Taxonomy (biology) - Knowledge (XXG)

1120:... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate the possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide a basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress a little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy. 1812: 2288: 1288: 1525: 848:

investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced a notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.

58: 6705: 1561:, he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which proved to be an elegant solution to a chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the 613: 1634: 6637: 6688: 6609: 6671: 6722: 2475: 1618: 600: 6654: 2161:

Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019, which covers eukaryotes only with

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While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, a truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and

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In phenetics, also known as taximetrics, or numerical taxonomy, organisms are classified based on overall similarity, regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relationships. It results in a measure of hypergeometric "distance" between taxa. Phenetic methods have become relatively rare in modern

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Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as the top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased,

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An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories.

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provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use the terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more

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or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for the entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A

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Biological classification is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive):

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Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics) is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e)

1462:, categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. 1568:

Plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with the exception of spiders published in

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revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or the merger of previous subtaxa.

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Later authors have used the term in a different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus,

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Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from

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However, often much more information is included, like the geographic range of the taxon, ecological notes, chemistry, behavior, etc. How researchers arrive at their taxa varies: depending on the available data, and resources, methods vary from simple

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The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below:

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Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy.

1799:, which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades, it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the 2533:, which attempts to list every documented species. The catalogue listed 1.64 million species for all kingdoms as of April 2016, claiming coverage of more than three-quarters of the estimated species known to modern science. 2307:

The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing the definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In

880:, is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. 1738:

of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use.

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is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy:

835:: "The study of the identification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of organisms, including the classification of living things with regard to their natural relationships and the study of variation and the evolution of taxa". 822:

The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether

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have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes the same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by

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was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a

1499:(1682), in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. 1762:, with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic. A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed 2348: 1706:

representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of the first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of

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Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D.; Kirk, Paul M.; Thuesen, Erik V. (2015).

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With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the

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to the rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014) covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the

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Lawley, Jonathan W.; Gamero-Mora, Edgar; Maronna, Maximiliano M.; Chiaverano, Luciano M.; Stampar, Sérgio N.; Hopcroft, Russell R.; Collins, Allen G.; Morandini, André C. (19 September 2022).

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Dubois, Alain; Bauer, Aaron M.; Ceríaco, Luis M. P.; Dusoulier, François; Frétey, Thierry; Löbl, Ivan; Lorvelec, Olivier; Ohler, Annemarie; Stopiglia, Renata; Aescht, Erna (17 December 2019).

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An "authority" may be placed after a scientific name. The authority is the name of the scientist or scientists who first validly published the name. For example, in 1758 Linnaeus gave the

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introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy.

1110:, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century. 5414: 329: 5400: 5622: 3203: 5478: 5285: 4256: 2902: 4586:"The Linz Zoocode project: A set of new proposals regarding the terminology, the Principles and Rules of zoological nomenclature. First report of activities (2014‒2019)" 2527:

technologies to search and catalogue classifications and their documentation. While there is no commonly used database, there are comprehensive databases such as the

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as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely. Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding

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or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish) for over 250 years.

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to provide a pattern that can be translated into the classification and names of the more inclusive field of taxonomy" (listed as a desirable but unusual definition)

719:; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are 2796: 2179: 2466:. However, it is standard that if the genus of a species has been changed since the original description, the original authority's name is placed in parentheses. 644: 6120: 4562: 2326: 791:

Theory and practice of grouping individuals into species, arranging species into larger groups, and giving those groups names, thus producing a classification.

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A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as

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There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including

1161:. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher 6089: 4229: 2384:

It should include statements about appropriate attributes either to describe (define) the taxon or to differentiate it from other taxa (the diagnosis,

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Wood, Dylan; King, Margaret; Landis, Drew; Courtney, William; Wang, Runtang; Kelly, Ross; Turner, Jessica A.; Calhoun, Vince D. (26 August 2014).

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How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the

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Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of

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Michener, Charles D.; Corliss, John O.; Cowan, Richard S.; Raven, Peter H.; Sabrosky, Curtis W.; Squires, Donald S.; Wharton, G. W. (1970).

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These first four requirements must be published in a work that is obtainable in numerous identical copies, as a permanent scientific record.

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defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows:

6385: 5392: 3989: 3439: 1446:. Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. 505: 3526: 1815:

The basic scheme of modern classification. Many other levels can be used; domain, the highest level within life, is both new and disputed.

5614: 4182: 1423:, due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in a single continuum, as per the 4723: 1726:

in 1842. The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of

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Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

3900: 5277: 2392:, Article 38, which may or may not be based on morphology). Both codes deliberately separate defining the content of a taxon (its 1795:

has been proposed, which regulates the formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the

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came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species. Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the

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International Edition Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae (Handbook of Plant Breeding)

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With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of

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Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the

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This ranking system, except for "Strain", can be remembered by the mnemonic "Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets?"

1408:, with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the 1165:

subgenus and above, or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of

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Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, D. P.; Orrell, T. M.; Bailly, N.; Bourgoin, T.; Brusca, R. C.; et al. (2015).

3010: 2661: 2463: 2429: 1612: 1189:" ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system"). 1166: 470: 445: 425: 405: 82: 5801: 4488: 1844:

was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of the three-domain method is the separation of

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thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,

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Adl, S. M.; Simpson, A. G. B.; Lane, C. E.; Lukeš, J.; Bass, D.; Bowser, S. S.; et al. (December 2015).

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Voultsiadou, Eleni; Gerovasileiou, Vasilis; Vandepitte, Leen; Ganias, Kostas; Arvanitidis, Christos (2017).

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are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize

1778: 1113: 824: 573: 480: 475: 420: 381: 182: 5615:"Carolus Linnaeus: Classification, Taxonomy & Contributions to Biology – Video & Lesson Transcript" 4830:

Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species

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International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode): A Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature

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Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species

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Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species

2317: 2175: 1782: 1703: 1681: 1282: 666: 485: 440: 262: 157: 6280: 6255: 6235: 5716: 4695: 3988:] (in Latin). impensis Henrici Faithorne & Joannis Kersey, ad insigne Rofæ Coemeterio D. Pauli. 3642: 2405: 2364: 2191: 1960: 1867: 1734:

worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. With the

1727: 1676: 1626: 1608: 1439: 1273:, indicating that the uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place. 1080: 768: 583: 465: 410: 376: 289: 4105: 3774: 3748: 1185:'s system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals was entitled " 763:

is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as

1864:. A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method. 1575:). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean. 6500: 6310: 6260: 5349: 5189: 5027: 4968: 4921: 3356: 3302: 2616: 2409: 2219: 2167: 1459: 1409: 1299: 1249: 1070: 945: 938: 435: 207: 92: 49: 5238: 2287: 1287: 6415: 6285: 5637: 4278: 4003: 2282: 1988: 1841: 1719: 1592: 1524: 1465:

One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology was the Italian physician

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Judd, W. S.; Campbell, C. S.; Kellogg, E. A.; Stevens, P. F.; Donoghue, M. J. (2007). "Taxonomy".

