2304:
2319:
120:
818:
2191:
1929:
2258:
2289:
671:
36:
2274:
2215:
569:) and prominent, often European-educated bureaucrats, who recognised that the old religious and military institutions no longer met the needs of the empire. Most of the symbolic changes, such as uniforms, were aimed at changing the mindset of imperial administrators. Many of the officials affiliated with the government were encouraged to wear a more western style of dress. Many of the reforms were attempts to adopt successful European practices. The reforms were heavily influenced by the
2203:
644:
632:
685:
2141:
608:
659:
4705:
2227:
2243:
1771:
4729:
4693:
4741:
3583:
728:, had fallen from grace in terms of military prestige and a European-inspired reconstruction was a necessary change to be made. The Ottoman Empire consisted of a multitude of different cultures and the secondary priorities of the Tanzimat reforms were aimed at balancing the social structure that previously favoured Muslim subjects. Another vital section of these reforms was the abolition of
1213:
4717:
1987:. As part of the Charter of 1856, European powers demanded a much stronger sovereignty for ethnic communities within the empire, differing from the Ottomans, who envisioned equality meaning identical treatment under the law for all citizens. That served to strengthen the Christian middle class, increasing their economic and political power.
1193:
2104:
were able to collectively register village lands under their own name. Thus, they were able to later claim ownership and to sell the local peasants' lands out from under their feet to the new Jewish immigrants, as they themselves relocated permanently to Syria or Turkey. Alternately, rich
Christian
1863:
The reaction to the edict was not entirely positive. Christians in the
Balkans refused to support the reforms because they wanted an autonomy that became more difficult to achieve under centralized power. In fact, its adoption spurred some provinces to seek independence by rebelling. It took strong
1838:
system in the
Ottoman Empire. The millet system created religiously based communities that operated autonomously, so people were organized into societies, some of them often receiving privileges. This clause terminated the privileges of these communities and constructed a society where all followed
2171:
Despite progressive intentions, the policy of reform in the form of
Tanzimat ultimately failed. The historical circumstances of the reforms, the reasons for this failure and the consequences of the reforms are of interest for historical analysis and are considered by historians all over the world.
465:
Different functions of government received reform, were completely reorganized, or started from scratch. Among institutions that received significant attention throughout this period included legislative functions, secularization and codification of the legal system, crackdowns on the slave trade,
2013:
of 1838. Many changes were made to improve civil liberties, but many
Muslims saw them as a foreign influence on the world of Islam. That perception complicated reformist efforts made by the state. During the Tanzimat period, the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern
1842:
The new reforms called for an almost complete reconstruction of public life in the
Ottoman Empire. Under the reconstruction, a system of state schools was established to produce government clerics. Ottomans were encouraged to enroll. Each province was organized so that each governor would have an
1902:
illegal. Despite the official position of the state in the midst of the
Tanzimat reforms, this tolerance of non-Muslims seems to have been seriously curtailed, at least until the Reform Edict of 1856. The Ottoman Empire had tried many different ways to reach out to non-Muslims. First it tried to
1897:
of 1856 was intended to carry out the promises of the
Tanzimat. The Edict is very specific about the status of non-Muslims, making it possible "to see it as the outcome of a period of religious restlessness that followed the Edict of 1839". Officially, part of the Tanzimat's goal was to make the
742:
would create a more centralized government, as well as increased legitimacy of the
Ottoman rule, thus gaining direct control of its citizens. Another major hope was that being more open to various demographics would attract more people into the empire. There was fear of internal strife between
706:
453:
in 1839. Its goals were to modernize and consolidate the social and political foundations of the
Ottoman Empire in order to secure territorial integrity against internal nationalist movements and external aggressive powers. The reforms encouraged
743:
Muslims and non-Muslims, and allowing more religious freedom to all was supposed to diminish this threat. Giving more rights to the Christians within the empire was considered likely to reduce the danger of outside intervention on their behalf.
581:
as a direct result of the increasing number of Ottoman students being educated in France. Changes included the conscription reforms; educational, institutional and legal reforms; and systematic attempts at eliminating political corruption.
1879:
720:
The ambitious project was launched to combat the slow decline of the empire that had seen its borders shrink and its strength wane in comparison to the European powers. There were both internal and external reasons for the reforms.
2009:); other historians have argued that the decreased ability of non-Muslims to assert their legal rights during this period led to the land seizure and emigration. Part of the reform policy was an economic policy based on the
1833:
system, which allowed the ruler's servants to be executed or have their property confiscated at his desire. These reforms sought to establish legal and social equality for all Ottoman citizens. The reforms eliminated the
1243:
In the edict the Sultan stated that he wished "to bring the benefits of a good administration to the provinces of the Ottoman Empire through new institutions". Among the reforms thereafter included were the following:
3097:
Maksudyan, Nazan (2019). "review of This Is a Man's World?: On Fathers and Architects: Talaat Pasha father of modern Turkey, architect of genocide, by Hans-Lukas Kieser, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2018".
3525:
Le mezzaluna sul filo : la riforma ottomana di Mahmûd II (1808-1839) : politica, società, arte e cultura di un grande impero euro-asiatico all'alba della modernità e del confronto con l'Occidente
1179:
2303:
2053:
assumed that the underlying hierarchical social order would remain unchanged. Instead, the upheavals of reform would allow for different understandings of the goals of the Tanzimat. The elites in
2318:
1796:, was the first major reform in the Tanzimat reforms under the government of sultan Abdulmejid and a crucial event in the movement towards secularization. The decree, named after the rosehouse (
589:
was meant to unite all the different peoples living in Ottoman territories, "Muslim and non-Muslim, Turkish and Greek, Armenian and Jewish, Kurd and Arab". The policy officially began with the
2556:
2037:. In their view, these were inevitable backlashes from the Muslim community to the legal changes, as the Tanzimat's values were imposed from above and did not reflect those of society.
4585:
2025:
Some scholars argue that from the Muslim population's traditional Islamic view, the Tanzimat's fundamental change regarding the non-Muslims, from a status of a subjugated population (
381:
1240:. The edict gave guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour, and property. This was followed by several statutes enacting its policies.
1172:
1990:
The reforms peaked in 1876 with the implementation of an Ottoman constitution checking the autocratic powers of the Sultan. The details of this period are covered under the
1812:. It also created a bureaucratic system of taxation with salaried tax collectors. This reflects the centralizing effects of the Tanzimat reforms. Additionally, the Edict of
119:
1365:
1249:
1979:
Still, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects overall. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included major personalities of the
1976:
Although the Edict of Gülhane and the Tanzimat provided strong guidelines for society, they were not a constitution and did not replace the authority of the sultan.
