro .NET 1.1 Network Programming 6763:Data and Computer Communications 6693:. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 6453:Journal of Computer Applications 4989:Taylor, Bob (October 11, 2008), 4567:List of TCP and UDP port numbers 4538:, an early layered network model 4423: 3951:to effect actual data transfer. 3205:as connectionless layer and the 6023:"OSI: The Internet That Wasn't" 5560:Internet Engineering Task Force 5555:Adaptation of RFC 1149 for IPv6 5140:; C. Sunshine (December 1974). 4998:Computer History Museum Archive 3546:Requirements for Internet Hosts 3463:Internet Engineering Task Force 3177:and Yogen Dalal at Xerox PARC; 3084:DOD Internet Architecture Model 3074:, used for the first three-way 1110:Internet Engineering Task Force 534:Early research and development: 501:Internet Engineering Task Force 6959:Windows 2000 TCP/IP Black Book 6673:– via Internet Archive. 5957:"Desktop TCP/IP at middle age" 4254:Data link (Network interface) 4088:TCP/IP 5-layer reference model 4081:TCP/IP 5-layer reference model 3778:, and application addressing ( 3494:Application Layer HTTP session 3191:Information Sciences Institute 2055:Examples of Internet services: 1487:Classless Inter-Domain Routing 1: 6921:TCP/IP Network Administration 6904:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. 6900:Forouzan, Behrouz A. (2003). 6652:. Prentice Hall PTR. p. 6343:TCP/IP Network Administration 5888:. 2020. p. 113, 129, 145 5846:Brief History of the Internet 5608:"How the Internet Came to Be" 5552:; R. Hinden (April 1, 2011). 5507:D. Waitzman (April 1, 1990). 4956:. MIT Press. pp. 123–4. 4774:(5). North-Holland: 307–318. 4500:Transmission Control Protocol 4409:Generic Routing Encapsulation 4031:Resource Reservation Protocol 3974:port numbers reserved by the 3937:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 3428:Digital Equipment Corporation 3207:Transmission Control Protocol 3082:Initially referred to as the 3014:, massive open online courses 1299:Advanced Network and Services 997:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 554:networking concepts developed 458:end-to-end data communication 423:Transmission Control Protocol 7220:The Ultimate Guide to TCP/IP 6465:10.3724/sp.j.1087.2009.00518 6031:. Vol. 50, no. 8. 4780:10.1016/0376-5075(83)90042-9 4547:List of automation protocols 4542:Fast Local Internet Protocol 4520:Multicast Listener Discovery 4323:External Data Representation 4035:Applications affected by NAT 3908:works exclusively via QUIC. 3880:Real-time Transport Protocol 3853:High-Level Data Link Control 3477:Key architectural principles 3436:Open Systems Interconnection 3424:Systems Network Architecture 3147:Transmission Control Program 2780:Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud 1567:Full text web search engines 1392:Commercial Internet eXchange 1355:Wide area information server 792:Transmission Control Program 6177:10.1109/mcomstd.001.1900014 5377:Russell, Andrew L. (2007). 5236:Panzaris, Georgios (2008). 5038:Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). 4908:Russell, Andrew L. (2014). 4557:List of IP protocol numbers 4512:Neighbor Discovery Protocol 4492:Address Resolution Protocol 4379:. The OSI routing protocol 4372:standard in data exchange. 4366:Session Initiation Protocol 4046:particular, efforts in the 3980:HyperText Transfer Protocol 3929:Hypertext Transfer Protocol 3825:duplicate data is discarded 3804:Because IP provides only a 3737:Internet Protocol version 6 3729:Internet Protocol version 4 3327:Internet Architecture Board 3257:Internet Protocol version 6 3252:Internet Protocol version 4 3211:connection-oriented service 2151:online auction and shopping 1150:upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1) 7286: 6938:Maufer, Thomas A. (1999). 6845:. 6727:. Pearson/Addison Wesley. 6331:. 6286:. 6125:"Introduction to the IETF" 5818:"TCP/IP Internet Protocol" 5686:. 5596:. 5539:. 5100:"The internet's fifth man" 4868:. 4756:. 4690:. 4562:Lists of network protocols 4309: 4214:Host-to-host or transport 3915: 3862:(UDP) is a connectionless 3746: 3681: 3619: 3480: 3164:service to its users, not 2206:Outlook (formerly Hotmail) 1451:upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3) 681:Network Information Center 514: 29: 7195:. Network Working Group. 7169:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 7020:; Gary R. Wright (1994). 6819:. Network Working Group. 6783:– via Google Books. 6710:– via Google Books. 6633:– via Google Books. 6599:– via Google Books. 6565:– via Google Books. 6467:(inactive May 13, 2024). 6305:. Network Working Group. 6088:. John Wiley & Sons. 6010:KA9Q TCP Download Website 5648:. Network Working Group. 5513:. Network Working Group. 5269:Pelkey, James L. (2007). 5146:. Network Working Group. 5059:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 5011:Isaacson, Walter (2014). 4806:. Network Working Group. 4714:. Network Working Group. 4632:. Network Working Group. 4587:Internet Experiment Notes 4195: 4177: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4162: 4159: 3978:(IANA). For example, the 3758:, implemented in TCP, or 3731:(IPv4). It uses a 32-bit 3312:University College London 3246:University College London 2434:peer-to-peer file sharing 2377:peer-to-peer file sharing 2170:classified advertisements 1413:allows commercial traffic 1320:allows commercial traffic 980:protocol suite formalized 871:Internet Activities Board 525:Internet history timeline 6961:. Coriolis Group Books. 6426:10.1109/mic.2017.4180845 6408:Zheng, Kai (July 2017). 6238:, ed. (September 1981). 6198:Blumenthal, Marjory S.; 5700:. Syngress. p. 99. 