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at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for

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This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy".

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is commonly used. In botany, there is, in fact, a regulated list of standard abbreviations (see

1931: 1427:(the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. 4957:"Towards a natural system of organisms:proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya" 685: 672: 6711: 6515: 6395: 6250: 6002: 5942: 5909: 5869: 5775: 5757: 5527: 5219: 5155: 5122:

Adl, S. M.; Bass, D.; Lane, C. E.; Lukeš, J.; Schoch, C. L.; Smirnov, A.; et al. (2019).

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of 1809. The idea was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read

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Turrill, W. B. (1938). "The Expansion Of Taxonomy With Special Reference To Spermatophyta".

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Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of

1571: 1495:, 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works. Arguably his greatest accomplishment was 1466: 805:

The science of classification, in biology the arrangement of organisms into a classification

748: 720: 304: 4307: 2505:, have persisted, as rapid estimators of relationships when more advanced methods (such as 6525: 6490: 6093: 4413: 4178: 2939:

Small, Ernest (1989). "Systematics of Biological Systematics (Or, Taxonomy of Taxonomy)".

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Steyskal, G. C. (1965). "Trend curves of the rate of species description in zoology".

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Kirk, P. M.; Cannon, P. F.; Minter, D. W.; Stalpers, J. A., eds. (2008). "Taxonomy".

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comparisons of striking features, to elaborate computer analyses of large amounts of

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an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and

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The taxon must be given a name based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet (a

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of

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Schuh, Randall T. (2003). "The Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence".

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Carl, Clerck; Carl, Bergquist; Eric, Borg; L., Gottman; Lars, Salvius (1757).

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Linnaeus, 1758". The names of authors are often abbreviated: the abbreviation

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The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature

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Maxted, Nigel (1992). "Towards Defining a Taxonomic Revision Methodology".

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pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by

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Whittaker, R. H. (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms of organisms".

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Simpson, Michael G. (2010). "Chapter 1 Plant Systematics: an Overview".

6560: 6290: 6160: 4464:(3rd ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 13. 4132: 3861:"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals" 3566: 3549: 3396:

The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

3088: 2960: 2309: 2266: 2203: 2060: 2042: 2037: 2005: 1875: 1871: 1845: 1596: 1492: 1043: 958: 756: 700: 658: 6098: 5140: 4414:"What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean?" 3666:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 2493:

analyses, as phenetic methods do not distinguish shared ancestral (or

690: 6225: 5793: 2343: 2246: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2120: 2115: 2020: 2015: 1853: 1382: 1327: 1315: 1311: 1244:. Since then, the evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from 728: 6047: 5250: 4124: 3080: 2952: 2478:

A comparison of phylogenetic and phenetic (character-based) concepts

2359:

The initial description of a taxon involves five main requirements:

933:) between taxa are inferred. Kinds of taxonomic characters include: 5660:"Zoological nomenclature: a basic guide for non-taxonomist authors" 4890: 3920:. Florence: Apud Georgium Marescottum – via Internet Archive. 3044:

Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum

1770:. Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of 1542:(1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works 1221:

systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of

4511: 2286: 2262: 2214:, the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of 2108: 2103: 2098: 2093: 1903: 1891: 1810: 1785:, to a certain extent. An alternative system of nomenclature, the 1632: 1616: 1523: 1420: 1371: 1350: 1323: 1286: 1107: 897: 752: 712: 677: 5445:"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants" 4862:. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires". 4700:

International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology

3932:"Andrea Cesalpino | Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist" 3893:"Andrea Cesalpino | Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist" 2458:). The system for assigning authorities differs slightly between 1656:

toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's

6038: 4332:

The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology

3453: 3451: 3449: 2211: 1178:

focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine.

6102: 5393:"Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species" 2349:

International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

5999:

Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics

4864:

Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale

4216: 4214: 4212: 2800:. 359: Taxonomy for the twenty-first century (1444): 571–583. 896:

is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular

6619: 5938:

Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data

4004:"Joseph Pitton de Tournefort | French botanist and physician" 1469:(1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist". His 852:

A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology,

1583:

Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as

856:, scientific classification, biological classification, and 711:

based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into

6051: 4489:

10.1663/0006-8101(2003)069[0059:TLSAIY]2.0.CO;2

2377:

The description must be based on at least one name-bearing

4645:"Carl Woese | Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology" 1758:. The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical 1318:. He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms 5278:"A Few Bad Scientists Are Threatening to Topple Taxonomy" 4617: 4615: 4613: 6069: 6060: 6027: 4077: 4075: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3497:

Voultsiadou, Eleni; Vafidis, Dimitris (1 January 2007).

1882:, would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from 1754:. Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term 778:

relationships among organisms, both living and extinct.

5178:"A higher level classification of all living organisms" 5016:"A higher level classification of all living organisms" 3458:

Cantino, Philip D.; de Queiroz, Kevin (29 April 2020).

1836:

are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977,

5171: 5169: 3499:"Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology" 3264: 3262: 3217:

Rosselló-Mora, Ramon; Amann, Rudolf (1 January 2001).

1416:

tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle.

6597: 5599:. American Journal Experts, Research Square Company. 3464:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. xl + 149. 2883:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. xv + 209. 2746:. W. R. Chambers Ltd. and Cambridge University Press. 2501:) traits. However, certain phenetic methods, such as 1870:, who published extensively on the classification of 1830:

five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common.

