477:
465:
134:
127:
358:, the second highest peak in Tibesti and the highest peak in the western Tibesti mountains. In the past it was considered to be lower, only 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), before a higher summit height was determined by Jean Tilho and W.G. Tweedale (1920). It rises 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above the surrounding landscape and covers a base of 8 by 9 kilometres (5.0 mi × 5.6 mi), dominating the surroundings. The summit cone is formed by
42:
798:, including the 430,000 ± 110,000 year old Yirrigué ignimbrite. This ignimbrite covers a surface area of 3,200 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi) with about 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi) of rock. The eruption that generated this ignimbrite also led to the formation of the Yirrigué caldera.
402:
Toussidé itself lies in part within an even larger caldera, the 14-by-13-kilometre (8.7 mi × 8.1 mi) "pre-Toussidé" (also known as "Yirrigué") caldera which is in part filled by the lava flows from
Toussidé and eruption products from the more recent explosion craters, as well as debris
437:
volcanic cones, the most remarkable of which is the 75-metre (246 ft) high
Moussosomi, which has erupted a lava flow. Three of these cones are deeply eroded. Cones are also located outside of the Trou au Natron, and their eruption products have in part flowed into the crater. Like Toussidé, the
378:
emanate from
Toussidé in a radial pattern and reach lengths of 25 kilometres (16 mi), covering an area of 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi). These flows descended valleys towards the west and may have buried an older volcanic edifice of Toussidé. The flows have a ropy appearance with a
805:
eruptions that deposited large blocks around the crater, while an alternative proposal that considers it a collapse caldera appears to not be consistent with field evidence. It formed after the "pre-Toussidé" caldera considering that its caldera rim is cut by Trou au Natron, at a time where part of
1979:
Bruneau de Miré, Philippe; Quézel, Pierre (1959). "Sur quelques aspects de la Flore residuelle du
Tibesti: Les fumeroles du Tousside et les Lappiaz volcaniques cuiminaux de l'Emi Koussi" [On some aspects of the residual flora of Tibesti: The Tousside fumaroles and the volcanic summit Lapiaz of
453:
Another 1,500-metre (4,900 ft) wide and 300-metre (980 ft) deep crater, Doon Kidimi (also known as Petit Trou or Doon Kinimi), lies northeast of Trou au Natron; it is among the most pristine volcanic features in the region. Additional volcanoes in the neighbourhood are the 3,040-metre
619:. A thick layer of ash has covered much of the terrain and with the exception of the younger volcanoes only few parts of the terrain crop out. Several of these outcrops can be found east of Trou au Natron. The volcanism of the Tibesti has been subdivided into several series.
2167:
Roland, Norbert W. (1 July 1974). "Zur
Entstehung der Trou-Au-Natron-Caldera (Tibesti-Gebirge, Zentral-Sahara) aus photogeologischer Sicht" [On the formation of the Trou au Natron caldera (Tibesti Mountains, Central Sahara) from a photogeological perspective].
2263:
Soulié-Märsche, I.; Bieda, S.; Lafond, R.; Maley, Jean; M'Baitoudji, Mathieu Mbaiki; Vincent, Pierre, Marcel; Faure, Hugues (July 2010). "Charophytes as bio-indicators for lake level high stand at "Trou au Natron", Tibesti, Chad, during the Late
Pleistocene".
1652:
Kroepelin, S.; Darius, F.; Deschamps, P.; Dinies, M.; Hoelzmann, P.; Kuper, J.; Oppenheimer, C.; Soulié-Märsche, I; Sylvestre, F. (December 2015). "New data on the unresolved paradox of the
Tibesti crater paleolakes (Central Sahara, North Chad)".
1326:
Vincent, Pierre (1 December 1963). "Le volcanisme ignimbritique du
Tibesti Occidental (Sahara tchadien). Essai d'interprétation dynamique" [The ignimbritic volcanism of the Western Tibesti (Chadian Sahara). Dynamic interpretation test].