1827:
decree was the one enforcing the rule of law for all subjects, including non-Muslims, by guaranteeing the right to life and property for all. This put an end to the
3711:
2341:
2005:
has argued that the reforms led to "the rhetorical promotion of equality of non-Muslims with Muslims on paper vs. the primacy of Muslims in practice" (see Tanzimat
1573:
1165:
250:
3312:
2116:
was approved by the Ottoman government. The "Code of Regulations" consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia and defined the powers of the
4248:
2356:
2257:
2190:
1359:
4411:
3790:
724:
The primary purpose of the Tanzimat was to reform the military by modernizing and taking inspiration from European armies. The traditional Ottoman army, the
4792:
2125:
1267:
631:
374:
1948:
grant freedom to an idealized female figure representing Turkey, whose chains are being smashed. The flying angel displays a banner with the motto of the
1907:
status. Having Dhimmi status gave non-Muslims the ability to live in the Ottoman Empire and own property, but this ability was not without special taxes (
4384:
3785:
2092:. In order to boost its tax base, the Ottoman state required Arabs in Palestine, as elsewhere, to register their lands for the first time. As a rule the
2061:. As a result, "European and Ottoman officials engaged in a contest to win the loyalty of the local inhabitants — the French by claiming to protect the
1968:
scenery. Reproduced from a 1908 postcard (the printed caption of 1895 is inaccurate) celebrating the re-introduction of the constitution thanks to the
1991:
1651:
1586:
1569:
1294:
459:
276:
4182:
790:, which many historians agree represents the end of the Tanzimat, even though reform continued uninterrupted at its end in 1878, and then into the
4772:
3571:
607:
4674:
3816:
3763:
2288:
1843:
advisory council and specified duties in order to better serve the territory. The new reforms also called for a modern financial system with a
367:
97:
3532:
3505:
3466:
3447:
3417:
3362:
3288:
2825:
2791:
2757:
2723:
2690:
2652:
2611:
467:
1953:
4777:
3694:
2273:
1746:
348:
198:
3355:
Une ville du Maghreb entre ancien régime et réformes ottomanes : genèse des institutions municipales à Tripoli de Barbarie, 1795-1911
2214:
1469:
4787:
4782:
4141:
3856:
3682:
1698:
1665:
1372:
172:
4632:
4172:
4162:
3062:
Deringil, Selim (July 2003). "There Is No Compulsion in Religion': On Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire: 1839–1856".
2097:
1300:
Reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44)
1123:
783:
536:
508:
326:
2202:
1263:
4177:
4124:
4062:
3750:
3733:
3022:
The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536
2973:
The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536
2949:
The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536
2940:
The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536
1676:
466:
education, property law, law enforcement, and the military, to name a few. The end goal was to establish a powerful and centralized
310:
292:
79:
57:
2058:
2876:
Istanbul im 19. Jahrhundert. Die Modernisierungsbestrebungen in der osmanischen Hauptstadt – lokale Faktoren und globale Einflüsse
817:
4610:
4295:
4094:
4018:
3806:
1983:
that would develop from the Ottoman Empire. The system was ultimately undone by negotiations with the Great Powers following the
3170:
Movsesian, Mark (2010-05-05). "Elusive Equality: The Armenian Genocide and the Failure of Ottoman Legal Reform". Rochester, NY.
2226:
1928:
4290:
3738:
3210:
Makdisi, Ussama (2000). "Corrupting the Sublime Sultanate: The Revolt of Tanyus Shahin in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon".
2392:
2388:
532:
421:
318:
234:
1855:. Finally, the reforms implemented the expansion of roads, canals and rail lines for better communication and transportation.
4432:
4129:
4084:
3998:
3976:
3889:
2420:
2113:
1620:
1394:
805:
127:
2893:
1454:
779:
670:
3549:
2049:, the Tanzimat reforms were intended to return to the tradition of equality for all subjects before the law. However, the
4521:
4238:
3959:
1582:
1345:
106:
2015:
4733:
4605:
4300:
3931:
3911:
1933:
1894:
1886:
1873:
1610:
1488:
709:
4560:
4187:
4167:
4089:
4013:
3758:
3564:
2117:
2046:
1599:
3153:
643:
3005:
2242:
4283:
4258:
4136:
3986:
3823:
3811:
3677:
1624:
334:
136:
2983:
2715:
The Syrian Land: Processes of Integration and Fragmentation : Bilād Al-Shām from the 18th to the 20th Century
2387:
Currently, in French, the word "Tanzimat" is used as a plural, as in "Les Tanzimat". At the time, when French was
4461:
4099:
4079:
3726:
3138:
2173:
1540:
1205:
528:
302:
676:
658:
503:
from the early 1850s to 1871. After Âli Pasha's death, the spirit of reorganization turned towards the imperial
4659:
4325:
4023:
3952:
3721:
2480:
Deringil, Selim (1993). "The Invention of Tradition as Public Image in the Late Ottoman Empire, 1808 to 1908".
2430:
2346:
2077:
1221:
787:
751:
412:
50:
44:
2880:
Istanbul in the 19th century. Modernization efforts in the Ottoman capital: local factors and global influence
1882:
1043:
496:
2176:
wrote: "In summary, from 1838 to 1908 the Ottoman Empire staged its final but doomed struggle for survival."
1697:
Nationality Law creating a common Ottoman citizenship irrespective of religious divisions, another attack on
1407:
4008:
3981:
3926:
3921:
3773:
3768:
2682:
2121:
1945:
1691:
1687:
1514:
1304:
1098:
1038:
472:
4511:
4516:
4456:
4444:
4337:
4194:
3687:
3610:
3557:
1774:
1731:
1562:
1555:
1411:
1281:
492:
356:
159:
61:
2852:
1818:
imposed forced military conscription within the administrative districts based on their population size.
1315:
1143:
4802:
4664:
4449:
4439:
4406:
4146:
3969:
3183:
2010:
1969:
1568:
Establishment of the School of Civil Service, an institution of higher learning for civilians under the
1533:
1217:
2069:; and the Ottomans by proclaiming the sultan's benevolence toward all his religiously equal subjects."
1429:
1058:
684:
4600:
4595:
4580:
4526:
4471:
4355:
4214:
4199:
4047:
3964:
3778:
3459:
The Bulgarians and the Administrative Reforms in the Ottoman Empire in 50-60 Years at the XIX Century
3338:
The Ottoman Municipal Reforms between Old Regime and Modernity: Towards a New Interpretative Paradigm
1899:
1738:
1631:
1277:
767:
747:
578:
520:
1053:
1048:
907:
867:
208:
4476:
4427:
4360:
4310:
4209:
4119:
4067:
3880:
3861:
3647:
1790:
1778:
1765:
1705:
1237:
957:
942:
755:
590:
470:. Ottoman statesmen also worked with reformers of the many confessional communities of the empire,
450:
433:
151:
4692:
1494:
Various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce
1078:
987:
967:
962:
690:
4797:
4721:
4647:
4590:
4570:
4483:
4372:
4315:
4111:
4033:
3699:
3620:
3615:
3476:
3423:
3382:
Municipalités méditerranéennes. Les réformes urbaines ottomanes au miroir d'une histoire comparée
3306:
3227:
3115:
3079:
2578:
2537:
2497:
2391:, the word was often treated in the singular, as "Le Tanzimat". For why French is important, see
2368:
2309:
2096:
didn't trust the ailing regime, fearing that registration would only lead to higher taxation and
2073:
2030:
2006:
1418:
1353:
902:
852:
224:
182:
2109:', were able to accumulate large amounts of land which they exploited by themselves or sold on.
972:
952:
877:
837:
4767:
4745:
4654:
4617:
4503:
4488:
4305:
4243:
4230:
4204:
4072:
4003:
3947:
3866:
3659:
3634:
3595:
3538:
3528:
3511:
3501:
3462:
3443:
3413:
3385:
3368:
3358:
3341:
3294:
3284:
3175:
3171:
2821:
2815:
2787:
2753:
2719:
2713:
2686:
2648:
2638:
2607:
2597:
2419:
and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages". In Herzog, Christoph; Malek Sharif (eds.).
