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to the concepts "ducks", "geese", and "swans". This example demonstrates the close relationship between classification theory and concept theory. A main opponent of concepts as units is Barry Smith. Arp, Smith and Spear (2015) discuss ontologies and criticize the conceptualist understanding. The book writes (7): “The code assigned to France, for example, is ISO 3166 – 2:FR and the code is assigned to France itself — to the country that is otherwise referred to as
Frankreich or Ranska. It is not assigned to the concept of France (whatever that might be).” Smith's alternative to concepts as units is based on a realist orientation, when scientists make successful claims about the types of entities that exist in reality, they are referring to objectively existing entities which realist philosophers call universals or natural kinds. Smith's main argument - with which many followers of the concept theory agree - seems to be that classes cannot be determined by introspective methods, but must be based on scientific and scholarly research. Whether units are called concepts or universals, the problem is to decide when a thing (say a "blackbird") should be considered a natural class. In the case of blackbirds, for example, recent DNA analysis have reconsidered the concept (or universal) "blackbird" and found that what was formerly considered one species (with subspecies) are in reality many different species, which just have chosen similar characteristics to adopt to their ecological niches.
1265:(tools, utensils, appliances, dishes, and cookware used in food preparation, or the serving of food) is an example of a classification which is not based on any of the above-mentioned three methods, but clearly on pragmatic or functional criteria. Bonaccorsi, et al. (2019) is about the general theory of functional classification and applications of this approach for patent classification. Although the examples may suggest that pragmatic classifications are primitive compared to established scientific classifications, it must be considered in relation to the pragmatic and critical theory of knowledge, which consider all knowledge as influences by interests. Ridley (1986) wrote: "teleological classification. Classification of groups by their shared purposes, or functions, in life - where purpose can be identified with adaptation. An imperfectly worked-out, occasionally suggested, theoretically possible principle of classification that differs from the two main such principles,
1297:"The Linnæan arrangement answers the purpose of making us think together of all those kinds of plants, which possess the same number of stamens and pistils; but to think of them in that manner is of little use, since we seldom have anything to affirm in common of the plants which have a given number of stamens and pistils.""The ends of scientific classification are best answered, when the objects are formed into groups respecting which a greater number of general propositions can be made, and those propositions more important, than could be made respecting any other groups into which the same things could be distributed." "A classification thus formed is properly scientific or philosophical, and is commonly called a Natural, in contradistinction to a Technical or Artificial, classification or arrangement."
1499:(DSM) is a classification of mental disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).The first edition of the DSM was published in 1952, and the newest, fifth edition was published in 2013. In contrast to, for example, the periodic table and the Hornbostel-Sachs classification, the principles for classification have changed much during its history. The first edition was influenced by psychodynamic theory, The DSM-III, published in 1980 adopted an atheoretical, “descriptive” approach to classification The system is very important for all people involved in psychiatry, whether as patients, researchers or therapists (in addition to insurance companies), but the systems is strongly criticized and has not the scientific status as many other classifications.
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shared was that while the elements did display many hallmarks of paradigmatic kindhood, elements were not the kinds of kinds that generated interesting challenges for classification in chemistry, nor even were they the kinds of kinds that occupied much contemporary critical chemical thought. Compounds, complexes, reaction pathways, substrates, solutions – these were the kinds of the chemistry laboratory, and rarely if ever did they slot neatly into taxonomies in the orderly manner of classification suggested by the
Periodic Table of Elements. A focus on the rational and historical basis of the development of the Periodic Table had made the received view of chemical classification appear far more pristine, and far less interesting, than either of us believed it to be."
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similarities and differences of the things to be classified. Classification is based on overall similarity: The elements that are most alike in most attributes are classified together. But it is based on statistics, and therefore does not fulfill the criteria of logical division (e.g. to produce classes, that are mutually exclusive and jointly coextensive with the class they divide). Some people will argue that this is not classification/taxonomy at all, but such an argument must consider the definitions of classification (see above). These methods may overall be related to the empiricist theory of knowledge.