821:
at temperatures of 40–60 °C (104–140 °F); thus it is considered to be the only active
Tibesti volcano. Likewise, the volcanic cones in Trou au Natron are considered to be recent, lake deposits underneath the cones have been
432:
Trou au Natron (also known as Doon or Doon Orei). Its 700–1,000-metre (2,300–3,300 ft) high rim is cut into sequences of lavas and older volcanic cones. In places it is almost vertical. Inside of Trou au Natron are four recent
476:
246:
are close to it. It has an elevation of 3,265 m (10,712 ft) above sea level. The volcano is the source of a number of lava flows, which have flowed westward away from
Toussidé and east into the Yirrigué caldera.
601:, with one old volcanic unit being dated to 17 million years ago. While all the higher peaks are volcanoes, not all of Tibesti is formed by volcanic material; the volcanoes have developed on top of a basement uplift.
678:
Annual temperatures at Trou au Natron fluctuate between 27 – −8 °C (81–18 °F), with a daily temperature variation of 8.8 °C (15.8 °F); this is less than in the lowlands. At higher altitudes
1993:
Deniel, Catherine; Vincent, Pierre Marcel; Beauvilain, Alain; Gourgaud, Alain (1 September 2015). "The Cenozoic volcanic province of Tibesti (Sahara of Chad): major units, chronology, and structural features".
250:
Trou au Natron, the depression southeast of the volcano, measures approximately 8 by 6 kilometres (5.0 mi × 3.7 mi) in diameter and 700–1,000 metres (2,300–3,300 ft) in depth. During the
2315:
Stäblein, Gerhard; Jensch, Georg; Valentin, Hartmut; Wöhlke, Wilhelm; Jäkel, Dieter (1976). "Arbeitsberichte aus der Forschungsstation Bardai/Tibesti IV - Feldarbeiten 1966/67, 1969/70, 1974".
403:
that fell from the steep caldera margin. Toussidé is located on the caldera's western side, and the smaller Trou au Natron caldera cuts into the flanks of Yirrigué. Yirrigué contains a small
391:
textures, which are very fresh and free of erosion. The surface of the flows is rough and can be a problem to climbers. The relatively steep slopes of Toussidé may reflect the existence of a
2039:
Gèze, Bernard; Hudeley, Henri; Vincent, Pierre; Wacrenier, Philippe (1 December 1959). "Les volcans du Tibesti (Sahara du Tchad)" [The volcanoes of Tibesti (Chadian Sahara)].
464:
1120:
Tilho, Jean; Tweedale, W. G. (1920). "The Exploration of Tibesti, Borkou, and Ennedi in 1912-1917: A Mission Entrusted to the Author by the French Institute (Continued)".
597:
into Chad and covers a total surface area of about 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi). The Tibesti Mountains have been volcanically active since the late
573:
The lake reached maximum depths of at a minimum 300–350 metres (980–1,150 ft), at least once reaching 500 metres (1,600 ft). Such a large size, relative to its
2307:
817:
Toussidé is among the youngest volcanoes in Tibesti, and may have erupted in historical time. A large number of fumaroles are active on its summit, exhaling mainly
2359:
2115:
454:(9,970 ft) high Ehi Timi northeast and the 2,515-metre (8,251 ft) high Ehi Sosso/Ehi Soso east of Toussidé, the former of which features
458:. The river Enneri Oudingueur originates closely in the area and becomes a tributary of the Enneri Bardagué, which drains the Tibesti northward.
2157:
1804:
1933:
577:, has raised the question of where this water came from. The formation of such a lake during the glacial maximum was probably dependent on
83:
1974:] (in French). N'Djamena, Chad, Centre national d'appui à la recherche, Centre d'appui à la formation et à l'évaluation. p. 24.
1760:
Messerli, B. (1973). "Problems of Vertical and Horizontal Arrangement in the High Mountains of the Extreme Arid Zone (Central Sahara)".
263:
activity on the peak of Toussidé and geothermal manifestations within Trou au Natron represent signs of volcanic activity at Toussidé.
2404:
2379:
2126:
683:
can be expected. Precipitation amounts to 93.3 millimetres per year (3.67 in/year) at Trou au Natron. Most of it falls as
316:
lie east-northeast and south of Toussidé, respectively, and a road between the two passes just southeast from Trou au Natron.