1137:" as the classification of ranks higher than species. 29:

Science of naming, defining and classifying organisms

5824:"About the Catalogue of Life: 2016 Annual Checklist" 4743: 4741: 4222:"taxonomy – Classification since Linnaeus | biology" 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3176: 2872: 2870: 2868: 1035:

Courtship and other ethological isolating mechanisms

6569: 5479:

International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature

4462:

Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications

3800:von Lieven, Alexander Fürst; Humar, Marcel (2008). 2744:

The Wordsworth Dictionary of Science and Technology

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Archived from 3914:Cesalpino, Andrea; Marescotti, Giorgio (1583). 2797:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 2792:"Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny" 2691:(3rd ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. 2367:for new species, or uninomial for other ranks). 2180:Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera 1788:International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature 1248:that for the most part complements traditional 715:(singular: taxon) and these groups are given a 5997:Wiley, Edward O.; Lieberman, Bruce S. (2011). 4407: 4405: 4403: 6114: 6043:National Center for Biotechnology Information 4797:"New views on the megaclassification of life" 4293:Original text w/ figures. First published as 3398:. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 3196:"Taxonomy: Meaning, Levels, Periods and Role" 2926:Systematics In Support of Biological Research 2857:. Utah State University. 2005. Archived from 2790:(2004). Godfray, H. C. J.; Knapp, S. (eds.). 2655: 2653: 2327:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature 1746:method has emerged since the 1960s. In 1958, 794:A field of science (and a major component of 638: 8: 5566:"Taxonomy – Evaluating taxonomic characters" 5453:International Association for Plant Taxonomy 4955:Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. (1990). 3625: 3623: 3621: 1374:can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as 6074:Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities 4623:"Kingdom Classification of Living Organism" 4335:. University of Chicago Press. p. 24. 3806:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 3003:"What is systematics and what is taxonomy?" 2845: 2843: 2841: 2755: 2753: 2662:"What is systematics and what is taxonomy?" 2564:Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities 2202:Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of 1688:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 6121: 6107: 6099: 5593:"Editing Tip: Scientific Names of Species" 5075:"The revised classification of eukaryotes" 4163:] (in Swedish). 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His work from 1700, 1283:Aristotle's biology § Classification 4106:"Typification and later starting-points" 2473: 2456:list of botanists by author abbreviation 2346:, the naming of taxa is governed by the 2172:Global Biodiversity Information Facility 1860:for all organisms whose cells contain a 735:is sometimes used in botany in place of 6632: 6604: 6065:Integrated Taxonomic Information System 6001:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 5832:Integrated Taxonomic Information System 4502:Queiroz, Philip D.; de Cantino, Kevin. 4433: 4431: 4245:"Thomas Henry Huxley and the Dinobirds" 3992:from the original on 29 September 2017. 3612: 3280: 3268: 2649: 2629: 2442:, so the name is sometimes written as " 1430:Advances were made by scholars such as 1333:Some of his groups of animals, such as 707:) and classifying groups of biological 48: 5587: 5585: 4750:"A revised six-kingdom system of life" 3859:Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (2022). 1886:. 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(1998). 4671:Assembling the Tree of Life 4543:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007 4189:University of Chicago Press 3878:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1 3170:Mayr, Ernst (1991), p. 162. 3108:Annual Review of Entomology 2218:and the resulting field of 2194:is a resource for fossils. 1691:, published anonymously by 1579:The digital era of taxonomy 1508:Institutiones Rei Herbariae 1504:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort 1292:Description of rare animals 1083:relationship of populations 1024:Other molecular differences 1009:Electrophoretic differences 703:study of naming, defining ( 6779: 6087:Biological classification. 6056:Universal Protein Resource 5906:Cambridge University Press 4329:Rudwick, M. J. S. (1985). 3104:"Phylogenetic Systematics" 2516: 2481: 2423: 2280: 2229: 1818: 1606: 1517: 1280: 1150: 1094: 1071:biogeographic distribution 950:Special structures (e.g., 584:Nature-nurture controversy 31: 6758:Biological classification 6136: 4712:10.1099/00207713-52-2-297 4603:10.11646/BIONOMINA.17.1.1 4032:(in Latin). Leiden: Haak. 3515:10.1163/18759866-07602004 3223:FEMS Microbiology Reviews 2990:– via Google Books. 2974:Singh, Gurcharan (2004). 2766:. Pearson/Prentice Hall. 2430:Author citation (zoology) 2396:) from defining its name. 2097: 2092: 2087: 2078: 2069: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1613:Phylogenetic nomenclature 1404:was largely based on the 1167:phylogenetic nomenclature 471:Evolutionary neuroscience 446:Evolutionary epistemology 426:Evolutionary anthropology 406:Applications of evolution 5935:Stuessy, Tod F. (2009). 5794:"About – The Plant List" 5753:10.3389/fninf.2014.00071 5523:10.17159/sajs.2022/14495 4375:10.1038/sj.embor.7401061 3503:Contributions to Zoology 2579:Identification (biology) 2426:Author citation (botany) 1663:transmutation of species 1658:On the Origin of Species 1652:of the animal and plant 1214:On the Origin of Species 1095:Not to be confused with 461:Evolutionary linguistics 456:Evolutionary game theory 431:Evolutionary computation 6753:Biological nomenclature 5571:Encyclopædia Britannica 5362:10.1078/1617-1381-00015 4982:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 4312:Encyclopedia Britannica 4253:Smithsonian Institution 4226:Encyclopedia Britannica 4087:Encyclopedia Britannica 4008:Encyclopedia Britannica 3981:Methodus plantarum nova 3953:Jaime, Prohens (2010). 