1199:(top-down classification or downward classification) is an approach that divides a class into subclasses and then divide subclasses into their subclasses, and so on, which finally forms a tree of classes. The root of the tree is the original class, and the leaves of the tree are the final classes. Plato advocated a method based on dichotomy, which was rejected by Aristotle and replaced by the method of definitions based on genus, species, and specific difference. The method of facet analysis (cf.,
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empiricism is not the same as empirical study, but a certain ideal of doing empirical studies. With the exception of the logical approaches they all are based on empirical studies, but are basing their studies on different philosophical principles). (3) Historical and hermeneutical approaches including
Ereshefsky's "historical classification" and (4) Pragmatic, functionalist and teleological approaches (not covered by Ereshefsky). In addition there are combined approaches (e.g., the so-called
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360:. Taxonomies may then include a single child with multi-parents, for example, "Car" might appear with both parents "Vehicle" and "Steel Mechanisms"; to some however, this merely means that 'car' is a part of several different taxonomies. A taxonomy might also simply be organization of kinds of things into groups, or an alphabetical list; here, however, the term vocabulary is more appropriate. In current usage within
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classification is genealogical ..." but that he provided operational guidance for classification. Genealogical classification is not restricted to biology, but is also much used in, for example, classification of languages, and may be considered a general approach to classification." These methods may overall be related to the historicist theory of knowledge. One of the main schools of historical classification is
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1320:"natural classification. Classificatory groups are defined by certain characters, called 'defining' characters; in a natural group, the members of the group resemble one another for non-defining characters as well as for the defining character. This is not the only meaning for what is perhaps the most variously used term in taxonomy ...
1355:). An authoritative work on this system is Scerri (2020). Hubert Feger (2001; numbered listing added) wrote about it: "A well-known, still used, and expanding classification is Mendeleev's Table of Elements. It can be viewed as a prototype of all taxonomies in that it satisfies the following evaluative criteria:
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Stamos (2004) wrote: "The fact is, modern scientists classify atoms into elements based on proton number rather than anything else because it alone is the causally privileged factor . Thus nature itself has supplied the causal monistic essentialism. Scientists in their turn simply discover and follow
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There is a widespread opinion in knowledge organization and related fields that such classes corresponds to concepts. We can, for example, classify "waterfowls" into the classes "ducks", "geese", and "swans"; we can also say, however, that the concept “waterfowl” is a generic broader term in relation
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Having a balance between breadth and depth in the taxonomy is beneficial. Too many options (breadth), will overload the users by giving them too many choices. At the same time having a too narrow structure, with more than two or three levels to click-through, will make users frustrated and might give
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is often recognized as the first scholar to clearly have differentiated "artificial" and "natural" classifications A natural classification is one, using Plato's metaphor, that is “carving nature at its joints” Although
Linnaeus considered natural classification the ideal, he recognized that his own
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About conceptual classification Suppe wrote: "Classification is intrinsic to the use of language, hence to most if not all communication. Whenever we use nominative phrases we are classifying the designated subject as being importantly similar to other entities bearing the same designation; that is,
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Hull (1998) continued: "Two fundamentally different sorts of classification are those that reflect structural organization and those that are systematically related to historical development." What is referred to is that in biological classification the anatomical traits of organisms is one kind of
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An important argument for considering concepts the basis of classification is that concepts are subject to change and that they changes when scientific revolutions occur. Our concepts of many birds, for example, have changed with recent development in DNA analysis and the influence of the cladistic
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By contrast, in the context of legal terminology, an open-ended contextual taxonomy is employed—a taxonomy holding only with respect to a specific context. In scenarios taken from the legal domain, a formal account of the open-texture of legal terms is modeled, which suggests varying notions of the
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is classification of items according to their common heritage. This must also be done on the basis of some empirical characteristics, but these characteristics are developed by the theory of evolution. Charles Darwin's main contribution to classification theory of not just his claim "... all true
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Mutually exclusive categories can be beneficial. If categories appear in several places, it is called cross-listing or polyhierarchical. The hierarchy will lose its value if cross-listing appears too often. Cross-listing often appears when working with ambiguous categories that fits more than one
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Bursten (2020) wrote, however "Hepler-Smith, a historian of chemistry, and I, a philosopher whose work often draws on chemistry, found common ground in a shared frustration with our disciplines’ emphases on the chemical elements as the stereotypical example of a natural kind. The frustration we
379:. At the top of this structure is a single classification, the root node, that applies to all objects. Nodes below this root are more specific classifications that apply to subsets of the total set of classified objects. The progress of reasoning proceeds from the general to the more specific.
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Paradigm two: Copernicans might learn the concepts "star", "planet", and "satellites" by having Mars and
Jupiter pointed out as instances of the concept “planet,” the Moon as an instance of the concept “satellite,” and the Sun and some fixed stars as instances of the concept "star". Thus, the
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Engström et al. suggest and evaluate the use of a taxonomy to bridge the communication between researchers and practitioners engaged in the area of software testing. They have also developed a web-based tool to facilitate and encourage the use of the taxonomy. The tool and its source code are
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These three categories may, however, be considered parts of broader philosophies. Four main approaches to classification may be distinguished: (1) logical and rationalist approaches including "essentialism"; (2) empiricist approaches including cluster analysis (It is important to notice that
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is by contrast bottom-up classification, where the starting point is a set of items or individuals, which are classified by putting those with shared characteristics as members of a narrow class and proceeding upward. Numerical taxonomy is an approach based solely on observable, measurable
1488:. It is based on huge collections of musical instruments, but seems rather as a system imposed upon the universe of instruments than as a system with organic connections to scholarly theory. It may therefore be interpreted as a system based on logical division and rationalist philosophy.