2294:
2034:
2002:
1949:
1434:
1108:
500:
2919:
2747:
2676:
2557:"Peasant Protest in the Late Ottoman Empire: Moral Economy, Revolt, and the Tanzimat Reforms"
1133:
4575:
4543:
4365:
4320:
4263:
3916:
3839:
3654:
3405:
3219:
3107:
3071:
2781:
2568:
2529:
2489:
1957:
1916:
For the "Ottoman ruling elite, 'freedom of religion' meant 'freedom to defend their religion
1197:
1068:
997:
937:
897:
713:
614:
407:
2541:
2517:
1864:
British backing in maintaining Ottoman territory to ensure that the reforms were instated.
4709:
4642:
4622:
4553:
4548:
4493:
4466:
4377:
4350:
4028:
3993:
3498:
History of the Ottoman Turks : from the beginning of their empire to the present time
3488:
3435:
3196:
1848:
1595:
Merging of the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances and Council of Reorganization (1861)
570:
504:
146:
1799:
832:
4565:
4345:
4268:
3901:
3669:
3630:
2415:
Strauss, Johann (2010). "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the
2351:
1995:
1961:
1937:
1852:
1805:
1742:
1526:
1447:
1233:
947:
932:
912:
809:
791:
759:
516:
446:
260:
111:
2140:
1212:
4761:
4697:
4637:
4538:
4278:
4273:
3906:
3851:
3642:
3427:
3397:
3231:
3119:
3083:
2582:
2501:
2085:
2054:
2050:
1712:
1340:
Institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (
1128:
1118:
982:
977:
927:
857:
739:
574:
484:
1770:
593:
of 1839, declaring equality before the law for both Muslim and non-Muslim Ottomans.
4669:
4627:
4253:
3704:
2634:
2444:
2248:
2233:
2081:
1980:
1941:
1844:
1498:
1308:
1229:
771:
763:
650:
559:
524:
512:
352:
3111:
1113:
2897:
2057:, in fact, interpreted the Tanzimat far differently from one another, leading to
523:(1875–1878). However, it can also be said that reform efforts continued into the
4533:
3844:
2533:
2426:
2089:
2018:, banking system reforms, the replacement of religious law with secular law and
1984:
1809:
1644:
1088:
1028:
922:
917:
872:
725:
705:
3223:
3075:
2573:
2493:
1683:), the latter of which acted as a supreme court of appeal and cassation (1868)
1201:
992:
618:
586:
455:
442:
3542:
3515:
3389:
3345:
3298:
1898:
state intolerant to forced conversion to Islam, also making the execution of
476:, to codify, and in some cases democratize, their confessional governments.
3372:
2644:
2603:
2100:. Prevailing illiteracy among the fellahin meant in the end that many local
2062:
1965:
1606:
1256:
1083:
1007:
775:
548:
480:
2361:
1664:
Regulation of foreigners on owning Ottoman property, effectively weakening
1192:
1138:
847:
746:
Although the motives for the implementation of Tanzimât were bureaucratic,
3409:
2076:, land reforms, especially the change in land ownership structure via the
637:
Necip Ahmed Pasha, career officer and composer in French-inspired uniform.
4399:
4389:
3247:
Land, Labor and the Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 1882-1914
3135:
Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923 – The Impact of the West
3009:
2325:
2093:
1103:
1093:
892:
882:
396:
515:. The Tanzimat Period is considered to have ended with the accession of
458:
among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire and attempted to stem the
17:
2991:
2279:
2106:
2101:
1878:
1721:
1073:
1063:
1002:
887:
730:
622:
4394:
3587:
3582:
2264:
2026:
1904:
1716:
1546:
Permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the
1033:
2896:(in Turkish). PTT Genel Müdürlüğü. 13 September 2008. Archived from
1903:
reach out to them by giving all non-Muslims an option to apply for
2066:
2019:
1909:
1877:
1769:
1491:
promising full legal equality for citizens of all religions (1856)
1211:
1191:
1012:
862:
842:
704:
1828:
1822:
1813:
1797:
1780:
1755:
1635:
1547:
1518:
1508:
1502:
1479:
1473:
1427:
1398:
1385:
1379:
1328:
1322:
1288:
3030:
3028:
1658:
1153:
3553:
1694:), another institution of higher learning for civilians (1868);
1616:
Promulgation of a French inspired Maritime Commerce Code (1863)
2860:
2749:
Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East
2135:
1592:
Promulgation of a French inspired Mixed Commercial Code (1861)
1441:
which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851)
1371:
Establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and
29:
2088:
to buy land, thus enabling them to immigrate there under the
2029:) to that of equal subjects, was in part responsible for the
1998:
signed the first constitution, he quickly turned against it.
547:
The reforms emerged from the minds of reformist sultans like
426:
3279:
Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin P. (4 December 2012).
2059:
ethno-religious uprisings among newly emancipated Maronites
1728:
Reorganization of the judiciary of the Muslim millet (1869)
1224:
of the Ottoman Empire during the Second Constitutional Era.
712:
was known for his liberal ideals and poetry influenced by
738:
Internally, the Ottoman Empire hoped that abolishing the
3045:
3043:
2957:
2955:
2783:
Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300-1923
479:
The Tanzimat built on previous reform efforts of Sultan
2152:
1572:, and the School of Economical and Political Sciences (
1565:, replacing 1851 codex, which endured until 1928 (1858)
750:
ministers and intellectuals contributed to reform like
1448:
Prohibition of the Circassian and Georgian slave trade
3154:"The Tanzimat: Secular reforms in the Ottoman Empire"
1643:
Reorganization of provincial administration with the
1200:
was renowned for his work on reviving the concept of
1321:
First national identity cards (officially named the
4502:
4420:
4336:
4229:
4155:
4110:
4055:
4046:
3940:
3888:
3879:
3832:
3799:
3749:
3668:
3629:
3603:
3594:
3324:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
445:) was a period of Western influenced reform in the
1366:Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf
487:'s bureaucracy overshadowed the sultans. Leading "
3262:The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times
2389:a common language for the educated in the empire
1378:Establishment of the first modern universities (
3034:
2467:
2342:Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire
1384:, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (
3565:
2357:Court uniform and dress in the Ottoman Empire
1360:Disestablishment of the Istanbul Slave Market
1173:
375:
8:
3442:(Second ed.). Oxford University Press.
2859:(in Turkish). pp. 46–55. Archived from
2640:The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923
1821:However, the most significant clause of the
535:eras until the end of the Ottoman Empire in
2846:
2844:
2518:"The Ottoman Tanzimat and the Constitution"
1461:) passed to the Council of Reorganization (
1273:Reorganization of the finance system (1840)
4499:
4052:
3885:
3600:
3572:
3558:
3550:
3404:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3311:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3212:Comparative Studies in Society and History
3064:Comparative Studies in Society and History
2482:Comparative Studies in Society and History
1581:Internal security duties of the office of
1417:Establishment of the Academy of Sciences (
1180:
1166:
801:
382:
368:
91:
2820:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 188.
2572:
2422:The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy
460:rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
3249:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3006:"History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange"
2596:Lindgren, Allana; Ross, Stephen (2015).