3936:Encyclopedia Britannica 3897:Encyclopedia Britannica 3724:Encyclopedia Britannica 3436:biological-concepts.com 2855:Intermountain Herbarium 2729:Dictionary of the Fungi 2324:), is regulated by the 1497:Methodus Plantarum Nova 1114:William Bertram Turrill 1091:Alpha and beta taxonomy 1038:Other behavior patterns 995:Genic sterility factors 825:biological nomenclature 759:. The Swedish botanist 574:Objections to evolution 481:Evolutionary psychology 476:Evolutionary physiology 421:Evolutionary aesthetics 400:Fields and applications 382:History of paleontology 6196:Biological engineering 6092:13 August 2020 at the 6082:free species directory 4050:(in Latin). Stockholm. 3865:Comptes Rendus Palevol 3630:Manktelow, M. (2010). 3432:"Result of Your Query" 2806:10.1098/rstb.2003.1452 2731:(10th ed.). CABI. 2479: 2304: 2277:Taxonomic descriptions 2176:NCBI taxonomy database 1816: 1783:Botanical nomenclature 1728:evolutionary taxonomic 1682:Philosophie zoologique 1645: 1630: 1535: 1303: 1144: 1122: 1006:Immunological distance 850: 771:for naming organisms. 506:Speciation experiments 486:Experimental evolution 441:Evolutionary economics 263:Recent human evolution 121:Processes and outcomes 6763:Neo-Latin terminology 6624:at Knowledge (XXG)'s 6281:Developmental biology 6256:Computational biology 6236:Cellular microbiology 5717:University of Wyoming 4858:Chatton, É. (1925). " 4828:Linnaeus, C. (1735). 3691:"History of Taxonomy" 3632:"History of Taxonomy" 2889:10.1201/9781003092827 2760:Lawrence, E. (2005). 2523:Modern taxonomy uses 2477: 2290: 2226:Classifying organisms 2192:Paleobiology Database 1868:Thomas Cavalier-Smith 1814: 1677:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1636: 1627:evolutionary taxonomy 1620: 1609:Evolutionary taxonomy 1548:1st Edition in 1735, 1538:The Swedish botanist 1527: 1440:Demetrios Pepagomenos 1357:, are commonly used. 1290: 1281:Further information: 1139: 1118: 1018:DNA and RNA sequences 957:Internal morphology ( 845: 814:"Systematics studies 769:binomial nomenclature 466:Evolutionary medicine 411:Biosocial criminology 377:History of speciation 290:Evolutionary taxonomy 253:Timeline of evolution 6501:Reproductive biology 6386:Mathematical biology 6311:Evolutionary biology 6261:Conservation biology 4860:Pansporella perplexa 4843:Haeckel, E. (1866). 4649:www.igb.Illinois.edu 4477:The Botanical Review 4279:Huxley, Thomas Henry 4249:Smithsonian Magazine 3986:New Method of Plants 3917:De plantis libri XVI 3749:"Biology 101, Ch 20" 3720:"taxonomy | biology" 3390:Mayr, Ernst (1982). 3007:EvolvingThoughts.net 2861:on 23 November 2016. 2617:Virus classification 2438:the scientific name 2334:). In the fields of 2220:conservation biology 2168:Encyclopedia of Life 1807:Kingdoms and domains 1487:In the 17th century 1460:Age of Enlightenment 1410:great chain of being 925:Taxonomic characters 802:, and classification 436:Evolutionary ecology 50:Evolutionary biology 32:For other uses, see 6286:Ecological genetics 6130:Branches of biology 5636:Biocyclopedia.com. 5354:2002JNatC..10..145M 5308:"What is taxonomy?" 5195:2015PLoSO..1019248R 5032:2015PLoSO..1019248R 4973:1990PNAS...87.4576W 4926:1969Sci...163..150W 4795:Luketa, S. (2012). 4629:. 2 December 2014. 3771:Leroi, Armand Marie 3361:1968Sci...159..595M 3307:1965Sci...149..880S 3283:, pp. 365–366. 2788:Wheeler, Quentin D. 2283:Species description 1842:three-domain system 1720:Thomas Henry Huxley 1406:Aristotelian system 1207:The publication of 1058:Parasites and hosts 1055:Seasonal variations 538:Social implications 526:Universal Darwinism 516:Island biogeography 451:Evolutionary ethics 416:Ecological genetics 362:Molecular evolution 300:Transitional fossil 128:Population genetics 44:Part of a series on 6748:Taxonomy (biology) 6622:Taxonomy (biology) 6577:History of biology 6511:Structural biology 6496:Relational biology 6321:Generative biology 6316:Freshwater biology 5970:Biological Reviews 4754:Biological Reviews 4627:Biology Discussion 4251:. Washington, DC: 3978:John, Ray (1682). 3639:Uppsala University 3567:10.12681/mms.13874 3200:Biology Discussion 3013:on 27 August 2016. 2549:Bacterial taxonomy 2519:Taxonomic database 2507:Bayesian inference 2480: 2388:, Article 13.1.1, 2305: 2297:Nepenthes smilesii 1817: 1646: 1631: 1536: 1367:Historia Plantarum 1304: 1246:molecular genetics 1198:Bentham and Hooker 1049:Habit and habitats 890:taxonomic revision 839:In 1970, Michener 569:Theistic evolution 501:Selective breeding 213:Parallel evolution 178:Adaptive radiation 6595: 6594: 6516:Synthetic biology 6396:Molecular biology 6251:Cognitive biology 6024:What is taxonomy? 5865:Systematic Botany 5828:Catalogue of Life 5642:biocyclopedia.com 5425:on 3 October 2022 5314:on 1 October 2013 5141:10.1111/jeu.12691 4847:. Reimer, Berlin. 4706:(Pt 2): 297–354. 4655:on 28 April 2017. 4418:miketaylor.org.uk 4048:Species Plantarum 3755:. 23 March 1998. 3701:on 31 March 2017. 3355:(3815): 595–599. 3301:(3686): 880–882. 2704:Plant Systematics 2591:Open Tree of Life 2530:Catalogue of Life 2188:Catalogue of Life 2184:Open Tree of Life 2153: 2152: 1821:Kingdom (biology) 1760:evolutionary tree 1621:Evolution of the 1551:Species Plantarum 1520:Linnaean taxonomy 1436:Timotheus of Gaza 1261:Early taxonomists 1133:in 1968 defined " 1015:DNA hybridization 988:Metabolic factors 944:General external 765:Linnaean taxonomy 655: 654: 346:Origin of Species 148:Natural selection 16:(Redirected from 6770: 6733: 6725: 6724: 6723: 6716: 6715:from Wikiversity 6708: 6707: 6706: 6699: 6691: 6690: 6689: 6682: 6674: 6673: 6672: 6665: 6657: 6656: 6655: 6648: 6640: 6639: 6638: 6628: 6612: 6611: 6603: 6241:Chemical biology 6123: 6116: 6109: 6100: 6012: 5993: 5964: 5962: 5960: 5931: 5929: 5927: 5891: 5889: 5887: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5843: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5811: 5809: 5798:theplantlist.org 5790: 5784: 5783: 5773: 5755: 5731: 5725: 5724: 5708: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5697: 5682:"Classification" 5678: 5672: 5671: 5656: 5650: 5649: 5633: 5627: 5626: 5611: 5605: 5604: 5589: 5580: 5579: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5553: 5551: 5525: 5501: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5490: 5481:. Archived from 5467: 5461: 5460: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5430: 5421:. Archived from 5411: 5405: 5404: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5374:. Archived from 5373: 5339: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5319: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5217: 5207: 5197: 5173: 5164: 5163: 5153: 5143: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5102: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5053: 5043: 5011: 5005: 5004: 4994: 4984: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4920:(3863): 150–60. 