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The historical and hermeneutical approaches is not restricted to the development of the object of classification (e.g., animal species) but is also concerned with the subject of classification (the classifiers) and their embeddedness in scientific traditions and other human cultures.
1317:; in an artificial classification, the members of a group resemble one another in their defining characters (as they must, by definition) but not in their non-defining characters. With respect to the characters not used in the classification, the members of a group are uncorrelated.
1261:(and functional and teleological classification) is the classification of items which emphasis the goals, purposes, consequences, interests, values and politics of classification. It is, for example, classifying animals into wild animals, pests, domesticated animals and pets. Also
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on the basis of shared characteristics. Today it also has a more general sense. It may refer to the classification of things or concepts, as well as to the principles underlying such work. Thus a taxonomy can be used to organize species, documents, videos or anything else.
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we classify them together. Similarly the use of predicative phrases classifies actions or properties as being of a particular kind. We call this conceptual classification, since it refers to the classification involved in conceptualizing our experiences and surroundings"
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Ereshefsky (2000) presented and discussed three general philosophical schools of classification: "essentialism, cluster analysis, and historical classification. Essentialism sorts entities according to causal relations rather than their intrinsic qualitative features."
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classification, the classification in relation to the evolution of species is another (in the section below, we expand these two fundamental sorts of classification to four). Hull adds that in biological classification, evolution supplies the theoretical orientation.
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About systematic classification Suppe wrote: "A second, narrower sense of classification is the systematic classification involved in the design and utilization of taxonomic schemes such as the biological classification of animals and plants by genus and species.
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is not a general concept, but an individual concept. Next, the legal definition of France is determined by the conventions that France has made with other countries. It is still a concept, however, as
Leclercq (1978) demonstrates with the corresponding concept
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Predictions: The values of variables not used for classification can be predicted (number of electrons and atomic weight), as well as the existence of relations and of objects hitherto unobserved. Thus, the validity of the classification system itself becomes
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Folk taxonomies of organisms have been found in large part to agree with scientific classification, at least for the larger and more obvious species, which means that it is not the case that folk taxonomies are based purely on utilitarian characteristics.
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Vegas et al. make a compelling case to advance the knowledge in the field of software engineering through the use of taxonomies. Similarly, Ore et al. provide a systematic methodology to approach taxonomy building in software engineering related topics.
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Each top category is subdivided and
Hornbostel-Sachs is a very comprehensive classification of musical instruments with wide applications. In Knowledge (XXG), for example, all musical instruments are organized according to this classification.
1449:: instruments that have a membrane that is stretched over a structure, often wood or metal, and struck or rubbed to produce a sound. The subcategories are largely determined by the shape of the structure that the membrane is stretched over.
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a radical conceptual and systematic change, to reflect the realities of multiple authorship and to buttress accountability. We propose dropping the outmoded notion of author in favor of the more useful and realistic one of
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1400:(1735) and subsequent works. A major discussion in the scientific literature is whether a system that was constructed before Charles Darwin's theory of evolution can still be fruitful and reflect the development of life.
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is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme of classes (a taxonomy) and the allocation of things to the classes
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Paradigm one: Ptolemaic astronomers might learn the concepts "star" and "planet" by having the Sun, the Moon, and Mars pointed out as instances of the concept “planet” and some fixed stars as instances of the concept
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with respect to the smaller, and the smaller is called a "hyponym" with respect to the larger. Such a hyponym, in turn, may have further subcategories for which it is a hypernym. In the simple biology example,
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Feger, Hubert. 2001. Classification: Conceptions in the social sciences. In
Smelser, Neil J. and Baltes, Paul B. eds., International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. New York: Elsevier, pp.