126:
76:
670:
and Ehi Sosso only rhyolite. The formation of Trou au Natron has been accompanied by the eruption of bedrock material.
334:
are located 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) south of Trou au Natron. The origin of volcanism in Tibesti is unclear; both a
201:
1621:"Crater palaeolakes in the Tibesti mountains (Central Sahara, North Chad) – New insights into past Saharan climates"
691:. Other, more indirect estimates yield precipitation of 150–250 millimetres (5.9–9.8 in) per year at Toussidé.
687:
precipitation during summer, and it is more copious than in the lowlands; the Tibesti mountains are the sources for
2394:
2389:
2384:
2374:
839:
411:. The "Yirrigué" caldera is part of a large rhyolitic shield-shaped volcano that developed on top of a tectonic
2399:
880:
844:
754:
and other species. The growth of these plants is favoured by the water emanating from the fumaroles. The plant
578:
508:, this lake persisted for several thousands of years. Aside from a lake level drop between 14,900–14,600 years
271:
Toussidé is also known as Tarso Toussidé. Another transliteration is "Tusside". "Trou au Natron" refers to the
1787:
Poli, Emilia (1974). "Vegetationsgrenzen In Vulkangebieten" [Limits to vegetation in volcanic areas].
726:
482:
Trou au Natron seen from northeast; Toussidé lava flows upper right corner and Doon Kidimi lower right corner
885:
765:
512:, the lake existed until about 12,400 years before present. Later analysis suggested that there was no late
442:
of the "pre-Toussidé" caldera. A salty swamp lies within Trou au Natron, whose floor is in part covered by
1965:
582:
523:
years ago to about 4,425 calibrated radiocarbon years ago, thus at the same time as lakes in the lowland.
189:
770:
756:
720:
304:, Africa. The Tibesti mountains reach elevations of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and are surrounded by the
2301:
738:
732:
1836:[Overview on taxonomy, tcology and thylogeny of the genus Erodium in the Mediterranean Basin].
2084:
Grove, A. T. (1960). "Geomorphology of the Tibesti Region with Special Reference to Western Tibesti".
750:
2273:
2177:
2048:
2003:
1662:
1336:
811:
497:
252:
69:
1834:"Aperçu sur la Taxonomie, l'Ecologie et la phylogénie du genre Erodium dans le bassin méditerranéen"
635:
2222:
2201:
2101:
2072:
2027:
1769:
1360:
1137:
901:"Saharagärten. : Ein landwirtschaftliches Pionierprojekt im Tibesti-Gebirge (Zentralsahara)"
823:
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64:
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2153:
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2019:
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259:, it was filled with a lake. A number of volcanic cones have developed within Trou au Natron.
231:
177:
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2145:
2093:
2056:
2011:
1872:
1792:
1344:
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908:
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532:
363:
323:, which is the highest mountain of the Tibesti and of the entire Sahara region. The volcano
412:
396:
243:
2235:
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2007:
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170:
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Southeast of Toussidé lies the 8-by-6-kilometre (5.0 mi × 3.7 mi) wide
2368:
2205:
2076:
2031:
1861:"Towards a new classification of Salvia s.l.: (re)establishing the genus Pleudia Raf"
1833:
1620:
1364:
684:
370:, one half has a white colour and the other half is black; some areas are white from
355:
339:
280:
223:
194:
2285:
2238:[Ecological-physiological analyses in the mountains of the Central Sahara]
1625:
818:
699:
623:
559:
1796:
794:
age. The "pre-Toussidé" caldera is considered to be the source of numerous local
1929:
1599:
1597:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1567:
1565:
1452:
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to be between 15,000 and 12,500 years old. Finally, in Trou au Natron there are
710:
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2015:
905:
Berichte über Landwirtschaft - Zeitschrift für Agrarpolitik und Landwirtschaft
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17:
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1157:
1155:
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920:
912:
98:
85:
2213:
Scholz, Hildemar (1966). "Beitrag zur Flora des Tibesti-Gebirges (Tschad)".