3982:uses server port 80 and 3633:virtual private networks 3181:, who needed it for his 3170:Internet Experiment Note 2801:cloud-based file hosting 959:Computer Science Network 702:switched-circuit network 7260:History of the Internet 6414:IEEE Internet Computing 6372:IEEE Internet Computing 4060:Arpanet Reference Model 3100:Network Control Program 2902:threshold pledge system 2843:music streaming service 2358:mobile internet service 2301:Internet payment system 2094:Internet movie database 1204:Border Gateway Protocol 1186:Internet protocol suite 794:specification published 517:History of the Internet 411:communication protocols 403:Internet protocol suite 43:Internet protocol suite 6274:. Updated by RFC 5783:Hauben, Ronda (2004). 5678:. Updated by RFC 5343:Inventing the Internet 5168:Obsoleted by RFC 4953:Inventing the Internet 4708:, ed. (October 1989). 4626:, ed. (October 1989). 4504:User Datagram Protocol 4027:deep packet inspection 3933:File Transfer Protocol 3860:User Datagram Protocol 3562:reliable or unreliable 3506: 3498: 3420:Windows for Workgroups 3236:DARPA contracted with 3231:IP over Avian Carriers 3079: 3060: 2589:social networking site 2491:social networking site 1282:ARPANET decommissioned 1037:split off from ARPANET 427:User Datagram Protocol 7068:. Prentice Hall PTR. 6902:TCP/IP Protocol Suite 6068:on November 17, 2019. 5728:. TCP Digest (UUCP). 5614:on September 26, 2017 5301:Internet Hall of Fame 5106:. December 13, 2013. 4327:Remote Procedure Call 4160:Application/ Process 4112:(ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994) 3986:uses server port 23. 3949:lower layer protocols 3819:data arrives in-order 3705:upper layer protocols 3504: 3490: 3440:Xerox Network Systems 3341:. In IBM, from 1984, 3339:proprietary protocols 3310:'s research group at 3131:internetwork protocol 3066: 3058: 2264:automatic translation 2208:free web-based e-mail 1794:allows broader access 773:PARC Universal Packet 515:Further information: 435:Department of Defense 7265:Network architecture 7101:. pp. 106–114. 6366:Guttman, E. (1999). 6341:Hunt, Craig (2002). 6327:Updated by RFC 6268:Internet Standard 5. 5936:on November 10, 2016 5918:on January 12, 2012. 4736:Updated by RFC 4734:Internet Standard 3. 4654:Updated by RFC 4652:Internet Standard 3. 4447:improve this section 4023:bandwidth throttling 3813:reliable byte stream 3806:best-effort delivery 3669:media access control 3611:next-neighbor hosts. 3519:robustness principle 3511:end-to-end principle 3274:A computer called a 3263:Early implementation 3219:end-to-end principle 3195:Request for Comments 3162:reliable byte stream 2818:Encyclopedia of Life 2763:and virtual bookshop 2547:Anonymous imageboard 2510:Internet voice calls 2415:Anonymous imageboard 1337:Archie search engine 1093:with 56 kbit/s links 834:public data networks 756:network demonstrated 405:, commonly known as 7240:on December 4, 2021 7107:10.1145/52324.52336 7062:Andrew S. Tanenbaum 6957:Ian McLean (2000). 6919:Craig Hunt (1998). 6885:. Microsoft Press. 6582:. No Starch Press. 6501:Stevens, W. Richard 6384:10.1109/4236.780963 6299:, ed. (June 1996). 6270:Obsoletes RFC 6054:Russell, Andrew L. 5789:Amateur Computerist 5670:Obsoletes RFC 5642:, ed. (June 1995). 5314:(August 15, 1977), 5244:Stanford University 4828:Obsoletes RFC 3756:connection-oriented 3665:transmission medium 3569:client–server model 3459:technical standards 3242:Stanford University 3153:and Carl Sunshine. 3141:, designers of the 2472:business networking 2339:Anonymous textboard 1895:National LambdaRail 1753:wireless networking 1587:(NANOG) established 1054:OSI Reference Model 914:standard introduced 497:technical standards 7255:Internet protocols 7046:. Addison-Wesley. 7040:W. Richard Stevens 7024:. Addison-Wesley. 7018:W. Richard Stevens 7002:. Addison-Wesley. 6998:(April 24, 1994). 6996:W. Richard Stevens 6509:. Addison-Wesley. 5963:on August 21, 2015 5824:on January 1, 2018 5668:Proposed Standard. 4251:Network interface 4245:Network interface 4098:(Forouzan, Kurose) 3799:directory services 3776:congestion control 3655:or by specialized 3637:networking tunnels 3507: 3499: 3471:abstraction layers 3080: 3061: 2739:Google Street View 1548:Mosaic web browser 1470:(ISOC) established 1016:Domain Name System 775:development begins 737:(IANA) established 592:concepts conceived 466:abstraction layers 7192:A TCP/IP Tutorial 7066:Computer Networks 6949:978-0-13-975483-8 6942:. Prentice Hall. 6911:978-0-07-246060-5 6841:Updates RFC 6773:978-0-13-243310-5 6766:. Prentice Hall. 6734:978-0-321-49770-3 6648:Computer Networks 6616:. Prentice Hall. 6503:(February 1994). 6095:978-3-527-32710-2 5912:Microsoft Support 5024:978-1-4767-0869-0 4963:978-0-262-51115-5 4891:978-0-684-81201-4 4800:(November 1987). 4768:Computer Networks 4488:Internet Protocol 4483: 4482: 4475: 4402:Computer Networks 4377:routing protocols 4302:primary sources. 4296: 4295: 4113: 4106: 4099: 4092: 4085: 4084:(Kozierok, Comer) 4078: 4071: 4067:Internet Standard 4064: 4025:applications use 4003:support protocols 3925:routing protocols 3912:Application layer 3795:service discovery 3554:application layer 3371:Microsoft Windows 3203:Internet Protocol 3193:, who edited the 3158:Internet Protocol 3149:in 1974 by Cerf, 3139:Hubert Zimmermann 3106:joined the DARPA 3069:SRI International 3048: 3047: 3039:social networking 2972:social networking 2950:social networking 2608:media file series 2320:review aggregator 1657:updated to allow 490:application layer 431:Internet Protocol 419:computer networks 399: 398: 50:Application layer 32:Internet Protocol 16:(Redirected from 7277: 7270:Reference models 7241: 7236:, archived from 7225:The TCP/IP Guide 7213: 7204: 7202:10.17487/RFC1180 7183:Internet History 7172: 7152: 7135: 7133: 7131: 7092: 7079: 7057: 7035: 7013: 6991: 6972: 6953: 6934: 6915: 6896: 6877: 6860:Douglas E. Comer 6846: 6837: 6828: 6826:10.17487/RFC3439 6810: 6801: 6800: 6791: 6785: 6784: 6782: 6780: 6757: 6751: 6750: 6748: 6746: 6718: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6707: 6684: 6678: 6677: 6672: 6670: 