1927:
1671:Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances (
1255:Introduction of the first Ottoman paper
43:This article includes a list of general
27:Ottoman Empire reform period (1839-1876)
3322:Reform in the Ottoman Empire: 1856-1876
3049:
2961:
2920:"History of the Turkish Postal Service"
2407:
2380:
2186:
1650:Promulgation of a Constitution for the
1478:, 1854) and the City Planning Council (
1444:Reorganization of the Penal Code (1851)
1293:(1841), which was the prototype of the
1020:
824:
804:
603:
105:
94:
3484:
3474:
3461:(in Bulgarian). Vol. 56. Avalon.
3304:
3192:
3181:
2561:International Review of Social History
2105:or Muslim families, the class of the '
1507:in 1856, and later reorganized as the
1455:Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances
1964:. The scene takes place in a generic
1692:Imperial Ottoman Lycée at Galatasaray
1661:, or Islamic mortmain property (1867)
1654:and a Jewish National Assembly (1865)
1539:Codification and promulgation of the
495:in the period of 1839-1855, and then
406:
7:
4728:
4716:
2718:. Franz Steiner. 1998. p. 260.
1632:Press and Journalism Regulation Code
1621:Constitution for the Armenian Millet
1527:Prohibition of the Black Slave Trade
416:
3402:Reform and Rebellion in Weak States
3281:A history of the modern Middle East
2220:Building of the Ottoman Parliament.
1868:Edict of 1856 and religious freedom
1561:Promulgation of a western-inspired
4793:19th century in the Ottoman Empire
1556:Decriminalization of homosexuality
1124:Ottoman Public Debt Administration
49:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
3440:The Modern Middle East: A History
2752:. Brill Archive. pp. 36–37.
2555:Ayteki̇n, Atti̇la (August 2012).
1885:, the principal architect of the
1777:, the principal architect of the
1318:(only male citizens were counted)
1250:Ministry of Trade and Agriculture
4739:
4727:
4715:
4704:
4703:
4691:
4095:Court of Jurisdictional Disputes
3581:
3496:Creasy, Edward Shepherd (2011).
2882:] (in German). pp. 34–.
2851:Padişahı, İlklerin (July 2011).
2817:The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire
2780:Caroline Finkel (19 July 2012).
2516:Kawtharani, Wajih (April 2018).
2317:
2302:
2287:
2272:
2256:
2241:
2225:
2213:
2208:Meeting of the Parliament, 1908.
2201:
2196:Meeting of the Parliament, 1877.
2189:
2139:
1236:, or imperial edict, called the
816:
683:
669:
657:
642:
630:
606:
118:
34:
4740:
3283:(Fifth ed.). Boulder, CO.
3260:Hovannisian, Richard G. (ed.).
2393:Languages of the Ottoman Empire
1823:
1814:
1781:
1756:
1673:Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye
1501:(originally established as the
1459:Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye
1386:
1344:, 1847, which later became the
1327:identity papers, or informally
770:, government ministers lead by
564:
553:
4773:Politics of the Ottoman Empire
2114:Armenian National Constitution
2041:Effects in different provinces
1470:Municipality of Constantinople
774:conspired to overthrow Sultan
1:
3500:. British Library, Historic.
3112:10.1080/14623528.2019.1613816
2984:"History of the Ottoman Bank"
2786:. John Murray. pp. 6–7.
2678:The Young Turks in Opposition
1954:Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
1887:Imperial Reform Edict of 1856
1549:Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi
1489:Imperial Reform Edict of 1856
1453:Legislative functions of the
4586:Intangible cultural heritage
3932:Southeastern Anatolia Region
3764:Proclamation of the republic
3527:. Venezia: Marcianum Press.
3133:Roderic, H. Davison (1990).
3100:Journal of Genocide Research
2746:Zvi Yehuda Hershlag (1980).
1874:Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856
1829:
1798:
1636:
1570:Ministry of Internal Affairs
1548:
1519:
1509:
1503:
1480:
1474:
1468:Establishment of the modern
1428:
1399:
1380:
1329:
1323:
1289:
1228:On November 3, 1839, Sultan
758:, the secret society of the
427:
397:
4778:History of social movements
3857:Ancient peoples of Anatolia
3523:Costanza, Maurizio (2010).
3035:Cleveland & Bunton 2012
2814:Selçuk Akşin Somel (2010).
2675:Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (1995).
2542:10.31430/almuntaqa.1.1.0051
2534:10.31430/almuntaqa.1.1.0051
2468:Cleveland & Bunton 2012
1734:obtain millet status (1873)
1600:Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate
1356:obtain millet status (1846)
735:or land-tenure agreements.
251:Decline & Modernization
4819:
4788:1856 in the Ottoman Empire
4783:1839 in the Ottoman Empire
3688:Conquest of Constantinople
3400:; Gehlbach, Scott (2020).
2282:brewery of Constantinople.
2126:Armenian National Assembly
1994:. Although the new Sultan
1871:
1763:
1625:Armenian National Assembly
1520:Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası
1342:Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti
1268:post offices of the empire
438:'Reorganization',
335:Abolition of the Caliphate
327:Abolition of the Sultanate
264:(late 18th and early 19th)
4687:
4195:The constitutional system
3727:Second Constitutional Era
3712:Decline and modernization
3320:Davison, Roderic (1963),
3224:10.1017/S0010417500002644
3139:University of Texas Press
3076:10.1017/S0010417500002930
2874:Strohm, Frederic (2016).
2574:10.1017/S0020859012000193
2494:10.1017/S0010417500018247
1575:Mekteb-i Mülkiye-i Şahane
1481:İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu
1290:Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye
1206:Second Constitutional Era
509:1876 Ottoman Constitution
483:. During its height, the
4178:Ministry of the Interior
4163:Administrative divisions
3722:First Constitutional Era
2431:Orient-Institut Istanbul
2347:Ottoman military reforms
2078:Ottoman Land Law of 1858
1992:First Constitutional Era
1804:) on the grounds of the
1679:and a Judicial Council (
1587:Ministry of the Interior
1295:First Ottoman Parliament
1044:Evkaf-i Hümayun Nezareti
788:First Constitutional Era
752:Dimitrios Zambakos Pasha
598:Examples of dress reform
4125:Parliamentary elections
3927:Eastern Anatolia Region
3922:Central Anatolia Region
3604:Ancient and Middle Ages
2683:Oxford University Press
2022:with modern factories.
1960:(Arabic script) and in
1688:Galatasaray High School
1463:Meclis-i Âli-i Tanzimat
1305:Ottoman national anthem
664:Mehmed Galip Bey Efendi
64:more precise citations.
4296:Science and technology
4130:Presidential elections
3611:Prehistory of Anatolia
3457:Indzhov, Emil (2017).
3357:. Paris: L'Harmattan.