4909: 4903: 4902: 4874: 4868: 4867: 4855: 4849: 4848: 4840: 4834: 4833: 4825: 4819: 4818: 4816: 4801: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4745: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4663: 4657: 4656: 4651:. Archived from 4641: 4635: 4634: 4619: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4522: 4516: 4515: 4510:. Archived from 4499: 4493: 4492: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4449:on 5 April 2017. 4445:. Archived from 4435: 4426: 4425: 4409: 4398: 4397: 4387: 4377: 4353: 4347: 4346: 4326: 4320: 4319: 4304: 4298: 4295:New York Tribune 4292: 4291:on 28 June 2011. 4284:Collected Essays 4275: 4269: 4268: 4266: 4264: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4218: 4207: 4206: 4201:. Archived from 4179:Secord, James A. 4175: 4169: 4168: 4156:Svenska spindlar 4150: 4144: 4143: 4141: 4110: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4079: 4070: 4069: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4022: 4016: 4015: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3889: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3745: 3732: 3731: 3716: 3703: 3702: 3697:. Archived from 3687: 3668: 3667: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3641:. Archived from 3636: 3627: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3569: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3455: 3444: 3443: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3290: 3284: 3278: 3272: 3266: 3257: 3256: 3238: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3192: 3171: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3036: 3030: 3029: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3009:. Archived from 2998: 2992: 2991: 2971: 2965: 2964: 2936: 2930: 2929: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2912: 2910: 2874: 2863: 2862: 2847: 2836: 2835: 2825: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2757: 2748: 2747: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2724: 2718: 2717: 2699: 2693: 2692: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2657: 2637: 2634: 2554:Cluster analysis 2503:neighbor joining 1914: 1913: 1825:Domain (biology) 1732:palaeontologists 1572:Svenska Spindlar 1467:Andrea Cesalpino 1400:Taxonomy in the 1370:. Several plant 1316:Island of Lesbos 1272: 1269: 894:taxonomic review 647: 640: 633: 620: 615: 614: 607: 603: 602: 579:Level of support 372:Current research 357:Modern synthesis 352:Before synthesis 305:Extinction event 63:Darwin's finches 60: 41: 21: 6778: 6777: 6773: 6772: 6771: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6726: 6721: 6719: 6709: 6704: 6702: 6698:from Wikisource 6692: 6687: 6685: 6675: 6670: 6668: 6658: 6653: 6651: 6647:from Wiktionary 6641: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6627:sister projects 6626: 6618: 6606: 6598: 6596: 6591: 6565: 6526:Systems biology 6491:Quantum biology 6132: 6127: 6094:Wayback Machine 6020: 6015: 6009: 5996: 5967: 5958: 5956: 5949: 5934: 5925: 5923: 5916: 5896:Stace, Clive A. 5894: 5885: 5883: 5876: 5861: 5857: 5852: 5851: 5841: 5839: 5822: 5821: 5817: 5807: 5805: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5733: 5732: 5728: 5710: 5709: 5705: 5695: 5693: 5680: 5679: 5675: 5658: 5657: 5653: 5635: 5634: 5630: 5613: 5612: 5608: 5591: 5590: 5583: 5564: 5563: 5559: 5549: 5547: 5503: 5502: 5498: 5488: 5486: 5485:on 6 March 2012 5469: 5468: 5464: 5443: 5442: 5438: 5428: 5426: 5413: 5412: 5408: 5397:Mnemonic Device 5391: 5390: 5386: 5378: 5337: 5332: 5331: 5327: 5317: 5315: 5306: 5305: 5301: 5291: 5289: 5275: 5274: 5270: 5260: 5258: 5251:10.15468/tfp6yv 5236: 5235: 5231: 5188:(4): e0119248. 5175: 5174: 5167: 5121: 5120: 5116: 5072: 5071: 5067: 5026:(4): e0119248. 5013: 5012: 5008: 4954: 4953: 4949: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4876: 4875: 4871: 4866:. 10-VII: 1–84. 4857: 4856: 4852: 4842: 4841: 4837: 4827: 4826: 4822: 4814: 4799: 4794: 4793: 4789: 4747: 4746: 4739: 4729: 4727: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4681: 4665: 4664: 4660: 4643: 4642: 4638: 4621: 4620: 4611: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4568: 4566: 4524: 4523: 4519: 4514:on 10 May 2016. 4504:"The PhyloCode" 4501: 4500: 4496: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4458: 4454: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4411: 4410: 4401: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4343: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4306: 4305: 4301: 4297:, Extra no. 36. 4277: 4276: 4272: 4262: 4260: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4220: 4219: 4210: 4205:on 16 May 2008. 4199: 4177: 4176: 4172: 4161:Swedish Spiders 4152: 4151: 4147: 4139: 4125:10.2307/1217493 4108: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4081: 4080: 4073: 4060: 4059: 4055: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3977: 3976: 3972: 3965: 3952: 3951: 3947: 3930: 3929: 3925: 3913: 3912: 3908: 3891: 3890: 3886: 3858: 3857: 3853: 3843: 3841: 3799: 3798: 3794: 3787: 3769: 3768: 3764: 3747: 3746: 3735: 3718: 3717: 3706: 3689: 3688: 3671: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3648:on 29 May 2015. 3645: 3634: 3629: 3628: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3532: 3530: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3481: 3479: 3472: 3457: 3456: 3447: 3430: 3429: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3406: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3292: 3291: 3287: 3279: 3275: 3267: 3260: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3202:. 27 May 2016. 