6651: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6632: 6630: 6607: 6601: 6600: 6598: 6596: 6573: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6562: 6539: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6528: 6497: 6491: 6490: 6484: 6476: 6444: 6438: 6437: 6405: 6396: 6395: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6338: 6332: 6323: 6314: 6312:10.17487/RFC1958 6293: 6287: 6266: 6257: 6255:10.17487/RFC0791 6232: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6221: 6215: 6208: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6170: 6146: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6135: 6121: 6112: 6111: 6109: 6107: 6079: 6070: 6069: 6067: 6060: 6051: 6045: 6044: 6042: 6040: 6018: 6012: 6006: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5995: 5979: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5968: 5959:. Archived from 5952: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5932:. Archived from 5926: 5920: 5919: 5914:. Archived from 5904: 5898: 5897: 5895: 5893: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5862: 5854:Internet Society 5851: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5831: 5829: 5820:. Archived from 5814: 5808: 5807: 5802: 5800: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5764: 5758: 5757: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5721: 5712: 5711: 5693: 5687: 5666: 5657: 5655:10.17487/RFC1812 5636: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5619: 5610:. Archived from 5603: 5597: 5588: 5571: 5569:10.17487/RFC6214 5546: 5540: 5531: 5522: 5520:10.17487/RFC1149 5504: 5498: 5496: 5494: 5492: 5486: 5479: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5455: 5453: 5448:on June 17, 2021 5444:. Archived from 5435: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5418: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5392: 5385: 5374: 5368: 5367: 5352: 5346: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5308: 5302: 5299: 5293: 5292: 5290: 5288: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5218: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5204: 5198: 5191: 5179: 5173: 5164: 5155: 5153:10.17487/RFC0675 5130: 5124: 5123: 5117: 5115: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5083: 5081: 5075: 5044: 5035: 5029: 5028: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4995: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4944: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4905: 4896: 4895: 4875: 4869: 4824: 4815: 4813:10.17487/RFC1000 4790: 4784: 4783: 4763: 4757: 4732: 4723: 4721:10.17487/RFC1123 4702: 4691: 4650: 4641: 4639:10.17487/RFC1122 4620: 4594: 4583: 4526:security layer. 4478: 4471: 4467: 4464: 4458: 4427: 4419: 4111: 4104: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4062: 4057: 3939:(SMTP), and the 3892:well-known ports 3651:, as well as in 3363:Wollongong Group 3238:BBN Technologies 3072:Packet Radio Van 3042: 3041: 3027: 3025: 3016: 3015: 3008: 3006: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2984: 2975: 2974: 2964: 2962: 2953: 2952: 2938: 2936: 2927: 2926: 2924:digital currency 2916: 2914: 2905: 2904: 2894: 2892: 2883: 2882: 2875: 2873: 2864: 2863: 2856: 2854: 2845: 2844: 2833: 2831: 2822: 2821: 2814: 2812: 2803: 2802: 2795: 2793: 2784: 2783: 2776: 2774: 2765: 2764: 2753: 2751: 2742: 2741: 2735: 2733: 2724: 2723: 2716: 2714: 2705: 2704: 2697: 2695: 2686: 2685: 2678: 2676: 2667: 2666: 2659: 2657: 2648: 2647: 2640: 2638: 2629: 2628: 2621: 2619: 2610: 2609: 2602: 2600: 2591: 2590: 2583: 2581: 2572: 2571: 2560: 2558: 2549: 2548: 2541: 2539: 2530: 2529: 2523: 2521: 2512: 2511: 2504: 2502: 2493: 2492: 2485: 2483: 2474: 2473: 2466: 2464: 2455: 2454: 2447: 2445: 2436: 2435: 2428: 2426: 2417: 2416: 2409: 2407: 2398: 2397: 2390: 2388: 2379: 2378: 2371: 2369: 2360: 2359: 2352: 2350: 2341: 2340: 2333: 2331: 2322: 2321: 2314: 2312: 2303: 2302: 2295: 2293: 2284: 2283: 2277: 2275: 2266: 2265: 2258: 2256: 2247: 2246: 2240: 2238: 2229: 2228: 2221: 2219: 2210: 2209: 2202: 2200: 2191: 2190: 2183: 2181: 2172: 2171: 2164: 2162: 2153: 2152: 2145: 2143: 2134: 2133: 2126: 2124: 2115: 2114: 2107: 2105: 2096: 2095: 2088: 2086: 2077: 2076: 2069: 2067: 2049: 2048: 2037: 2035: 2026: 2025: 2019: 2017: 2008: 2007: 2001: 1999: 1990: 1989: 1983: 1981: 1972: 1971: 1964: 1962: 1953: 1952: 1946: 1944: 1935: 1934: 1932:UN WSIS phase II 1928: 1926: 1917: 1916: 1910: 1908: 1899: 1898: 1891: 1889: 1878: 1877: 1871: 1869: 1860: 1859: 1844: 1842: 1833: 1832: 1826: 1824: 1815: 1814: 1807: 1805: 1796: 1795: 1788: 1786: 1777: 1776: 1766: 1764: 1755: 1754: 1747: 1745: 1736: 1735: 1729: 1727: 1718: 1717: 1710: 1708: 1699: 1698: 1691: 1689: 1680: 1679: 1673: 1671: 1662: 1661: 1651: 1649: 1640: 1639: 1632: 1630: 1621: 1620: 1609: 1607: 1589: 1588: 1581: 1579: 1570: 1569: 1563: 1561: 1552: 1551: 1544: 1542: 1533: 1532: 1521: 1519: 1510: 1509: 1502: 1500: 1491: 1490: 1483: 1481: 1472: 1471: 1468:Internet Society 1464: 1462: 1453: 1452: 1445: 1443: 1434: 1433: 1426: 1424: 1415: 1414: 1407: 1405: 1396: 1395: 1388: 1386: 1377: 1376: 1370: 1368: 1359: 1358: 1351: 1349: 1340: 1339: 1333: 1331: 1322: 1321: 1314: 1312: 1303: 1302: 1295: 1293: 1284: 1283: 1279: 1277: 1268: 1267: 1256: 1254: 1245: 1244: 1238: 1236: 1227: 1226: 1219: 1217: 1208: 1207: 1200: 1198: 1189: 1188: 1181: 1179: 1170: 1169: 1163: 1161: 1152: 1151: 1144: 1142: 1133: 1132: 1125: 1123: 1114: 1113: 1106: 1104: 1095: 1094: 1087: 1085: 1076: 1075: 1069: 1067: 1058: 1057: 1050: 1048: 1039: 1038: 1031: 1029: 1020: 1019: 1012: 1010: 1001: 1000: 993: 991: 982: 981: 974: 972: 963: 962: 955: 953: 935: 934: 927: 925: 916: 915: 908: 906: 897: 896: 886: 884: 875: 874: 867: 865: 856: 855: 848: 846: 837: 836: 826: 824: 815: 814: 807: 805: 796: 795: 788: 786: 777: 776: 769: 767: 758: 757: 750: 748: 739: 738: 731: 729: 720: 719: 715: 713: 704: 703: 696: 694: 685: 684: 677: 