987:
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and an associated 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long lava flow, as well as an
41:
2328:
802:
779:
695:
667:
659:
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328:
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in the caldera. "Toussidé" translates as "Which killed the local people (
260:
256:
1877:
593:
The Tibesti mountains are part of a volcanic province that reaches from
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2189:
2105:
2060:
1773:
1348:
1278:
1276:
1274:
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1141:
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lake stage and that Trou au Natron was filled with water between 8,645
429:
359:
297:
235:
220:
2244:
Berichte des Naturwissenschaftlich-medizinischen Vereins in Innsbruck
2236:"Ökophysiologische Untersuchungen in den Bergen der zentralen Sahara"
715:
643:
608:
555:
543:
434:
367:
338:-related mechanism and tectonic effects of the collision between the
309:
305:
54:
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that deposit trona and fumarolic activity has been reported there.
775:
680:
594:
527:
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underneath the younger lavas; some flows may have originated from
327:
lies northwest of Toussidé, the Botoum and Botoudoma/Petit Botoum
313:
276:
470:
Trou au Natron (centre down) and Doon Kidimi (upper right corner)
1982:
Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de l'Afrique du Nord
1859:
Will, Maria; Schmalz, Natalie; Classen-Bockhoff, Regine (2015).
688:
567:
563:
505:
419:. The ignimbrites have buried older terrain and filled valleys.
301:
227:
163:
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Trou au Natron probably formed through two or three separate
1946:
1723:
1313:
1301:
1039:
354:
Toussidé is a symmetrical 3,265-metre (10,712 ft) high
1903:
1694:
1486:
1382:
1184:
1161:
1063:
1051:
991:
810:. Doon Kidimi on the other hand may have formed during the
438:
position of Trou au Natron appears to be controlled by the
1408:
1406:
694:
A characteristic vegetation has been discovered on the
2343:
1707:
1705:
1703:
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at the fumaroles of Toussidé, and the mountain is the
1819:
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1087:
806:
the Toussidé volcano already existed, but before the
415:, which in turn may have been formed by intrusion of
1789:
Tatsachen und Probleme der Grenzen in der Vegetation
1115:
1113:
200:
188:
183:
169:
155:
114:
75:
63:
53:
48:
34:
2114:
1967:Pages d'histoire naturelle de la terre tchadienne
1930:Desert Research, 2: Selected References 1966-1970
1614:
1612:
2136:Pachur, Hans-Joachim; Altmann, Norbert (2006).
1791:(in German). Springer, Dordrecht. p. 234.
790:Volcanic activity at Toussidé appears to be of
666:rhyolite, while Ehi Timi erupted rhyolite and
2344:National Aeronautics and Space Administration
1544:
1520:
1471:
1240:
8:
2306:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2117:Annals of geomorphology: Supplement volume
964:
604:The terrain beneath Toussidé is formed by
31:
2142:The Eastern Sahara in the Late Quaternary
1876:
774:. Trou au Natron also has its own unique
1972:Pages of natural history of Chadian land
1832:Duché, Grégoire; Picard, Marie (2010).
1747:
1735:
1024:
856:
460:
2299:
1915:
1891:
1532:
1424:
1412:
1711:
1619:Hoelzmann, Philipp (1 January 2016).
1501:
1397:
1215:
1196:
1104:
870:
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
570:colonized the margins of the crater.
7:
1934:Defense Technical Information Center
1928:Paylore, Patricia (September 1970).
492:Trou Au Natron was once filled by a
2317:Berliner geographische Abhandlungen
714:within the fumarole vents to small
379:diverse surface texture, including
662:. Yirrigué conversely has erupted
658:. The cones in Trou au Natron are
622:The volcano has erupted rhyolite,
25:
2144:] (in German). SpringerLink.
1820:Bruneau de Miré & Quézel 1959
1283:Bruneau de Miré & Quézel 1959
1088:Bruneau de Miré & Quézel 1959
2234:Schwarz, Werner (October 1976).
475:
463:
296:Toussidé is part of the western
133:
132:
125:
40:
2360:High-resolution NASA photograph
2286:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.05.004
319:Another volcano in Tibesti is
1:
899:Musch, Tilman (22 May 2023).