3194: 3193: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3137: 3135: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3081:10.2307/1222391 3066: 3065: 3061: 3054: 3040:Fortey, Richard 3038: 3037: 3033: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3001:Wilkins, J. S. 3000: 2999: 2995: 2988: 2973: 2972: 2968: 2953:10.2307/1222265 2938: 2937: 2933: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2908: 2906: 2899: 2876: 2875: 2866: 2849: 2848: 2839: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2774: 2759: 2758: 2751: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2726: 2725: 2721: 2714: 2701: 2700: 2696: 2686: 2685: 2681: 2671: 2669: 2659: 2658: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2539: 2521: 2515: 2486: 2472: 2444:Elephas maximus 2440:Elephas maximus 2432: 2424:Main articles: 2422: 2420:Author citation 2394:circumscription 2285: 2279: 2234: 2228: 2200: 2159: 2154: 1994: 1963: 1956: 1948: 1941: 1934: 1927: 1920: 1906:(acellular but 1888:archaeobacteria 1827: 1819:Main articles: 1809: 1693:Robert Chambers 1615: 1607:Main articles: 1605: 1581: 1563:Linnaean system 1557:Systema Naturae 1545:Systema Naturae 1531:Systema Naturae 1522: 1516: 1452: 1412:in the Western 1398: 1285: 1279: 1270: 1263: 1258: 1187:Systema Naturae 1175: 1163:taxonomic ranks 1159:species problem 1155: 1153:Species problem 1149: 1100: 1097:Alpha diversity 1093: 1088: 992:Body secretions 927: 886: 784: 651: 610: 597: 596: 589: 588: 539: 531: 530: 401: 393: 392: 391: 319: 311: 310: 309: 258:Human evolution 248:History of life 232: 231:Natural history 224: 223: 222: 122: 114: 69: 37: 30: 23: 22: 18:Taxon authority 15: 12: 11: 5: 6776: 6774: 6766: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6740: 6739: 6735: 6734: 6717: 6700: 6683: 6681:from Wikiquote 6666: 6649: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6573: 6571: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6381:Marine biology 6378: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6191:Bioinformatics 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6128: 6126: 6125: 6118: 6111: 6103: 6097: 6096: 6084: 6076: 6067: 6058: 6045: 6032: 6019: 6018:External links 6016: 6014: 6013: 6007: 5994: 5976:(4): 342–373. 5965: 5947: 5932: 5914: 5892: 5874: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5815: 5785: 5726: 5703: 5673: 5651: 5628: 5606: 5581: 5557: 5496: 5462: 5449:IAPT-Taxon.org 5436: 5406: 5384: 5348:(3): 145–153. 5325: 5299: 5268: 5229: 5165: 5114: 5085:(5): 429–493. 5065: 5006: 4967:(12): 4576–9. 4947: 4904: 4891:10.1086/394568 4885:(4): 383–420. 4869: 4850: 4835: 4820: 4810:(4): 218–237. 4787: 4737: 4686: 4679: 4667:Cracraft, Joel 4658: 4636: 4609: 4576: 4537:(2): 317–330. 4517: 4494: 4467: 4452: 4427: 4399: 4368:(9): 814–816. 4348: 4341: 4321: 4299: 4270: 4235: 4208: 4197: 4170: 4145: 4119:(9): 245–256. 4096: 4071: 4062:Linnaeus, Carl 4053: 4044:Linnaeus, Carl 4035: 4026:Linnaeus, Carl 4017: 3995: 3970: 3963: 3945: 3923: 3906: 3884: 3851: 3812:(2): 227–262. 3792: 3785: 3762: 3733: 3704: 3669: 3651: 3617: 3605: 3593: 3581: 3560:(3): 468–478. 3540: 3509:(2): 103–120. 3489: 3471:978-0429821356 3470: 3445: 3423: 3404: 3382: 3336: 3285: 3273: 3258: 3209: 3172: 3163: 3145: 3094: 3075:(4): 653–660. 3059: 3052: 3031: 3016: 2993: 2986: 2966: 2947:(3): 335–356. 2931: 2916: 2897: 2864: 2837: 2779: 2772: 2749: 2734: 2719: 2712: 2694: 2679: 2648: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2638: 2628: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2620: 2619: 2614: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2585:Incertae sedis 2581: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2546: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2517:Main article: 2514: 2511: 2482:Main article: 2471: 2468: 2436:Asian elephant 2421: 2418: 2401: 2400: 2397: 2382: 2375: 2368: 2278: 2275: 2232:Taxonomic rank 2230:Main article: 2227: 2224: 2199: 2196: 2158: 2155: 2151: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2124: 2123: 2118: 2112: 2111: 2106: 2101: 2096: 2091: 2085: 2084: 2076: 2075: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1997: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1970: 1966: 1965: 1961:Cavalier-Smith 1958: 1950: 1943: 1936: 1929: 1922: 1912: 1884:Actinomycetota 1808: 1805: 1772:synapomorphies 1750:used the term 1700:common descent 1673:Erasmus Darwin 1604: 1601: 1589:bioinformatics 1585:DNA sequencing 1580: 1577: 1534:, Leiden, 1735 1528:Title page of 1518:Main article: 1515: 1512: 1451: 1448: 1444:Thomas Aquinas 1397: 1394: 1278: 1275: 1271: 1500 BC 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1242:synapomorphies 1232:The advent of 1229:(1886–1892). 1209:Charles Darwin 1204:in thinking. 1174: 1171: 1151:Main article: 1148: 1145: 1104:alpha taxonomy 1092: 1089: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1074: 1061: 1060: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1027: 1026: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 998: 997: 996: 993: 990: 979: 978: 977: 967: 962: 955: 948: 935: 926: 923: 885: 882: 878:alpha taxonomy 837: 836: 820: 819: 812: 809: 806: 803: 792: 783: 780: 717:taxonomic rank 705:circumscribing 653: 652: 650: 649: 642: 635: 627: 624: 623: 622: 621: 608: 591: 590: 587: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 559:Social effects 556: 551: 546: 540: 537: 536: 533: 532: 529: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 402: 399: 398: 395: 394: 390: 389: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 342: 337: 332: 327: 321: 320: 317: 316: 313: 312: 308: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 285:Classification 282: 277: 272: 267: 266: 265: 255: 250: 245: 243:Common descent 240: 238:Origin of life 234: 233: 230: 229: 226: 225: 221: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 124: 123: 120: 119: 116: 115: 113: 112: 107: 102: 96: 95: 90: 85: 80: 74: 71: 70: 61: 53: 52: 46: 45: 28: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6775: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6743: 6732:from Wikidata 6731: 6730: 6718: 6714: 6713: 6701: 6697: 6696: 6684: 6680: 6679: 6667: 6663: 6662: 6650: 6646: 6645: 6633: 6629: 6623: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6601: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6572: 6568: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6461:Phylogenetics 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6356:Human biology 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6246:Chronobiology 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6221:Biotechnology 6219: 6217: 6216:Biostatistics 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6138: 6135: 6131: 6124: 6119: 6117: 6112: 6110: 6105: 6104: 6101: 6095: 6091: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6030: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6017: 6010: 6008:9780470905968 6004: 6000: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5966: 5954: 5950: 5948:9780231147125 5944: 5940: 5939: 5933: 5921: 5917: 5915:9780521427852 5911: 5907: 5903: 5902: 5897: 5893: 5881: 5877: 5875:9788122400137 5871: 5867: 5866: 5860: 5859: 5854: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5819: 5816: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5789: 5786: 5781: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5730: 5727: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5707: 5704: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5677: 5674: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5655: 5652: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5632: 5629: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5588: 5586: 5582: 5577: 5573: 5572: 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4763: 4760:(3): 203–66. 