675: 666: 665: 661: 659: 650: 649: 643: 641: 632: 631: 624: 622: 613: 612: 605: 603: 594: 593: 586: 584: 575: 574: 573:networking ideas 567: 565: 556: 555: 548: 546: 521: 391: 384: 377: 39: 21: 7285: 7284: 7280: 7279: 7278: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7245: 7244: 7230: 7188: 7179: 7150: 7144:Kahn, Robert E. 7140:Cerf, Vinton G. 7138: 7129: 7127: 7117: 7090: 7082: 7076: 7060: 7054: 7038: 7032: 7016: 7010: 6994: 6988: 6975: 6969: 6956: 6950: 6940:IP Fundamentals 6937: 6931: 6918: 6912: 6899: 6893: 6880: 6874: 6858: 6855: 6850: 6849: 6812: 6811: 6804: 6793: 6792: 6788: 6778: 6776: 6774: 6759: 6758: 6754: 6744: 6742: 6735: 6720: 6719: 6715: 6705: 6703: 6701: 6686: 6685: 6681: 6668: 6666: 6664: 6643: 6642: 6638: 6628: 6626: 6624: 6609: 6608: 6604: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6575: 6574: 6570: 6560: 6558: 6556: 6548:. Cisco Press. 6541: 6540: 6536: 6526: 6524: 6517: 6499: 6498: 6494: 6477: 6446: 6445: 6441: 6407: 6406: 6399: 6365: 6364: 6360: 6353: 6340: 6339: 6335: 6295: 6294: 6290: 6234: 6233: 6229: 6219: 6217: 6213: 6206: 6202:(August 2001). 6200:Clark, David D. 6197: 6196: 6192: 6148: 6147: 6143: 6133: 6131: 6123: 6122: 6115: 6105: 6103: 6096: 6081: 6080: 6073: 6065: 6058: 6053: 6052: 6048: 6038: 6036: 6020: 6019: 6015: 6007: 6003: 5993: 5991: 5981: 5980: 5976: 5966: 5964: 5954: 5953: 5949: 5939: 5937: 5928: 5927: 5923: 5906: 5905: 5901: 5891: 5889: 5880: 5879: 5875: 5866: 5864: 5860: 5849: 5842: 5841: 5837: 5827: 5825: 5816: 5815: 5811: 5798: 5796: 5782: 5781: 5777: 5766: 5765: 5761: 5750: 5749: 5745: 5735: 5733: 5723: 5722: 5715: 5708: 5695: 5694: 5690: 5638: 5637: 5630: 5617: 5615: 5605: 5604: 5600: 5548: 5547: 5543: 5506: 5505: 5501: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5477: 5470: 5469: 5465: 5451: 5449: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5422: 5420: 5416: 5411: 5410: 5406: 5396: 5394: 5390: 5383: 5376: 5375: 5371: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5340: 5336: 5327: 5325: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5300: 5296: 5286: 5284: 5268: 5267: 5263: 5253: 5251: 5246:. p. 128. 5235: 5234: 5230: 5220: 5219: 5212: 5202: 5200: 5196: 5189: 5181: 5180: 5176: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5113: 5111: 5098: 5097: 5093: 5079: 5077: 5073: 5042: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5025: 5010: 5009: 5005: 4993: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4973: 4971: 4964: 4946: 4945: 4941: 4931: 4929: 4922: 4907: 4906: 4899: 4892: 4877: 4876: 4872: 4826:Status Unknown. 4792: 4791: 4787: 4765: 4764: 4760: 4704: 4703: 4694: 4622: 4621: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4597: 4584: 4580: 4575: 4536:BBN Report 1822 4532: 4479: 4468: 4462: 4459: 4444: 4428: 4417: 4415:Implementations 4314: 4308: 4263:Network access 4134:Four+one layers 4110: 4103: 4096: 4089: 4082: 4077:(Cisco Academy) 4075: 4068: 4061: 4043: 3992:ephemeral ports 3920: 3914: 3884:streaming media 3868:error detection 3751: 3749:Transport layer 3745: 3743:Transport layer 3711:: for example, 3709:protocol number 3689:Internetworking 3686: 3680: 3624: 3618: 3584:transport layer 3485: 3479: 3455: 3400:Trumpet Winsock 3296: 3280:network packets 3265: 3187:Jonathan Postel 3116:internetworking 3053: 3029: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3010: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2988: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2966: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2940: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2918: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2896: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2877: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2858: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2835: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2816: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2797: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2778: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2755: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2737: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2718: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2699: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2680: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2661: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2642: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2623: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2604: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2585: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2562: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2543: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2525: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2506: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2487: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2468: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2449: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2430: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2411: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2392: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2373: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2354: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2335: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2318:Rotten Tomatoes 2316: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2297: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2279: 2273: 2271: 2269: 2260: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2242: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2223: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2204: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2185: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2166: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2147: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2132:online