3191:Cite journal requires
2132:Political consequences
1973:
1890:
1786:
1523:, established in 1866)
1515:Ottoman Stock Exchange
1510:Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane
1395:Ministry of Healthcare
1316:Ottoman census in 1844
1276:Reorganization of the
1225:
1209:
717:
585:Also, a policy called
303:2nd Constitutional Era
277:1st Constitutional Era
160:Fall of Constantinople
4291:Free trade agreements
4173:Intelligence Services
3970:North Anatolian Fault
3410:10.1017/9781108855112
2506:(Jan. 1993), pp. 3-29
2324:Turkish delegates to
2124:and the newly formed
2011:Treaty of Balta Liman
1970:Young Turk Revolution
1931:
1883:Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha
1881:
1773:
1704:Establishment of the
1681:Divan-ı Ahkâmı Adliye
1598:Establishment of the
1497:Establishment of the
1426:Establishment of the
1393:Establishment of the
1309:Ottoman national flag
1287:Establishment of the
1262:Establishment of the
1248:Establishment of the
1215:
1195:
708:
529:Second Constitutional
507:, in the form of the
501:Keçecizade Fuad Pasha
497:Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha
4675:World heritage sites
4200:Turkish Armed Forces
4085:Constitutional Court
3999:Flora and vegetation
3977:Environmental issues
3965:East Anatolian Fault
3912:Mediterranean Region
2900:on 13 September 2008
1900:apostates from Islam
1739:Ottoman Constitution
1532:Promulgation of the
1406:Promulgation of the
1196:Prominent statesman
768:Great Eastern Crisis
579:Second French Empire
521:Great Eastern Crisis
449:that began with the
4244:Banking and Finance
3862:History of Anatolia
3759:War of Independence
3751:Republic of Türkiye
3648:Battle of Manzikert
3353:Lafi, Nora (2002).
3141:. pp. 115–116.
2853:"Sultan Abdülmecid"
2599:The Modernist World
2449:rpl.hds.harvard.edu
2263:Tobacco factory in
2236:headquarters, 1896.
2065:; the British, the
1775:Mustafa Reşid Pasha
1747:Chamber of Deputies
1737:Promulgation of an
1706:Ottoman Gendarmerie
1637:Matbuat Nizamnamesi
756:Kabuli Mehmed Pasha
493:Mustafa Reşid Pasha
489:Men of the Tanzimat
468:national government
408:[tanziˈmat]
4301:Telecommunications
4090:Court of Cassation
3791:Multi-party period
3700:Ottoman Old Regime
3621:Byzantine Anatolia
3616:Classical Anatolia
3152:Ishtiaq, Hussain.
2637:(9 January 2014).
2585:– via JSTOR.
2544:– via JSTOR.
2445:"Tanzimat Reforms"
2369:Ahmed Cevdet Pasha
2310:Marmara University
2251:in Constantinople.
2151:. You can help by
2120:under the Ottoman
2118:Armenian Patriarch
2031:Hamidian massacres
1974:
1891:
1787:
1657:Reorganization of
1630:Promulgation of a
1619:Promulgation of a
1354:Chaldean Catholics
1337:) documents, 1844)
1226:
1210:
718:
183:Sultanate of Women
4755:
4754:
4683:
4682:
4225:
4224:
4168:Foreign relations
4142:Political parties
4042:
4041:
3875:
3874:
3867:History of Thrace
3769:Atatürk's reforms
3660:Anatolian beyliks
3534:978-88-6512-032-3
3507:978-1-241-43206-5
3468:978-0-8133-4833-9
3449:978-0-19-532759-5
3419:978-1-108-85511-2
3364:978-2-7475-2616-6
3290:978-0-8133-4833-9
3245:Shafir, Gershon.
2827:978-0-8108-7579-1
2793:978-1-84854-785-8
2759:978-90-04-06061-6
2725:978-3-515-07309-7
2692:978-0-19-535802-5
2654:978-1-317-87107-1
2613:978-1-317-69616-2
2433:. pp. 21–51.
2169:
2168:
2035:Armenian genocide
2003:Hans-Lukas Kieser
1950:French Revolution
1934:1876 Constitution
1711:Publication of a
1686:Establishment of
1513:in 1863) and the
1314:First nationwide
1198:Mizancı Murat Bey
1190:
1189:
786:. This began the
437:
425:
392:
391:
322:(1918–1922)
314:(1914–1918)
306:(1908–1920)
296:(1908–1922)
280:(1876–1878)
272:(1839–1876)
254:(1789–1908)
238:(1718–1730)
228:(1703–1789)
212:(1656–1703)
202:(1566–1703)
186:(1533–1656)
176:(1453–1566)
155:(1402–1413)
140:(1299–1453)
90:
89:
82:
16:(Redirected from
4810:
4743:
4742:
4731:
4730:
4719:
4718:
4707:
4706:
4695:
4500:
4385:Cities and towns
4366:Turkish language
4321:Turkish Airlines
4137:Electoral system
4100:Council of State
4053:
3987:Waste management
3917:Black Sea Region
3895:
3886:
3840:Turkic migration
3786:One-party period
3655:Sultanate of Rum
3601:
3586:
3585:
3574:
3567:
3560:
3551:
3546:
3519:
3492:
3486:
3482:
3480:
3472:
3453:
3436:Gelvin, James L.
3431:
3393:
3376:
3349:
3325:
3316:
3310:
3302:
3266:
3265:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3194:
3189:
3187:
3179:
3167:
3161:
3160:
3159:. Faith Matters.
3158:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3038:
3032:
3023:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3008:. Archived from
3002:
2996:
2995:
2990:. Archived from
2980:
2974:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2950:
2947:
2941:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2894:"PTT Chronology"
2890:
2884:
2883:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2848:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2576:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2513:
2507:
2505:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2455:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2412:
2395:
2385:
2321:
2306:
2291:
2276:
2260:
2245:
2229:
2217:
2205:
2193:
2164:
2161:
2143:
2136:
2016:conscripted army
1919:
1853:decimal currency
1832:
1826:
1825:
1817:
1816:
1803:
1784:
1783:
1766:Edict of Gülhane
1759:
1758:
1719:civil code: the
1677:Council of State
1639:
1605:Promulgation of
1585:passed to a new
1551:
1522:
1512:
1506:
1483:
1477:
1440:
1438:
1430:Şirket-i Hayriye
1402:
1400:Tıbbiye Nezareti
1389:
1388:
1383:
1373:railway networks
1332:
1326:
1292:
1264:Ministry of Post
1238:Edict of Gülhane
1182:
1175:
1168:
998:Tekalif-i orfiye
820:
802:
782:and introduce a
714:French Symbolism
710:Cenab Şehabeddin
687:
673:
661:
646:
634:
615:Mehmed Cemil Bey
610:
591:Edict of Gülhane
568:
567: 1839–1861
566:
557:
556: 1808–1839
555:
451:Edict of Gülhane
432:
430:
420:
418:
410:
405:
400:
384:
377:
370:
339:
331:
323:
315:
307:
297:
281:
273:
265:
255:
239:
229:
213:
203:
187:
177:
156:
141:
122:
92:
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
60:this article by
51:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
21:
4818:
4817:
4813:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4758:
4757:
4756:
4751:
4679:
4498:
4494:Women in Turkey
4462:Law enforcement
4416:
4412:Life expectancy
4378:Islam in Turkey
4332:
4221:
4183:National Police
4151:
4106:
4038:
4029:Turkish Riviera
3936:
3893:
3892:
3871:
3828:
3795:
3774:Language reform
3745:
3664:
3625:
3590:
3580:
3578:
3535:
3522:
3508:
3495:
3483:
3473:
3469:
3456:
3450:
3434:
3420:
3396:
3379:
3365:
3352:
3335:
3332:
3330:Further reading
3319:
3303:
3291:
3278:
3275:
3270:
3269:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3244:
3243:
3239:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3190:
3180:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3156:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3132:
3131:
3127:
3096:
3095:
3091:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3048:
3041:
3033:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2960:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2923:
2918:
2917:
2913:
2903:
2901:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2873:
2872:
2868:
2850:
2849:
2842:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2647:. p. 119.