59:3,265 m (10,712 ft)
2138:Die Ostsahara im Spätquartär
1797:10.1007/978-94-011-7595-1_21
814:, and after Trou au Natron.
698:of Toussidé. It ranges from
2266:Global and Planetary Change
287:Geography and geomorphology
275:which have deposited white
2421:
2121:(in German). Borntraeger.
1964:Beauvilain, Alain (1996).
1762:Arctic and Alpine Research
1655:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
1640:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
1604:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
1589:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
1572:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
1557:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
1013:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
953:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
421:
2405:Stratovolcanoes of Africa
2352:From Libyan sands to Chad
2349:Heseltine, Nigel (1960).
2150:10.1007/978-3-540-47625-2
2016:10.1007/s00445-015-0955-6
1865:Turkish Journal of Botany
1545:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1521:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1472:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1241:Pachur & Altmann 2006
840:List of volcanoes in Chad
718:consisting of mosses and
638:suite. The lavas contain
119:
39:
2380:Holocene stratovolcanoes
2086:The Geographical Journal
1122:The Geographical Journal
913:10.12767/buel.v101i2.475
881:Global Volcanism Program
845:List of Ultras of Africa
727:Fimbristylis minutissima
579:orographic precipitation
2113:Louis, Herbert (1960).
2041:Bulletin Volcanologique
1996:Bulletin of Volcanology
1329:Bulletin Volcanologique
886:Smithsonian Institution
230:. Toussidé lies in the
674:Climate and vegetation
583:subtropical jet stream
2170:Geologische Rundschau
234:, the large Yirrigué
27:Stratovolcano in Chad
2329:10.23689/fidgeo-3079
1947:Stäblein et al. 1976
1724:Stäblein et al. 1976
1314:Stäblein et al. 1976
1302:Stäblein et al. 1976
1040:Stäblein et al. 1976
812:Neolithic Subpluvial
498:last glacial maximum
346:have been proposed.
255:or the early-middle
253:last glacial maximum
2278:2010GPC....72..334S
2182:1974GeoRu..63..689R
2053:1959BVol...22..135G
2008:2015BVol...77...74D
1878:10.3906/bot-1405-34
1667:2015AGUFMPP11D..03K
1559:, pp. 335–336.
1341:1963BVol...26..259V
771:Salvia tibestiensis
757:Erodium toussidanum
721:Campanula monodiana
581:transported by the
562:lived in the lake.
219:) is a potentially
95: /
2190:10.1007/BF01820838
2061:10.1007/BF02596582
1683:Deniel et al. 2015
1457:Deniel et al. 2015
1442:Deniel et al. 2015
1349:10.1007/BF02597291
1262:Deniel et al. 2015
1076:Deniel et al. 2015
977:Deniel et al. 2015
745:Oxalis corniculata
739:Mollugo nudicaulis
733:Lavandula antineae
49:Highest point
2395:Dormant volcanoes
2390:Volcanoes of Chad
2385:Mountains of Chad
2375:Tibesti Mountains
2159:978-3-540-47625-2
1980:Emi Koussi].
1806:978-94-011-7596-8
824:radiocarbon-dated
778:, including many
702:, ferns, mosses,
630:, which define a
232:Tibesti Mountains
210:
209:
178:Tibesti Mountains
16:(Redirected from
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1052:Gèze et al. 1959
1049:
1043:
1037:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
995:
992:Gèze et al. 1959
989:
980:
974:
968:
962:
956:
950:
925:
924:
907:(in German): 2.
896:
890:
889:
876:"Tarso Toussidé"
872:
786:Eruption history
751:Satureja biflora
617:Nubian Sandstone
615:, including the
533:Chara globularis
496:lake during the
479:
467:
242:and Doon Kidimi
238:and the smaller
173:
146:Location in Chad
136:
135:
129:
110:
109:
107:
106:
105:
100:
96:
93:
92:
91:
88:
44:
32:
21:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2400:VEI-6 volcanoes
2365:
2364:
2355:. Museum Press.