retailer 2128: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2109: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2090: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2071: 2065: 2063: 2061: 2039: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2021: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2003: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1985: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1966: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1948: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1930: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1912: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1893: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1873: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1846: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1828: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1809: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1790: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1774:Abilene Network 1768: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1749: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1731: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1712: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1693: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1675: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1653: 1647: 1645: 1643: 1634: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1611: 1605: 1603: 1601: 1583: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1565: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1546: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1523: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1504: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1485: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1466: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1447: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1428: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1409: 1403: 1401: 1399: 1390: 1384: 1382: 1380: 1372: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1353: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1335: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1316: 1310: 1308: 1306: 1297: 1291: 1289: 1287: 1281: 1275: 1273: 1271: 1258: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1240: 1234: 1232: 1230: 1221: 1215: 1213: 1211: 1202: 1196: 1194: 1192: 1183: 1177: 1175: 1173: 1165: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1146: 1140: 1138: 1136: 1127: 1121: 1119: 1117: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1098: 1089: 1083: 1081: 1079: 1071: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1052: 1046: 1044: 1042: 1033: 1027: 1025: 1023: 1014: 1008: 1006: 1004: 995: 989: 987: 985: 976: 970: 968: 966: 957: 951: 949: 947: 929: 923: 921: 919: 910: 904: 902: 900: 888: 882: 880: 878: 869: 863: 861: 859: 850: 844: 842: 840: 828: 822: 820: 818: 809: 803: 801: 799: 790: 784: 782: 780: 771: 765: 763: 761: 752: 746: 744: 742: 733: 727: 725: 723: 717: 711: 709: 707: 698: 692: 690: 688: 679: 673: 671: 669: 663: 657: 655: 653: 645: 639: 637: 635: 630:planning begins 626: 620: 618: 616: 607: 601: 599: 597: 588: 582: 580: 578: 569: 563: 561: 559: 550: 544: 542: 540: 519: 513: 486:transport layer 482:internetworking 429:(UDP), and the 395: 215:Transport layer 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7283: 7281: 7273: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7247: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7228: 7222: 7217: 7215:Informational. 7186: 7178: 7177:External links 7175: 7174: 7173: 7163:(5): 637–648. 7136: 7116:978-0897912792 7115: 7080: 7074: 7058: 7052: 7036: 7030: 7014: 7008: 6992: 6986: 6973: 6967: 6954: 6948: 6935: 6929: 6916: 6910: 6897: 6891: 6878: 6872: 6854: 6851: 6848: 6847: 6839:Informational. 6802: 6786: 6772: 6752: 6733: 6713: 6699: 6679: 6662: 6636: 6622: 6602: 6588: 6568: 6554: 6534: 6515: 6492: 6459:(2): 518–520. 6439: 6397: 6358: 6351: 6333: 6325:Informational. 6288: 6227: 6190: 6141: 6113: 6094: 6071: 6046: 6013: 6001: 5974: 5947: 5921: 5899: 5873: 5856:, p. 15, 5835: 5809: 5775: 5759: 5743: 5724:Ronda Hauben. 5713: 5706: 5688: 5628: 5598: 5590:Informational. 5541: 5499: 5463: 5430: 5404: 5369: 5356:Vinton G. Cerf 5347: 5334: 5303: 5294: 5261: 5228: 5210: 5185:(March 1977). 5174: 5125: 5091: 5053:(5): 637–648. 5030: 5023: 5003: 4981: 4962: 4939: 4921:978-1107039193 4920: 4897: 4890: 4870: 4785: 4758: 4692: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4531: 4528: 4481: 4480: 4431: 4429: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4334:physical layer 4307: 4304: 4294: 4293: 4290: 4287: 4284: 4281: 4278: 4275: 4272: 4268: 4267: 4264: 4261: 4258: 4255: 4252: 4249: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4238: 4235: 4232: 4229: 4226: 4223: 4219: 4218: 4215: 4212: 4209: 4206: 4203: 4200: 4197: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4187: 4183: 4182: 4179: 4176: 4173: 4170: 4167: 4164: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4107: 4100: 4093: 4086: 4079: 4074:Internet model 4072: 4065: 4042: 4039: 3999:user protocols 3913: 3910: 3833: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3820: 3760:connectionless 3744: 3741: 3684:Internet layer 3682:Main article: 3679: 3678:Internet layer 3676: 3661:physical layer 3620:Main article: 3617: 3614: 3613: 3612: 3604: 3596:internet layer 3592: 3589:connectionless 3580: 3478: 3475: 3454: 3451: 3343:Barry Appelman 3308:Peter Kirstein 3295: 3292: 3264: 3261: 3209:as a reliable 3076:internetworked 3052: 3051:Early research 3049: 3046: 3045: 3044: 3043: 3017: 2998: 2976: 2954: 2928: 2906: 2884: 2865: 2846: 2823: 2804: 2785: 2766: 2743: 2725: 2706: 2687: 2668: 2649: 2630: 