2633:
2632:
2628:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2595:
2594:
2590:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2462:
2453:
2451:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2398:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2338:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2322:
2313:
2307:
2298:
2292:
2283:
2277:
2268:
2261:
2252:
2246:
2237:
2230:
2221:
2218:
2209:
2206:
2197:
2194:
2182:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2149:needs expansion
2134:
2043:
2033:and subsequent
1926:
1917:
1876:
1870:
1861:
1768:
1762:
1732:Syriac Orthodox
1675:) split into a
1668:treaties (1867)
1432:
1420:Encümen-i Daniş
1347:Maarif Nezareti
1220:proclaimed the
1186:
973:Resm-i mücerred
838:Adet-i deştbani
800:
703:
698:
697:
696:
693:
688:
679:
674:
665:
662:
653:
647:
638:
635:
626:
611:
600:
599:
571:Napoleonic Code
563:
552:
545:
505:social contract
413:Ottoman Turkish
403:
388:
343:
342:
337:
329:
321:
313:
305:
298:
295:
285:
284:
279:
271:
263:
256:
253:
243:
242:
237:
230:
227:
217:
216:
211:
204:
201:
191:
190:
185:
178:
175:
165:
164:
154:
147:Beylik of Osman
142:
139:
110:
101:
86:
75:
69:
66:
56:Please help to
55:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4816:
4814:
4806:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4760:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4750:
4749:
4737:
4725:
4713:
4701:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4611:Radio stations
4608:
4603:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4557:
4556:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4530:
4529:
4524:
4514:
4508:
4506:
4497:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4480:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4459:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4442:
4437:
4436:
4435:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4417:
4415:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4370:
4369:
4368:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4346:Turkish people
4342:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4311:Transportation
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4235:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4197:
4192:
4191:
4190:
4185:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4157:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4127:
4116:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4103:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4077:
4076:
4075:
4065:
4059:
4057:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4019:National parks
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3974:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3957:
3956:
3955:
3953:Climate change
3944:
3942:
3938:
3937:
3935:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3902:Marmara Region
3898:
3896:
3894:(west to east)
3883:
3877:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3809:
3807:Constitutional
3803:
3801:
3797:
3796:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3766:
3761:
3755:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3697:
3695:Transformation
3692:
3691:
3690:
3680:
3674:
3672:
3670:Ottoman Empire
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3639:
3637:
3627:
3626:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3607:
3605:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3579:
3577:
3576:
3569:
3562:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3533:
3520:
3506:
3493:
3467:
3454:
3448:
3432:
3418:
3398:Finkel, Evgeny
3394:
3377:
3363:
3350:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3317:
3289:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3264:. p. 198.
3252:
3237:
3218:(1): 180–208.
3202:
3193:|journal=
3162:
3144:
3125:
3106:(4): 540–544.
3089:
3070:(3): 547–575.
3054:
3039:
3024:
3015:
3012:on 2012-02-25.
2997:
2994:on 2012-06-14.
2975:
2966:
2951:
2942:
2933:
2911:
2885:
2866:
2863:on 2013-02-12.
2840:
2826:
2806:
2792:
2772:
2758:
2738:
2724:
2705:
2691:
2667:
2653:
2626:
2612:
2588:
2567:(2): 191–257.
2547:
2508:
2472:
2460:
2436:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2359:
2354:
2352:Young Ottomans
2349:
2344:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2323:
2316:
2314:
2308:
2301:
2299:
2295:Beyazıt Square
2293:
2286:
2284:
2278:
2271:
2269:
2262:
2255:
2253:
2247:
2240:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2167:
2166:
2160:September 2024
2146:
2144:
2133:
2130:
2042:
2039:
1996:Abdul Hamid II
1938:Abdul Hamid II
1925:
1922:
1872:Main article:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1849:treasury bonds
1839:the same law.
1806:Topkapi Palace
1764:Main article:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1735:
1729:
1726:
1709:
1702:
1695:
1684:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1648:
1641:
1628:
1617:
1614:
1603:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1579:
1566:
1559:
1553:
1544:
1537:
1530:
1524:
1495:
1492:
1485:
1466:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1424:
1415:
1404:
1391:
1387:darülmuallimin
1376:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1338:
1319:
1312:
1301:
1298:
1285:
1274:
1271:
1266:and the first
1260:
1253:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1170:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1054:Hazine-i Amire
1051:
1049:Hazine-i Hassa
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1023:
1022:
1021:Implementation
1018:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
975:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
933:Resm-i arusane
930:
925:
920:
915:
913:Muskirat resmi
910:
908:Mururiye resmi
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
868:Cürm-ü cinayet
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
827:
826:
822:
821:
813:
812:
810:Ottoman Empire
799:
796:
760:Young Ottomans
702:
699:
695:
694:
689:
682:
680:
675:
668:
666:
663:
656:
654:
648:
641:
639:
636:
629:
627:
612:
605:
602:
601:
597:
596:
595:
544:
541:
517:Abdul Hamid II
447:Ottoman Empire
390:
389:
387:
386:
379:
372:
364:
361:
360:
349:Historiography
345:
344:
341:
340:
332:
324:
316:
308:
299:
291:
290:
287:
286:
283:
282:
274:
266:
261:Nizam-i Djedid
257:
249:
248:
245:
244:
241:
240:
231:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
205:
199:Transformation
197:
196:
193:
192:
189:
188:
179:
171:
170:
167:
166:
163:
162:
157:
149:
143:
135:
134:
131:
130:
124:
123:
115:
114:
112:Ottoman Empire
103:
102:
95:
88:
87:
70:September 2016
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4815:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4765:
4763:
4748:
4747:
4738:
4736:
4735:
4726:
4724:
4723:
4714:
4712:
4711:
4702:
4700:
4699:
4694:
4690:
4689:
4686:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4598:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4507:
4505:
4501:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4426:
4425:
4423:
4419:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4383:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4374:
4371:
4367:
4364:
4363:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4339:
4335:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4113:
4109:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4078:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3982:Air pollution
3980:
3979:
3978:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3958:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3949:
3946:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3907:Aegean Region
3905:
3903:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3891:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3852:Turkification
3850:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3822:
3818:
3815:
3814:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3798:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3710:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3683:Classical Age
3681:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3671:
3667:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3643:Seljuk Empire
3641:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3584:
3575:
3570:
3568:
3563:
3561:
3556:
3555:
3552:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3478:
3470:
3464:
3460:
3455:
3451:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3323:
3318:
3314:
3308:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3286:
3282:
3277:
3276:
3273:Cited sources
3272:
3263:
3256:
3253:
3248:
3241:
3238:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3206:
3203:
3198:
3185:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3163:
3155:
3148:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3126:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3093:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3058:
3055:
3052:, p. 99.
3051:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3037:, p. 84.
3036:
3031:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2970:
2967:
2964:, p. 98.
2963:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2943:
2937:
2934:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2870:
2867:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2829:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2810:
2807:
2795:
2789:
2785:
2784:
2776:
2773:
2761:
2755:
2751:
2750:
2742:
2739:
2727:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2709:
2706:
2694:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2671:
2668:
2656:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2635:Yapp, Malcolm
2630:
2627:
2615:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2551:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2512:
2509:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2476:
2473:
2470:, p. 82.