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Hornbostel, Erich M. von and Curt Sachs. 1914. “Systematik der
Musikinstrumente: Ein Versuch”. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie: Organ der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte 46:
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Knowledge (XXG) categories form a taxonomy, which can be extracted by automatic means. As of 2009, it has been shown that a manually-constructed taxonomy, such as that of computational lexicons like
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Researchers reported that large populations consistently develop highly similar category systems. This may be relevant to lexical aspects of large communication networks and cultures such as
408:. A more recent treatment of folk taxonomies (including the results of several decades of empirical research) and the discussion of their relation to the scientific taxonomy can be found in
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is a system of musical instrument classification devised by Erich Moritz von
Hornbostel and Curt Sachs, and first published in 1914. In the original classification, the top categories are:
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MĂĽller-Wille, Staffan. 2007. "Collection and collation: Theory and practice of Linnaean botany". Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 38, no. 3: 541-562.
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Identifying specific contributions to published research will lead to appropriate credit, fewer author disputes, and fewer disincentives to collaboration and the sharing of data and code.
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Hull (1998) suggested "The fundamental elements of any classification are its theoretical commitments, basic units and the criteria for ordering these basic units into a classification".
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where each level is more specific than the level above it (in mathematical language is "a subset of" the level above). For example, a basic biology taxonomy would have concepts such as
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have observed that taxonomies are generally embedded in local cultural and social systems, and serve various social functions. Perhaps the most well-known and influential study of
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In opposition to, for example, the astronomical and biological classifications presented above, the Hornbostel-Sachs classification seems very little influenced by research in
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distinguished two senses of classification: a broad meaning, which he called "conceptual classification" and a narrow meaning, which he called "systematic classification".
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Several taxonomies have been proposed in software testing research to classify techniques, tools, concepts and artifacts. The following are some example taxonomies:
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Websites with a well designed taxonomy or hierarchy are easily understood by users, due to the possibility of users developing a mental model of the site structure.
1203:) is primarily based on logical division. This approach tends to classify according to "essential" characteristics, a widely discussed and criticized concept (cf.,
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American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. (Fifth edition). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
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Suppe, Frederick. 1989. "Classification". In Erik Barnouw ed., International encyclopedia of communications. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, vol. 1, 292-296
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Citing inadequacies with current practices in listing authors of papers in medical research journals, Drummond Rennie and co-authors called in a 1997 article in
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American Psychiatric Association. 1980. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. (3rd edition). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
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Ereshefsky Marc. 2001. The poverty of the Linnaean hierarchy: a philosophical study of biological taxonomy. Cambridge (Mass.): Cambridge University Press.
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1726:, a non-governmental organization that establishes and maintains technical standards for the construction and operation of ships and offshore structures
858:, this is an example of a flat, non-hierarchical taxonomy; however, it does include an optional, broad classification of the degree of contribution:
2744:. Amsterdam: IOS Press. In Proceedings of FOIS 2004. International Conference on Formal Ontology and Information Systems, Turin, 4–6 November 2004.
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John Stuart Mill explained the artificial nature of the Linnaean classification and suggested the following definition of a natural classification:
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A system of logic, ratiocinative and inductive: Being a connected view of the principles of evidence and the methods of scientific investigation
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American Psychiatric Association. 1952. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual: Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
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Taxonomy in biology encompasses the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. Uses of taxonomy include:
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Stamos, David N. 2004. "Book Review of Discovery and Decision: Exploring the Metaphysics and Epistemology of Scientific Classification".
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One function of a taxonomy is to help users more easily find what they are searching for. This may be effected in ways that include a
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Plato. c.370 BC. Phaedrus. (Translated by Alexander Nehamas and Paul Woodruff eds.). Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing Co, Inc., 1995.
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1060:. This kind of taxonomy is called an is-a model because the specific objects are considered as instances of a concept. For example,
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2978:, eds. Wolfgang Glänzel, Henk F. Moed, Ulrich Schmoch and Mike Thelwall. Cham, Switzerland : Springer, Chapter 40: 983-1003.
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1997:
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2017:. Proc. of the 21st International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI 2009), Pasadena, California, pp. 2083–2088.
1455:: Instruments that use vibrating strings, which are most commonly stretched across a metal or wooden structure, to create sound.
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The Science of Linguistics in the Art of Translation: Some Tools from Linguistics for the Analysis and Practice of Translation.
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Vegas, S. (2009). "Maturing software engineering knowledge through classifications: A case study on unit testing techniques".
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2014:
383:"core" and "penumbra" of the meanings of a concept. The progress of reasoning proceeds from the specific to the more general.
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Bonaccorsi, Andres, Gualtiero Fantoni, Riccardo Apreda and Donata Gabelloni. 2019. “Functional Patent Classification”. In
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Instruments that require air passing through, or across, them to create sound. Most commonly constructed of wood or metal.
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637:, a classification system established to clarify which investments are environmentally sustainable, in the context of the
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Hull, David L. 1998. “Taxonomy.” In Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward Craig. London: Routledge 9: 272-76.