4759: 4755: 4751: 4744: 4742: 4738: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4690: 4687: 4682: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4662: 4659: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4577: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4471: 4468: 4463: 4456: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4434: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4352: 4349: 4344: 4342:9780226731032 4338: 4334: 4333: 4325: 4322: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4300: 4296: 4290: 4286: 4285: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4198:9780226744100 4194: 4190: 4186: 4185: 4180: 4174: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4157: 4149: 4146: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4107: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4057: 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3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3289: 3286: 3282: 3277: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3263: 3259: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3177: 3173: 3167: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3149: 3146: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3114:(1): 97–116. 3113: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3063: 3060: 3055: 3053:9780007209897 3049: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3032: 3027: 3026:Invertebrates 3020: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2997: 2994: 2989: 2987:9781578083510 2983: 2979: 2978: 2970: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2935: 2932: 2927: 2920: 2917: 2904: 2900: 2898:9781003092827 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2881: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2798: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2780: 2775: 2773:9780131273849 2769: 2765: 2764: 2756: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2738: 2735: 2730: 2723: 2720: 2715: 2713:9780123743800 2709: 2705: 2698: 2695: 2690: 2683: 2680: 2667: 2663: 2656: 2654: 2650: 2643: 2633: 2630: 2623: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2560: 2557: 2555: 2552: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2542: 2541: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2526: 2520: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2495:plesiomorphic 2492: 2485: 2476: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2431: 2427: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2398: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2380: 2379:type specimen 2376: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2362: 2361: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2351: 2350: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2303: 2302:pitcher plant 2300:, a tropical 2299: 2298: 2294:specimen for 2293: 2289: 2284: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2233: 2225: 2223: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2156: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2073: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2002: 2001:(not treated) 1998: 1995:6/7 kingdoms 1992: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1959: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1930: 1926: 1923: 1919: 1916: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1826: 1822: 1813: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1775: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1748:Julian Huxley 1745: 1740: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1710: 1709:Archaeopteryx 1705: 1701: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1689: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1628: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1578: 1576: 1574: 1573: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1558: 1554:in 1753, and 1553: 1552: 1547: 1546: 1541: 1540:Carl Linnaeus 1533: 1532: 1526: 1521: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1472: 1468: 1463: 1461: 1457: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1426: 1425:scala naturae 1422: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1395: 1393: 1391: 1390: 1385: 1384: 1379: 1378: 1373: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1339:invertebrates 1336: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1284: 1277:Ancient times 1276: 1274: 1260: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1172: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1154: 1146: 1143: 1138: 1136: 1135:beta taxonomy 1132: 1126: 1121: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1098: 1090: 1082: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1037: 1034: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1002: 999: 994: 991: 989: 986: 985: 983: 982:Physiological 980: 975: 971: 968: 966: 963: 960: 956: 953: 949: 947: 943: 942: 940: 939:Morphological 937: 936: 934: 932: 924: 922: 919: 915: 911: 907: 906:palynological 903: 899: 895: 891: 883: 881: 879: 874: 870: 869: 864: 859: 858:phylogenetics 855: 849: 844: 842: 834: 831: 830: 829: 826: 817: 813: 810: 807: 804: 801: 797: 793: 790: 789: 788: 781: 779: 777: 772: 770: 766: 762: 761:Carl Linnaeus 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 692: 687: 684: 681: 679: 674: 671: 668: 667:Ancient Greek 664: 660: 648: 643: 641: 636: 634: 629: 628: 626: 625: 619: 609: 606: 601: 595: 594: 593: 592: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 541: 535: 534: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 491:Phylogenetics 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 403: 397: 396: 387: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 347: 343: 341: 338: 336: 335:Before Darwin 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 322: 315: 314: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 264: 261: 260: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 235: 228: 227: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 163:Genetic drift 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 125: 118: 117: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 97: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 75: 73: 72: 68: 64: 59: 55: 54: 51: 47: 43: 42: 39: 35: 27: 19: 6727: 6710: 6693: 6676: 6664:from Commons 6659: 6642: 6621: 6530: 6506:Sociobiology 6486:Protistology 6451:Photobiology 6446:Pharmacology 