2469:
2464:
2461:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2417:Kanun-ı Esasi
2411:
2408:
2401:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2381:
2374:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2285:
2281:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2232:The Imperial
2228:
2223:
2216:
2211:
2204:
2199:
2192:
2187:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2163:
2154:
2150:
2147:This section
2145:
2142:
2138:
2137:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2122:millet system
2119:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2055:Mount Lebanon
2052:
2051:Sublime Porte
2048:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1981:nation states
1977:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1923:
1921:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1867:
1865:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1837:
1831:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1801:
1795:
1793:
1785:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1699:capitulations
1696:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1652:Jewish Millet
1649:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1505:
1504:Bank-ı Osmanî
1500:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1331:
1325:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1234:hatt-i sharif
1231:
1223:
1222:Liberal Party
1219:
1214:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1163:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1129:Regie Company
1127:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
983:Rusum-e-eflak
981:
979:
978:Resm-i sicill
976:
974:
971:
969:
968:Resm-i hınzır
966:
964:
961:
959:
958:Resm-i filori
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
943:Resm-i bostan
941:
939:
938:Resm-i bennâk
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
858:Bedl-i askeri
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
830:
829:
828:
823:
819:
815:
814:
811:
807:
803:
797:
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
766:. During the
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
744:
741:
740:millet system
736:
734:
732:
727:
722:
715:
711:
707:
700:
692:
691:Şayeste Hanım
686:
681:
678:
677:Gülüstü Hanım
672:
667:
660:
655:
652:
645:
640:
633:
628:
624:
620:
616:
609:
604:
594:
592:
588:
583:
580:
576:
572:
561:
550:
542:
540:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
511:, written by
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
477:
475:
474:
469:
463:
461:
457:
452:
448:
444:
441:
435:
429:
423:
414:
409:
401:
399:
385:
380:
378:
373:
371:
366:
365:
363:
362:
358:
354:
350:
347:
346:
336:
333:
328:
325:
320:
317:
312:
309:
304:
301:
300:
294:
289:
288:
278:
275:
270:
267:
262:
259:
258:
252:
247:
246:
236:
233:
232:
226:
221:
220:
210:
207:
206:
200:
195:
194:
184:
181:
180:
174:
173:Classical Age
169:
168:
161:
158:
153:
150:
148:
145:
144:
138:
133:
132:
129:
126:
125:
121:
117:
116:
113:
108:
104:
99:
93:
84:
81:
73:
63:
59:
53:
52:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
4803:Abdulmejid I
4744:
4732:
4720:
4708:
4696:
4581:Illumination
4517:Architecture
4445:Human rights
4433:Universities
4351:Ethnic Kurds
4338:Demographics
4249:Construction
3716:
3524:
3497:
3458:
3439:
3401:
3381:
3380:Lafi, Nora.
3354:
3337:
3336:Lafi, Nora.
3321:
3280:
3261:
3255:
3246:
3240:
3215:
3211:
3205:
3184:cite journal
3165:
3147:
3134:
3128:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3067:
3063:
3057:
3050:Davison 1963
3018:
3010:the original
3000:
2992:the original
2987:
2978:
2969:
2962:Davison 1963
2945:
2936:
2924:. Retrieved
2922:. Ptt.gov.tr
2914:
2902:. Retrieved
2898:the original
2888:
2879:
2875:
2869:
2861:the original
2856:
2831:. Retrieved
2816:
2809:
2797:. Retrieved
2782:
2775:
2763:. Retrieved
2748:
2741:
2729:. Retrieved
2714:
2708:
2696:. Retrieved
2677:
2670:
2658:. Retrieved
2639:
2629:
2617:. Retrieved
2598:
2591:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2528:(1): 51–65.
2525:
2521:
2511:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2463:
2452:. Retrieved
2448:
2439:
2421:
2416:
2410:
2383:
2362:
2249:Naum Theatre
2234:Ottoman Bank
2174:Zeynep Çelik
2170:
2157:
2153:adding to it
2148:
2112:In 1863 the
2111:
2098:conscription
2071:
2044:
2024:
2000:
1989:
1978:
1975:
1942:Grand Vizier
1915:
1908:
1895:Reform Edict
1892:
1862:
1845:central bank
1841:
1835:
1820:
1808:, abolished
1792:Hatt-ı Şerif
1791:
1788:
1720:
1680:
1672:
1666:capitulation
1611:Greek Millet
1583:Grand Vizier
1574:
1499:Ottoman Bank
1462:
1458:
1419:
1346:
1341:
1334:
1303:Redesign of
1242:
1230:Abdulmejid I
1227:
1148:
1079:Kanun-i Raya
988:Selamet isni
963:Resm-i ganem
953:Resm-i dönüm
878:Gümrük resmi
833:Adet-i Ağnam
792:Hamidian Era
784:constitution
772:Midhat Pasha
764:Midhat Pasha
745:
737:
729:
723:
719:
584:
560:Abdulmejid I
546:
513:Midhat Pasha
488:
478:
471:
464:
439:
395:
393:
319:Partitioning
269:Tanzimat Era
268:
76:
67:
48:
4734:WikiProject
4665:Video games
4457:Individuals
4450:LGBT rights
4440:Health care
4407:Immigration
4188:Gendarmerie
4147:Referendums
4063:Legislative
3960:Earthquakes
3845:Oghuz Turks
3734:Dissolution
3485:|work=
2988:obarsiv.com
2904:11 February
2488:(1): 3–29.
2090:first Aliya
2086:Yemeni Jews
1985:Crimean War
1810:tax farming
1725:(1869–1876)
1645:Vilayet Law
1475:Şehremaneti
1450:(1854–1855)
1433: [
1330:kafa kağıdı
1204:during the
948:Resm-i çift
923:Otlak resmi
873:Damga resmi
853:Bac-i pazar
726:Janissaries
558:), his son
519:during the
491:" included
311:World War I
293:Dissolution
209:Köprülü Era
152:Interregnum
62:introducing
4762:Categories
4606:Newspapers
4591:Literature
4571:Folk dance
4472:Corruption
4356:Minorities
4284:Renewables
4239:Automotive
4048:Government
3779:Secularism
2926:6 November
2454:2024-05-23
2402:References
2080:, allowed
2001:Historian
1944:, and the
1794:of Gülhane
1607:basic laws
1563:Penal Code
1412:Trade Code
1381:darülfünun
1335:head paper
1282:Penal Code
1218:Sabahaddin
1202:Ottomanism
1119:Mütesellim
993:Tapu resmi
928:Rav akçesi
776:Abdul Aziz
619:frock coat
617:wearing a
587:Ottomanism
577:under the
575:French law
456:Ottomanism
225:Old Regime
45:references
4798:Mahmud II
4660:TV series
4618:Miniature
4561:Festivals
4477:Terrorism
4428:Education
4361:Languages
4205:Air Force
4120:Elections
4068:Executive
4014:Mountains
3881:Geography
3800:Overviews
3739:Partition
3705:Tulip era
3543:722436035
3516:942693443
3487:ignored (
3477:cite book
3428:219497050
3390:695236822
3346:695237486
3307:cite book
3299:813691473
3232:143901523
3120:181910618
3084:146795365
2857:NTV Tarih
2645:Routledge
2604:Routledge
2583:145729675
2522:AlMuntaqa
2502:145056061
2074:Palestine
2063:Maronites
1966:Bosphorus
1936:: Sultan
1859:Reactions
1779:Edict of
1754:Edict of
1541:Land Code
1257:banknotes
1232:issued a
1114:Muqata'ah
1084:Kanunname
1008:Tuz resmi
651:Rahmi Bey
649:Governor
613:Diplomat
549:Mahmud II
481:Mahmud II
422:romanized
235:Tulip Era
4768:Tanzimat
4710:Category
4648:Football
4633:Painting
4576:Folklore
4484:Marriage
4390:Istanbul
4373:Religion
4326:Railways
4316:Aviation
4254:Currency
4112:Politics
4080:Judicial
4056:Branches
4034:Wildlife
3824:Military
3812:Economic
3717:Tanzimat
3438:(2008).