2611: 2592: 2573: 2564:The Pirate Bay 2550: 2531: 2513: 2494: 2475: 2456: 2437: 2418: 2399: 2380: 2361: 2342: 2323: 2304: 2285: 2267: 2248: 2230: 2211: 2192: 2173: 2154: 2135: 2116: 2097: 2078: 2051: 2050: 2027: 2009: 1991: 1973: 1954: 1936: 1918: 1900: 1880: 1879: 1861: 1834: 1816: 1811:Dot-com bubble 1797: 1778: 1756: 1737: 1719: 1700: 1681: 1663: 1641: 1638:decommissioned 1622: 1591: 1590: 1571: 1553: 1534: 1511: 1492: 1473: 1454: 1435: 1430:World Wide Web 1416: 1397: 1378: 1360: 1341: 1323: 1318:UUNET/Alternet 1304: 1285: 1269: 1246: 1228: 1209: 1190: 1171: 1153: 1134: 1115: 1096: 1077: 1059: 1040: 1021: 1002: 983: 964: 937: 936: 917: 898: 876: 857: 838: 816: 797: 778: 759: 740: 721: 705: 686: 667: 651: 633: 614: 595: 576: 557: 528: 527: 512: 509: 478:internet layer 470:protocol stack 397: 396: 394: 393: 386: 379: 371: 368: 367: 366: 365: 358: 353: 348: 343: 335: 334: 328: 327: 326: 325: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 288: 287: 286: 281: 268: 267: 265:Internet layer 261: 260: 259: 258: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 218: 217: 211: 210: 209: 208: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 81: 76: 71: 61: 53: 52: 46: 45: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7282: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7252: 7250: 7239: 7235: 7234: 7229: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7211: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7194: 7193: 7187: 7184: 7181: 7180: 7176: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7157: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7096: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7075:0-13-066102-3 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7053:0-201-63495-3 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7031:0-201-63354-X 7027: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7009:0-201-63346-9 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6987:1-59059-345-6 6983: 6979: 6974: 6970: 6968:1-57610-687-X 6964: 6960: 6955: 6951: 6945: 6941: 6936: 6932: 6930:1-56592-322-7 6926: 6922: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6903: 6898: 6894: 6892:0-7356-1291-9 6888: 6884: 6879: 6875: 6873:86-7991-142-9 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6856: 6852: 6844: 6840: 6835: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6818: 6817: 6809: 6807: 6803: 6798: 6797: 6790: 6787: 6779:September 12, 6775: 6769: 6765: 6764: 6756: 6753: 6740: 6736: 6730: 6726: 6725: 6717: 6714: 6706:September 12, 6702: 6700:9780072923544 6696: 6692: 6691: 6683: 6680: 6676: 6669:September 12, 6665: 6663:0-13-066102-3 6659: 6655: 6650: 6649: 6640: 6637: 6629:September 12, 6625: 6623:0-13-187671-6 6619: 6615: 6614: 6606: 6603: 6595:September 12, 6591: 6589:9781593270476 6585: 6581: 6580: 6572: 6569: 6561:September 12, 6557: 6555:9780132877435 6551: 6547: 6546: 6538: 6535: 6522: 6518: 6516:0-201-63346-9 6512: 6508: 6507: 6502: 6496: 6493: 6488: 6482: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6443: 6440: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6404: 6402: 6398: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6359: 6354: 6352:9781449390785 6348: 6344: 6337: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6321: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6304: 6303: 6298: 6292: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6264: 6261: 6258:. STD 5. 6256: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6231: 6228: 6212: 6205: 6201: 6194: 6191: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6145: 6142: 6130: 6126: 6120: 6118: 6114: 6101: 6097: 6091: 6087: 6086: 6078: 6076: 6072: 6064: 6057: 6050: 6047: 6034: 6030: 6029: 6028:IEEE Spectrum 6024: 6017: 6014: 6011: 6005: 6002: 5994:September 12, 5989: 5985: 5978: 5975: 5962: 5958: 5951: 5948: 5940:September 12, 5935: 5931: 5925: 5922: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5900: 5887: 5883: 5877: 5874: 5859: 5855: 5848: 5847: 5839: 5836: 5823: 5819: 5813: 5810: 5806: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5779: 5776: 5771: 5770: 5763: 5760: 5755: 5754: 5747: 5744: 5731: 5727: 5720: 5718: 5714: 5709: 5707:9780080558783 5703: 5699: 5692: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5664: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5647: 5646: 5641: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5618:September 25, 5613: 5609: 5602: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5586: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5545: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5533:Experimental. 5529: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5512: 5511: 5503: 5500: 5491:September 15, 5483: 5476: 5475: 5467: 5464: 5460: 5447: 5443: 5442: 5434: 5431: 5423:September 11, 5415: 5408: 5405: 5389: 5382: 5381: 5373: 5370: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5351: 5348: 5344: 5338: 5335: 5323: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5307: 5304: 5298: 5295: 5282: 5278: 5277: 5272: 5271:"Yogen Dalal" 5265: 5262: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5240: 5232: 5229: 5224: 5217: 5215: 5211: 5195: 5188: 5184: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5162: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5144: 5139: 5135: 5129: 5126: 5122: 5114:September 11, 5109: 5105: 5101: 5095: 5092: 5088: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5041: 5034: 5031: 5026: 5020: 5016: 5015: 5007: 5004: 4999: 4992: 4985: 4982: 4969: 4965: 4959: 4955: 4954: 4949: 4948:Abbate, Janet 4943: 4940: 4927: 4923: 4917: 4913: 4912: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4887: 4883: 4882: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4805: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4789: 4786: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4762: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4730: 4727: 4724:. STD 3. 