2348:
2340:
2335:
2314:
2298:
2262:
2253:
2251:
2239:
2233:
2212:
2166:
2160:
2135:
2129:
2112:
2098:10.2307/1790425
2083:
2038:
1992:
1978:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1945:
1941:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1902:
1898:
1890:
1886:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1843:
1841:
1840:(in French): 13
1831:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1726:, p. 9,11.
1722:
1718:
1710:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1674:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1618:
1617:
1610:
1602:
1595:
1587:
1578:
1570:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1531:
1527:
1519:
1508:
1500:
1493:
1485:
1478:
1470:
1463:
1455:
1448:
1440:
1431:
1423:
1419:
1411:
1404:
1396:
1389:
1381:
1372:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1289:
1281:
1268:
1260:
1247:
1239:
1222:
1214:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1168:
1160:
1149:
1134:10.2307/1781650
1119:
1118:
1111:
1103:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1078:, pp. 2–3.
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1031:
1023:
1019:
1011:
998:
990:
983:
975:
971:
965:Beauvilain 1996
963:
959:
951:
928:
898:
897:
893:
874:
873:
858:
853:
836:
808:Würm glaciation
788:
676:
591:
490:
483:
480:
471:
468:
426:
397:parasitic vents
352:
308:. The towns of
294:
289:
269:
215:(also known as
171:
151:
150:
149:
148:
147:
144:
143:
142:
141:
137:
103:
101:
99:21.03°N 16.45°E
97:
94:
89:
86:
84:
82:
81:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2418:
2416:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2367:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2357:
2346:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2312:
2272:(4): 334–340.
2260:
2231:
2221:(2): 183–202.
2210:
2176:(2): 689–707.
2164:
2158:
2133:
2127:
2110:
2081:
2047:(1): 135–172.
2036:
1990:
1976:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1939:
1920:
1918:, p. 705.
1908:
1906:, p. 163.
1896:
1894:, p. 200.
1884:
1851:
1824:
1822:, p. 128.
1812:
1805:
1779:
1752:
1750:, p. 141.
1740:
1738:, p. 142.
1728:
1716:
1699:
1697:, p. 155.
1687:
1672:
1644:
1642:, p. 336.
1632:
1608:
1606:, p. 338.
1593:
1591:, p. 337.
1576:
1574:, p. 339.
1561:
1549:
1547:, p. 132.
1537:
1535:, p. 185.
1525:
1523:, p. 100.
1506:
1491:
1489:, p. 158.
1476:
1461:
1446:
1429:
1427:, p. 698.
1417:
1415:, p. 690.
1402:
1387:
1385:, p. 157.
1370:
1318:
1306:
1287:
1285:, p. 127.
1266:
1245:
1220:
1201:
1189:
1187:, p. 160.
1166:
1164:, p. 159.
1147:
1109:
1092:
1090:, p. 126.
1080:
1068:
1066:, p. 156.
1056:
1054:, p. 154.
1044:
1029:
1027:, p. 139.
1017:
1015:, p. 334.
996:
994:, p. 136.
981:
969:
957:
955:, p. 335.
926:
891:
855:
854:
852:
849:
848:
847:
842:
835:
832:
787:
784:
675:
672:
628:trachyandesite
590:
587:
539:Chara vulgaris
510:before present
489:
486:
485:
484:
481:
474:
472:
469:
462:
448:sodium sulfate
424:Trou au Natron
409:alluvial plain
351:
348:
344:Eurasian Plate
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:) with fire".
268:
265:
240:Trou au Natron
217:Tarso Toussidé
208:
207:
204:
198:
197:
192:
186:
185:
181:
180:
175:
167:
166:
160:Tibesti Region
157:
153:
152:
145:
139:
138:
131:
130:
124:
123:
122:
121:
120:
117:
116:
112:
111:
79:
73:
72:
67:
61:
60:
57:
51:
50:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
18:Tarso Toussidé
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2417:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2338:Other sources
2337:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2319:(in German).
2318:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2249:
2246:(in German).
2245:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2217:(in German).
2216:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2172:(in German).