6436:Parasitology 6431:Paleontology 6411:Neuroscience 6391:Microbiology 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Retrieved 3111: 3107: 3097: 3072: 3068: 3062: 3043: 3034: 3025: 3019: 3011:the original 3006: 2996: 2976: 2969: 2944: 2940: 2934: 2925: 2919: 2909:19 September 2907:. Retrieved 2879: 2859:the original 2854: 2795: 2782: 2762: 2743: 2737: 2728: 2722: 2703: 2697: 2688: 2682: 2670:. Retrieved 2632: 2596:Parataxonomy 2583: 2528: 2522: 2487: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2433: 2414:DNA sequence 2406:quantitative 2402: 2389: 2385: 2358: 2353: 2347: 2331: 2325: 2314:nomenclature 2306: 2295: 2235: 2216:biodiversity 2201: 2160: 2000: 1907: 1900:nucleic acid 1898:and without 1866: 1856:), with the 1832: 1828: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1786: 1776: 1768:polyphyletic 1764:paraphyletic 1755: 1751: 1741: 1724:Richard Owen 1713: 1707: 1704:Tree of life 1697: 1686: 1680: 1666: 1657: 1647: 1641:typical for 1582: 1570: 1567: 1559:10th Edition 1556: 1549: 1543: 1537: 1529: 1514:Linnaean era 1507: 1501: 1496: 1486: 1482:Brassicaceae 1473: 1464: 1453: 1429: 1424: 1418: 1399: 1387: 1381: 1375: 1365: 1362:Theophrastus 1360:His student 1359: 1342: 1334: 1332: 1319: 1305: 1296:Song dynasty 1294:(写生珍禽图), by 1291: 1264: 1256:Pre-Linnaean 1231: 1212: 1206: 1202:evolutionary 1191: 1180: 1176: 1156: 1140: 1134: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1112: 1103: 1101: 928: 893: 889: 887: 873:John Lindley 866: 851: 846: 840: 838: 832: 821: 800:nomenclature 785: 776:evolutionary 773: 736: 732: 688: 683: 675: 670: 662: 656: 511:Sociobiology 496:Paleontology 344: 284: 280:Biogeography 275:Biodiversity 193:Coextinction 183:Co-operation 158:Polymorphism 83:Introduction 38: 26: 6644:Definitions 6556:Xenobiology 6551:Virophysics 6521:Systematics 6476:Primatology 6421:Ornithology 6361:Ichthyology 6346:Herpetology 6341:Gerontology 6306:Epigenetics 6266:Cryobiology 6156:Agrostology 6146:Aerobiology 6141:Abiogenesis 6079:Wikispecies 5415:"ICZN Code" 5318:23 December 5292:24 February 5282:Smithsonian 4730:21 November 4263:10 November 3871:(1): 1–16. 3660:Mayr, Ernst 3345:Mayr, Ernst 3154:Mayr, Ernst 2410:qualitative 2318:superfamily 2208:naturalists 2198:Application 2164:prokaryotes 2089:Vegetabilia 2056:Protoctista 1985:5 kingdoms 1972:3 kingdoms 1969:2 kingdoms 1964:1998, 2015 1904:Virusobiota 1892:Prionobiota 1715:Hesperornis 1671:in 1796 by 1650:dendrograms 1623:vertebrates 1471:magnum opus 1456:Renaissance 1454:During the 1402:Middle Ages 1347:vertebrates 1225:(1883) and 1066:characters 1046:characters 1032:characters 1003:characters 984:characters 974:cytological 941:characters 910:biochemical 863:de Candolle 854:systematics 833:Systematics 796:systematics 521:Systematics 330:Renaissance 208:Convergence 198:Contingency 188:Coevolution 6742:Categories 6678:Quotations 6541:Toxicology 6536:Teratology 6481:Proteomics 6466:Physiology 6406:Neontology 6371:Lipidology 6366:Immunology 6336:Geobiology 6296:Embryology 6276:Dendrology 6206:Biophysics 6186:Biogeology 5959:6 February 5886:25 January 5550:20 October 5419:AnimalBase 4680:0195172345 4569:21 October 3753:cbs.dtu.dk 3601:Stace 1989 3589:Datta 1988 2644:References 2606:Set theory 2499:apomorphic 2322:subspecies 2281:See also: 2186:, and the 2011:Prokaryota 1993:2 empires, 1981:4 kingdoms 1838:Carl Woese 1779:Zoological 1643:cladistics 1478:Asteraceae 1474:De Plantis 1414:scholastic 1320:attributes 1300:Huang Quan 1250:morphology 1194:de Jussieu 1131:Ernst Mayr 1102:The term " 1081:allopatric 1064:Geographic 1044:Ecological 1030:Behavioral 972:and other 965:Embryology 946:morphology 902:anatomical 782:Definition 701:scientific 699:') is the 665:(from 295:Cladistics 218:Extinction 203:Divergence 173:Speciation 153:Adaptation 67:John Gould 6712:Resources 6456:Phycology 6441:Pathology 6426:Osteology 6416:Nutrition 6376:Mammalogy 6351:Histology 5898:(1989) . 5762:1662-5196 5619:Study.com 5540:252562185 5532:1996-7489 4590:Bionomina 4551:1055-7903 4483:(1): 59. 3818:0391-9714 3576:1791-6763 3523:1875-9866 3245:1574-6976 3128:0066-4170 2814:0962-8436 2672:21 August 2613:(general) 2601:Phenogram 2569:Genetypes 2513:Databases 2491:cladistic 2484:Phenetics 2470:Phenetics 2452:Linnaeus, 2386:ICZN Code 2336:phycology 2332:ICZN Code 2081:Chromista 2051:Eukaryota 1989:3 domains 1976:2 empires 1946:Whittaker 1896:acellular 1858:Eukaryota 1801:PhyloCode 1797:PhyloCode 1793:PhyloCode 1756:cladistic 1744:cladistic 1695:in 1844. 1639:cladogram 1593:databases 1432:Procopius 1389:Narcissus 1355:cetaceans 1308:Aristotle 1302:(903–965) 1238:monophyly 1234:cladistic 1077:Sympatric 1001:Molecular 970:Karyology 952:genitalia 931:phylogeny 918:monograph 865:, in his 816:phylogeny 709:organisms 554:Dysgenics 270:Phylogeny 168:Gene flow 138:Diversity 133:Variation 6570:See also 6546:Virology 6531:Taxonomy 6471:Pomology 6401:Mycology 6331:Genomics 6326:Genetics 6151:Agronomy 6090:Archived 6048:Taxonomy 6035:Taxonomy 5990:84905335 5953:Archived 5926:19 April 5920:Archived 5880:Archived 5836:Archived 5834:(ITIS). 5802:Archived 5780:25206330 5721:Archived 5696:27 April 5690:Archived 5668:Archived 5646:Archived 5623:Archived 5601:Archived 5576:Archived 5544:Archived 5516:(9/10). 5475:ICZN.org 5457:Archived 5401:Archived 5371:16953722 5286:Archived 5261:11 March 5255:Archived 5224:25923521 5182:PLOS ONE 5160:30257078 5109:23020233 5060:25923521 5020:PLOS ONE 4899:84634277 4812:Archived 4724:Archived 4720:11931142 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618:Category 544:Eugenics 386:timeline 367:Evo-devo 325:Overview 143:Mutation 105:Evidence 100:Glossary 6614:Biology 6561:Zoology 6291:Ecology 6161:Anatomy 6052:UniProt 6026:at the 5808:8 April 5771:4144441 5597:AJE.com 5429:8 April 5350:Bibcode 5215:4418965 5190:Bibcode 5151:6492006 5100:3483872 5051:4418965 5028:Bibcode 5001:2112744 4969:Bibcode 4942:5762760 4922:Bibcode 4914:Science 4782:6557779 4774:9809012 4385:1973966 4133:1217493 3695:Palaeos 3377:4886900 3357:Bibcode 3349:Science 3303:Bibcode 3295:Science 3089:1222391 2961:1222265 2823:1693342 2464:zoology 2372:homonym 2310:zoology 2267:Species 2243:Kingdom 2204:biology 2109:Plantae 2104:Plantae 2099:Plantae 2094:Plantae 2066:Eucarya 2045:(2015) 2043:Archaea 2038:Archaea 1932:Chatton 1925:Haeckel 1880:Eucarya 1876:Neomura 1862:nucleus 1846:Archaea 1834:Domains 1597:imaging 1493:England 1343:Enhaima 1335:Anhaima 1328:animals 1223:Eichler 1173:History 976:factors 959:anatomy 914:genetic 757:species 725:kingdom 695: ' 659:biology 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