4722: 4717: 4713: 4712: 4707: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4645: 4642:. STD 3. 4640: 4635: 4631: 4630: 4625: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4592: 4588: 4582: 4579: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4537: 4534: 4533: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4477: 4474: 4466: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4437: 4432:This section 4430: 4426: 4421: 4420: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4405: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4330: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4291: 4288: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4273: 4270: 4269: 4265: 4262: 4259: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4247: 4244: 4243: 4239: 4236: 4233: 4230: 4227: 4225:Internetwork 4224: 4221: 4220: 4216: 4213: 4210: 4207: 4204: 4201: 4198: 4196:Host-to-host 4194: 4190: 4189: 4186:Presentation 4185: 4184: 4180: 4158: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4108: 4101: 4094: 4087: 4080: 4073: 4066: 4059: 4058: 4055: 4052: 4049: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3968:client–server 3964: 3962: 3958: 3952: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3919: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3887: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3872:Voice over IP 3869: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3854: 3849: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3830: 3827: 3824: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3816: 3814: 3809: 3807: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3764:error control 3761: 3757: 3750: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3720: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3701: 3698: 3697:IP addressing 3694: 3690: 3685: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3645:device driver 3640: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3623: 3615: 3609: 3605: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3585: 3581: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3530: 3527: 3526:Encapsulation 3523: 3520: 3515: 3512: 3503: 3495: 3489: 3484: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3387: 3384: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3270: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3254: 3253: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3232: 3229:in 1999, the 3228: 3224: 3223:Donald Davies 3220: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3096:Steve Crocker 3093: 3089: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3070: 3065: 3057: 3050: 3040: 3036: 3035:video sharing 3032: 3018: 3013: 2999: 2995: 2994:photo sharing 2991: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2946:photo sharing 2943: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2885: 2880: 2866: 2862:search engine 2861: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2824: 2819: 2805: 2800: 2786: 2781: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2744: 2740: 2726: 2721: 2707: 2703:microblogging 2702: 2688: 2684:virtual globe 2683: 2669: 2664: 2650: 2646:video sharing 2645: 2631: 2627:image hosting 2626: 2612: 2607: 2593: 2588: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2551: 2546: 2532: 2528: 2514: 2509: 2495: 2490: 2476: 2471: 2457: 2452: 2438: 2433: 2419: 2414: 2400: 2396:search engine 2395: 2381: 2376: 2362: 2357: 2343: 2338: 2324: 2319: 2305: 2300: 2286: 2282: 2268: 2263: 2249: 2245: 2244:Google Search 2231: 2227:search engine 2226: 2212: 2207: 2193: 2189:search engine 2188: 2174: 2169: 2155: 2150: 2136: 2131: 2117: 2113:web directory 2112: 2098: 2093: 2079: 2074: 2060: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2056: 2046: 2042: 2028: 2024: 2010: 2006: 1992: 1988: 1974: 1969: 1955: 1951: 1937: 1933: 1919: 1915: 1901: 1896: 1882: 1881: 1876: 1862: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1835: 1831: 1817: 1812: 1798: 1793: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1757: 1752: 1738: 1734: 1720: 1715: 1701: 1696: 1682: 1678: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1642: 1637: 1623: 1619: 1616:connected at 1615: 1600: 1599: 1598: 1597: 1596: 1586: 1572: 1568: 1554: 1549: 1535: 1530: 1526: 1512: 1507: 1493: 1488: 1474: 1469: 1455: 1450: 1436: 1431: 1417: 1412: 1398: 1393: 1379: 1375: 1361: 1356: 1342: 1338: 1324: 1319: 1305: 1300: 1286: 1270: 1265: 1261: 1247: 1243: 1229: 1224: 1210: 1205: 1191: 1187: 1172: 1168: 1154: 1149: 1135: 1130: 1116: 1111: 1097: 1092: 1078: 1074: 1060: 1055: 1041: 1036: 1022: 1017: 1003: 998: 984: 979: 965: 960: 946: 945: 944: 943: 942: 932: 918: 913: 899: 895: 891: 877: 872: 858: 853: 839: 835: 831: 817: 812: 798: 793: 779: 774: 760: 755: 741: 736: 722: 706: 701: 687: 682: 668: 652: 648: 634: 629: 615: 610: 609:Merit Network 596: 591: 577: 572: 558: 553: 539: 538: 537: 536: 535: 530: 529: 526: 523: 522: 518: 510: 508: 506: 502: 498: 493: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 392: 387: 385: 380: 378: 373: 372: 370: 369: 364: 363: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 338: 337: 336: 333: 329: 324: 323: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 296: 292: 289: 285: 282: 280: 277: 276: 275: 272: 271: 270: 269: 266: 262: 257: 256: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 221: 220: 219: 216: 212: 207: 206: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 89: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 69: 65: 62: 60: 57: 56: 55: 54: 51: 47: 44: 40: 37: 33: 19: 7238:the original 7232: 7214: 7191: 7160: 7154: 7146:(May 1974). 7128:. Retrieved 7094: 7065: 7043: 7021: 6999: 6977: 6958: 6939: 6923:. O'Reilly. 