2171:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2128:9783443210120
2124:
2119:
2118:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2043:(in French).
2042:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1991:
1987:
1984:(in French).
1983:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1949:, p. 15.
1948:
1943:
1940:
1936:. p. 49.
1935:
1931:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1885:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1855:
1852:
1839:
1838:Tela Botanica
1835:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1717:
1714:, p. 21.
1713:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1633:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1504:, p. 94.
1503:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1474:, p. 98.
1473:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1459:, p. 16.
1458:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1400:, p. 93.
1399:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1331:(in French).
1330:
1322:
1319:
1316:, p. 13.
1315:
1310:
1307:
1304:, p. 12.
1303:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1243:, p. 99.
1242:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1218:, p. 25.
1217:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1199:, p. 90.
1198:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1107:, p. 89.
1106:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
988:
986:
982:
979:, p. 19.
978:
973:
970:
967:, p. 20.
966:
961:
958:
954:
949:
947:
945:
943:
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
931:
927:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
895:
892:
887:
883:
882:
877:
871:
869:
867:
865:
863:
861:
857:
850:
846:
843:
841:
838:
837:
833:
831:
829:
825:
820:
815:
813:
809:
804:
799:
797:
793:
785:
783:
781:
777:
773:
772:
767:
766:type locality
763:
759:
758:
753:
752:
747:
746:
741:
740:
735:
734:
729:
728:
723:
722:
717:
713:
712:
707:
706:
701:
697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
673:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
636:hyperalkaline
633:
629:
626:bordering on
625:
620:
618:
614:
610:
607:
602:
600:
596:
588:
586:
584:
580:
576:
571:
569:
565:
561:
560:stromatoliths
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
540:
535:
534:
529:
526:
522:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
487:
478:
473:
466:
461:
459:
457:
451:
449:
445:
441:
436:
431:
425:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
356:stratovolcano
349:
347:
345:
341:
340:African Plate
337:
333:
330:
326:
322:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
300:mountains in
299:
291:
286:
284:
282:
278:
274:
266:
264:
262:
258:
254:
248:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
224:stratovolcano
222:
218:
214:
205:
203:
202:Last eruption
199:
196:
195:Stratovolcano
193:
191:
190:Mountain type
187:
182:
179:
176:
174:
168:
165:
161:
158:
154:
128:
118:
113:
108:
80:
78:
74:
71:
68:
66:
62:
58:
56:
52:
47:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2351:
2320:
2316:
2302:cite journal
2269:
2265:
2252:. Retrieved
2247:
2243:
2218:
2214:
2173:
2169:
2141:
2137:
2116:
2092:(1): 18–27.
2089:
2085:
2044:
2040:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1966:
1942:
1923:
1911:
1899:
1887:
1868:
1864:
1854:
1842:. Retrieved
1837:
1827:
1815:
1788:
1782:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1748:Schwarz 1976
1743:
1736:Schwarz 1976
1731:
1719:
1690:
1685:, p. 1.
1658:
1654:
1647:
1635:
1626:ResearchGate
1624:
1552:
1540:
1528:
1444:, p. 8.
1420:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1309:
1264:, p. 9.
1192:
1125:
1121:
1083:
1071:
1059:
1047:
1042:, p. 8.
1025:Schwarz 1976
1020:
972:
960:
904:
894:
879:
819:water vapour
816:
800:
789:
769:
755:
749:
743:
737:
731:
725:
719:
709:
703:
700:cyanophyceae
693:
677:
624:trachybasalt
621:
603:
592:
572:
552:golden algae
537:
531:
491:
452:
427:
401:
374:alteration.
364:pyroclastics
353:
318:
295:
270:
249:
216:
212:
211:
172:Parent range
104:21.03; 16.45
29:
2215:Willdenowia
1916:Roland 1974
1892:Scholz 1966
1533:Scholz 1966
1425:Roland 1974
1413:Roland 1974
828:hot springs
796:ignimbrites
711:Selaginella
705:Oldenlandia
664:peralkaline
652:plagioclase
640:phenocrysts
632:subalkaline
606:Precambrian
521:radiocarbon
514:Pleistocene
405:cinder cone
102: /
77:Coordinates
2369:Categories
1932:(Report).