3373:52813928
2427:Würzburg
2336:See also
2326:Budapest
2312:, 1880s.
2297:, 1880s.
2107:Effendis
2102:mukhtars
2094:fellahin
1972:of 1908.
1713:Hanefite
1640:) (1864)
1623:and the
1609:for the
1578:) (1859)
1534:Law Code
1465:) (1854)
1423:) (1851)
1408:Commerce
1324:Mecidiye
1149:Tanzimat
1109:Muhassil
1104:Muafiyet
1094:Merdiban
1089:Malikâne
1029:Ahidnâme
893:Ispendje
806:Taxation
533:Unionist
525:Hamidian
428:Tanẓîmât
404:Turkish:
398:Tanzimat
128:Timeline
98:a series
96:Part of
18:Tanzimât
4746:Outline
4722:Commons
4655:Theater
4638:Pottery
4554:Ottoman
4549:Cuisine
4527:Ottoman
4504:Culture
4489:Poverty
4421:Society
4306:Tourism
4259:Defense
4231:Economy
4073:Cabinet
4004:Geology
3948:Climate
3890:Regions
3817:Ottoman
3635:Beyliks
3631:Seljuks
3596:History
3176:1600745
2799:11 June
2280:Bomonti
2267:, 1910.
2180:Gallery
2082:Russian
2047:Lebanon
2007:Dualism
1958:Turkish
1946:millets
1924:Impacts
1824:Gülhane
1815:Gülhane
1800:gülhane
1782:Gülhane
1760:of 1839
1757:Gülhane
1722:Mecelle
1484:, 1855)
1403:, 1850)
1390:, 1848)
1350:, 1857)
1216:Prince
1134:Siyakat
1064:Iltizam
1003:Temettu
888:Ihtisab
808:in the
798:Reforms
748:liberal
731:İltizam
701:Motives
623:bow tie
543:Origins
473:millets
436:
424::
417:تنظيمات
357:Decline
107:History
58:improve
4698:Portal
4643:Sports
4544:Cinema
4539:Carpet
4522:Seljuk
4512:Anthem
4395:Ankara
4264:Energy
4156:Topics
4024:Rivers
3941:Topics
3833:Topics
3588:Turkey
3541:
3531:
3514:
3504:
3465:
3446:
3426:
3416:
3388:
3371:
3361:
3344:
3297:
3287:
3230:
3174:
3118:
3082:
2833:9 June
2824:
2790:
2765:9 June
2756:
2722:
2689:
2651:
2610:
2581:
2540:
2500:
2363:Düstür
2265:Samsun
2027:dhimmi
2020:guilds
1940:, the
1905:Dhimmi
1851:and a
1836:millet
1749:(1876)
1745:, and
1743:Senate
1717:Sharia
1708:(1869)
1701:(1869)
1647:(1864)
1627:(1863)
1613:(1862)
1602:(1861)
1589:(1860)
1558:(1858)
1552:(1857)
1543:(1858)
1529:(1857)
1414:(1850)
1375:(1856)
1368:(1847)
1362:(1847)
1311:(1844)
1297:(1876)
1284:(1840)
1270:(1840)
1259:(1840)
1252:(1839)
1144:Tahrir
1139:Sürsat
1099:Millet
1069:Istira
1034:Defter
898:Istira
848:Avarız
762:, and
621:and a
531:, and
338:(1924)
330:(1922)
109:of the
100:on the
47:, but
4628:Names
4623:Music
4596:Media
4467:Crime
4400:İzmir
4009:Lakes
3994:Fauna
3424:S2CID
3228:S2CID
3157:(PDF)
3116:S2CID
3080:S2CID
2878:[
2731:6 May
2698:6 May
2660:6 May
2619:6 May
2579:S2CID
2538:JSTOR
2498:S2CID
2375:Notes
2067:Druze
1962:Greek
1910:jizya
1437:]
1278:Civil
1013:Zakat
918:Nüzül
903:Maktu
883:Haraç
863:Cizye
843:Ashar
825:Taxes
778:in a
485:Porte
443:nizam
353:Ghaza
4670:Wine
4566:Flag
4269:Coal
4215:Navy
4210:Land
3678:Rise
3633:and
3539:OCLC
3529:ISBN
3512:OCLC
3502:ISBN
3489:help
3463:ISBN
3444:ISBN
3414:ISBN
3386:OCLC
3369:OCLC
3359:ISBN
3342:OCLC
3313:link
3295:OCLC
3285:ISBN
3197:help
3172:SSRN
2928:2011
2906:2013
2835:2013
2822:ISBN
2801:2013
2788:ISBN
2767:2013
2754:ISBN
2733:2017
2720:ISBN
2700:2017
2687:ISBN
2662:2017
2649:ISBN
2621:2017
2608:ISBN
2084:and
1932:The
1893:The
1789:The
1659:waqf
1487:The
1410:and
1307:and
1280:and
1154:Waqf
1074:Kadı
1059:Hane
1039:Emin
780:coup
573:and
537:1922
499:and
434:lit.
394:The
137:Rise
4534:Art
4279:Oil
4274:Gas
3406:doi
3220:doi
3108:doi
3072:doi
2569:doi
2530:doi
2490:doi
2155:.
2072:In
2045:In
1956:in
1920:".
1913:).
1830:kul
794:.
539:.
462:.
440:see
4764::
4601:TV
3537:.
3510:.
3481::
3479:}}
3475:{{
3422:.
3412:.
3384:.
3367:.
3340:.
3309:}}
3305:{{
3293:.
3226:.
3216:42
3214:.
3188::
3186:}}
3182:{{
3137:.
3114:.
3104:21
3102:.
3078:.
3068:42
3066:.
3042:^
3027:^
2986:.
2954:^
2855:.
2843:^
2685:.
2681:.
2643:.
2606:.
2602:.
2577:.
2565:57
2563:.
2559:.
2536:.
2524:.
2520:.
2496:.
2486:35
2484:.
2447:.
2429::
2425:.
2128:.
1952::
1847:,
1741:,
1435:tr
754:,
565:r.
554:r.
527:,
431:,
419:,
415::
411:;
355:,
3573:e
3566:t
3559:v
3545:.
3518:.
3491:)
3471:.
3452:.
3430:.
3408::
3392:.
3375:.
3348:.
3315:)
3301:.
3234:.
3222::
3199:)
3195:(
3178:.
3122:.
3110::
3086:.
3074::
2930:.
2908:.
2837:.
2803:.
2769:.
2735:.
2702:.
2664:.
2623:.
2571::
2532::
2526:1
2504:.
2492::
2457:.
2162:)
2158:(
1918:'
1889:.
1715:-
1690:(
1634:(
1536:;
1517:(
1472:(
1457:(
1397:(
1333:(
1208:.
1181:e
1174:t
1167:v
733:,
716:.
625:.
562:(
551:(
402:(
383:e
376:t
369:v
359:)
351:(
83:)
77:(
72:)
68:(
54:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