6920: 6901: 6882: 6863: 6853:Bibliography 6838: 6815: 6795: 6789: 6777:. Retrieved 6762: 6755: 6743:. Retrieved 6723: 6716: 6704:. Retrieved 6689: 6682: 6674: 6667:. Retrieved 6647: 6639: 6627:. Retrieved 6612: 6605: 6593:. Retrieved 6578: 6571: 6559:. Retrieved 6544: 6537: 6525:. Retrieved 6505: 6495: 6481:cite journal 6456: 6452: 6442: 6420:(6): 52–57. 6417: 6413: 6378:(4): 71–80. 6375: 6371: 6361: 6342: 6336: 6324: 6301: 6297:B. Carpenter 6291: 6267: 6240: 6230: 6218:. Retrieved 6193: 6161:(2): 41–49. 6158: 6154: 6144: 6134:February 27, 6132:. Retrieved 6128: 6104:. Retrieved 6084: 6063:the original 6049: 6037:. Retrieved 6026: 6016: 6009: 6004: 5992:. Retrieved 5977: 5967:September 9, 5965:. Retrieved 5961:the original 5950: 5938:. Retrieved 5934:the original 5924: 5916:the original 5911: 5902: 5890:. Retrieved 5885: 5876: 5865:, retrieved 5845: 5838: 5828:December 31, 5826:. Retrieved 5822:the original 5812: 5804: 5797:. Retrieved 5792: 5788: 5778: 5768: 5762: 5752: 5746: 5734:. Retrieved 5697: 5691: 5667: 5644: 5623: 5616:. Retrieved 5612:the original 5601: 5589: 5554: 5550:B. Carpenter 5544: 5532: 5509: 5502: 5489:. Retrieved 5473: 5466: 5457: 5452:November 21, 5450:. Retrieved 5446:the original 5440: 5433: 5421:. Retrieved 5407: 5397:December 28, 5395:. Retrieved 5379: 5372: 5363: 5359: 5350: 5342: 5337: 5326:, retrieved 5316: 5306: 5297: 5285:. Retrieved 5275: 5264: 5254:September 5, 5252:. Retrieved 5238: 5231: 5201:. Retrieved 5183:Cerf, Vinton 5177: 5165: 5142: 5128: 5119: 5112:. Retrieved 5103: 5094: 5085: 5078:. Retrieved 5050: 5046: 5033: 5013: 5006: 4997: 4984: 4972:. Retrieved 4952: 4942: 4932:December 20, 4930:. Retrieved 4910: 4880: 4873: 4825: 4802: 4788: 4771: 4767: 4761: 4733: 4710: 4651: 4628: 4581: 4484: 4469: 4460: 4445:Please help 4433: 4406: 4401: 4374: 4350: 4346: 4331: 4315: 4297: 4181:Application 4178:Application 4175:Application 4172:Application 4169:Application 4166:Application 4163:Application 4154:Seven layers 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4119:Three layers 4118: 4102:TCP/IP model 4053: 4044: 4007: 4002: 3998: 3996: 3971: 3965: 3953: 3945:encapsulated 3931:(HTTP), the 3921: 3900: 3897: 3891: 3888: 3857: 3850: 3834: 3810: 3803: 3791:port numbers 3790: 3787:network port 3784: 3780:port numbers 3772:flow control 3768:segmentation 3752: 3721: 3702: 3687: 3673: 3649:network card 3641: 3627: 3625: 3601:IP addresses 3573:peer-to-peer 3564: 3545: 3531: 3524: 3516: 3508: 3467: 3456: 3444: 3388: 3382: 3379: 3373:. The first 3359:FTP Software 3336: 3324: 3297: 3283: 3273: 3266: 3250: 3235: 3215: 3183:packet voice 3175:Bob Metcalfe 3155: 3135:Louis Pouzin 3128: 3083: 3081: 3078:transmission 2682:Google Earth 2568:torrent file 2527:iTunes Store 2054: 2053: 2052: 1751:IEEE 802.11b 1658: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1263: 1185: 977: 940: 939: 938: 533: 532: 531: 524: 494: 480:, providing 455: 442: 438: 434: 417:and similar 413:used in the 406: 402: 400: 361: 321: 254: 204: 42: 36: 18:TCP/IP stack 7130:October 16, 6106:November 7, 6039:February 6, 6008:Phil Karn, 5867:January 17, 5592:This is an 5535:This is an 5366:(4): 10–11. 5312:Postel, Jon 5080:October 18, 4794:J. Reynolds 4506:(UDP), and 4280:(Hardware) 4149:Five layers 4144:Five layers 4139:Five layers 4129:Four layers 4124:Four layers 4105:(Stallings) 4091:(Tanenbaum) 4011:black boxes 3935:(FTP), the 3841:multihoming 3715:(ICMP) and 3663:and over a 3438:(OSI), and 3179:Danny Cohen 3151:Yogen Dalal 3112:Vinton Cerf 2898:Kickstarter 2879:Google Docs 2665:link voting 1852:Code Red II 1508:established 1167:Morris worm 933:established 892:news using 590:NPL network 425:(TCP), the 7249:Categories 6980:. Apress. 6220:October 8, 6168:2003.10279 5287:October 8, 4601:References 4463:March 2014 4310:See also: 4266:Data link 4260:Data link 4257:Data link 4217:Transport 4211:Transport 4208:Transport 4205:Transport 4202:Transport 4199:Transport 4070:(RFC 1122) 3972:well-known 3916:See also: 3848:over IP). 3835:The newer 3747:See also: 3733:IP address 3622:Link layer 3616:Link layer 3608:link layer 3481:See also: 3244:, and the 3185:work; and 3124:Xerox PARC 2432:BitTorrent 2262:Babel Fish 2168:Craigslist 1970:registered 1848:Code Red I 854:introduced 474:link layer 332:Link layer 7084:Clark, D. 6675:networks. 6527:April 25, 6473:1001-9081 6434:1089-7801 6392:1089-7801 6236:J. Postel 6185:2471-2825 5578:2070-1721 5345:, 129–30. 5320:, IEN 2, 5203:August 4, 5166:Obsolete. 5104:Economist 5067:1558-0857 4798:J. Postel 4706:R. Braden 4624:R. Braden 4434:does not 4292:Physical 4289:Physical 4286:Physical 4283:Physical 4237:Internet 4231:Internet 4228:Internet 4222:Internet 4109:OSI model 4063:(RFC 871) 3957:libraries 3558:processes 3544:, titled 3199:version 4 3166:datagrams 3094:in 1969, 2942:Instagram 2841:DRM-based 2720:WikiLeaks 2451:Knowledge 2187:AltaVista 1770:Internet2 1411:ANS CO+RE 1262:(without 1184:Complete 505:OSI model 7086:(1988). 7064:(2003). 7042:(1996). 6862:(2001). 6745:July 16, 6739:Archived 6521:Archived 6211:Archived 6100:Archived 6033:Archived 5988:Archived 5892:June 29, 5858:archived 5730:Archived 5640:F. Baker 5482:Archived 5388:Archived 5341:Abbate, 5328:June 11, 5322:archived 5281:Archived 5248:Archived 5194:Archived 5138:Y. Dalal 5108:Archived 5071:Archived 4968:Archived 4950:(2000). 4926:Archived 4530:See also 4498:(ICMP), 4364:and the 4240:Network 4234:Network 4191:Session 4019:firewall 4015:switches 3864:datagram 3855:(HDLC). 3657:chipsets 3653:firmware 3647:for the 3577:services 3465:(IETF). 3395:BSD UNIX 3361:and the 3320:flag day 3294:Adoption 3288:gateways 3259:(IPv6). 3143:CYCLADES 3104:Bob Kahn 3012:Coursera 2990:Snapchat 2761:e-reader 2587:Facebook 2470:LinkedIn 2453:, the 💕 1697:proposed 1550:released 1506:InterNIC 1056:released 912:Ethernet 754:CYCLADES 449:through 415:Internet 7125:6156615 5984:"About" 5799:May 29, 5769:IEN 152 5753:IEN 207 5736:July 5, 5134:V. 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