1768:(3): 146.
1712:Grove 1960
1661:: 11D–03.
1629:. EGU2016.
1502:Louis 1960
1398:Louis 1960
1335:(1): 268.
1216:Grove 1960
1197:Louis 1960
1128:(4): 259.
1105:Louis 1960
851:References
792:Quaternary
613:sandstones
548:gastropods
525:Charophyte
518:calibrated
494:freshwater
456:lava domes
444:evaporites
440:ring fault
422:See also:
376:Lava flows
332:extrusions
321:Emi Koussi
2294:0921-8181
2250:: 139–164
2206:129449794
2198:0016-7835
2077:128896369
2069:0366-483X
2032:129043535
2024:0258-8900
2002:(9): 74.
1365:129658074
1357:0366-483X
921:2196-5099
782:species.
696:fumaroles
660:andesitic
575:catchment
530:(such as
502:meltwater
500:. Fed by
488:Paleolake
446:, mainly
393:lava dome
389:porphyric
372:fumarolic
325:Tarso Toh
261:Fumarolic
115:Geography
55:Elevation
2254:12 April
1844:13 April
834:See also
803:phreatic
780:Sahelian
668:trachyte
656:sanidine
599:Cenozoic
435:basaltic
342:and the
329:rhyolite
292:Regional
257:Holocene
213:Toussidé
156:Location
140:Toussidé
35:Toussidé
2274:Bibcode
2227:3995307
2178:Bibcode
2106:1790425
2049:Bibcode
2004:Bibcode
1957:Sources
1871:: 702.
1774:1550163
1663:Bibcode
1337:Bibcode
1142:1781650
762:endemic
716:meadows
685:frontal
648:olivine
609:schists
589:Geology
556:sponges
544:diatoms
430:caldera
360:lapilli
336:hotspot
298:Tibesti
273:springs
244:craters
236:caldera
206:unknown
184:Geology
90:16°27′E
87:21°02′N
65:Listing
2292:
2225:
2204:
2196:
2156:
2125:
2104:
2075:
2067:
2030:
2022:
1803:
1772:
1363:
1355:
1140:
919:
644:augite
568:mosses
417:magmas
385:glassy
381:bubbly
368:scoria
310:Bardai
306:Sahara
221:active
2240:(PDF)
2223:JSTOR
2202:S2CID
2140:[
2102:JSTOR
2073:S2CID
2028:S2CID
1970:[
1770:JSTOR
1361:S2CID
1138:JSTOR
776:flora
689:wadis
681:frost
595:Libya
564:Ferns
528:algae
504:from
413:horst
350:Local
314:Zouar
277:trona
267:Names
70:Ultra
2308:link
2290:ISSN
2256:2018
2194:ISSN
2154:ISBN
2123:ISBN
2065:ISSN
2020:ISSN
1846:2018
1801:ISBN
1659:2015
1353:ISSN
917:ISSN
708:and
654:and
611:and
566:and
558:and
536:and
506:snow
387:and
366:and
312:and
302:Chad
228:Chad
164:Chad
2325:doi
2282:doi
2186:doi
2146:doi
2094:doi
2090:126
2057:doi
2012:doi
1873:doi
1793:doi
1345:doi
1130:doi
909:doi
768:of
760:is
642:of
542:),
281:Tou
226:in
2371::
2323:.
2321:24
2304:}}
2300:{{
2288:.
2280:.
2270:72
2268:.
2248:63
2242:.
2200:.
2192:.
2184:.
2174:63
2152:.
2100:.
2088:.
2071:.
2063:.
2055:.
2045:22
2026:.
2018:.
2010:.
2000:77
1998:.
1986:50
1869:39
1867:.
1863:.
1799:.
1764:.
1702:^
1675:^
1657:.
1623:.
1611:^
1596:^
1579:^
1564:^
1509:^
1494:^
1479:^
1464:^
1449:^
1432:^
1405:^
1390:^
1373:^
1359:.
1351:.
1343:.
1333:26
1290:^
1269:^
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