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concepts "star", "planet", and "satellite" got a new meaning and astronomy got a new classification of celestial bodies.
1011:), while universally quantified conditionals express the notion that a type is a subtype of another type (for example, "
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1007:. Predication relationships express the notion that an individual entity is an example of a certain type (for example,
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On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life
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Scerri. Eric. 2020. The Periodic Table: Its Story and Significance. Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press
2004:. Proc. of the 22nd Conference on the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, pp. 1440–1445.
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Completeness: All elements find a unique place in the system, and the system implies a list of all possible elements.
1088:. When one word describes a category, but another describe some subset of that category, the larger term is called a
647:, the representation of data, upon which the classification of unstructured content is based, within an organization.
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MĂĽller-Wille, Staffan. 2013. "Systems and how Linnaeus looked at them in retrospect". Annals of Science 3: 305-317.
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1654:, the process of transforming descriptions of medical diagnoses and procedures into universal medical code numbers
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Brachman, Ronald (October 1983). "What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks".
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1570:, identifying to which of a set of categories a new observation belongs, on the basis of a training set of data
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In a broader sense, taxonomy also applies to relationship schemes other than parent-child hierarchies, such as
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747:, an alphanumerical classification scheme based on the coverage of Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH
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1605:, sensitive information to which access is restricted by law or regulation to particular classes of people
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1215:"Empiricism alone is not enough: a healthy advance in taxonomy depends on a sound theoretical foundation"
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581:, the hierarchical classification of entities of interest to an enterprise, organization or administration
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Hjørland, Birger. 2016. “The Paradox of Atheoretical Classification.” Knowledge Organization 43: 313-323.
1472:: Instruments that require electricity to be amplified and heard. This group was added by Sachs in 1940.
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Objectivity: The elements can be observed and classified by anybody familiar with the table of elements.
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Simplicity: Only a small amount of information is used to establish the system and identify an object.
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1415:(1962) theory of scientific revolutions (or paradigm shifts) influences classification. For example:
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Aristotle's Classification of Animals: Biology and the Conceptual Unity of the Aristotelian Corpus.
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Engström, Emelie (2016). "SERP-test: a taxonomy for supporting industry–academia communication".
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to be an "algebra" capable of expressing all conceptual thought. The concept of creating such a "
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a trunk; a trunk is a part, not a subtype of elephant. The study of part-whole relationships is
3290:*Marcello Sorce Keller, "The Problem of Classification in Folksong Research: a Short History",
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741:, a taxonomy of academic disciplines at institutions of higher education in the United States
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Mills, Jack. 2004. "Faceted classification and logical division in information retrieval".
1611:, a system of coding, assorting and organizing library materials according to their subject
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2613:"Why independent cultures think alike when it comes to categories: It's not in the brain"
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781:, a model used in risk analysis and risk management propounded by Dante Orlandella and
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448:" was frequently examined in the 17th century, also notably by the English philosopher
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Cooper, Rachel. 2017. “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)”.
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is the classification of the chemical elements which is in particular associated with
498:, the description and basic classification of new species, subspecies, and other taxa
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Ore, S. (2014). "Critical success factors taxonomy for software process deployment".
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The Poverty of the Linnaean Hierarchy: A Philosophical Study of Biological Taxonomy
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1443:: instruments that rely on the body of the instrument to create and resonate sound.
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A taxonomy organizes taxonomic units known as "taxa" (singular "taxon")." Many are
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2051:"Learning classification taxonomies from a classification knowledge based system."
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CRediT comprises 14 specific contributor roles using the following defined terms:
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2644:"Experimental evidence for scale-induced category convergence across populations"
2511:. Rosenfeld, Louis., Rosenfeld, Louis. (3rd ed.). Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly.
806:, a set of terms that describe various types of military operations and equipment
2015:"Large-Scale Taxonomy Mapping for Restructuring and Integrating Knowledge (XXG)"
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1827:, a taxonomy in which the concepts are arranged as a subtype–supertype hierarchy
1564:, grouping mathematical objects based on a property that all those objects share
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1207:). These methods may overall be related to the rationalist theory of knowledge.
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735:, a standardized categorization of learning objectives in an educational context
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409:
353:, can be used to improve and restructure the Knowledge (XXG) category taxonomy.
333:
165:
2706:
2668:
2257:
3321:
2470:
2299:
2184:
1968:"Distinguishing Between Instances and Classes in the Knowledge (XXG) Taxonomy"
1819:
1809:
1663:
1485:
1481:
1313:
meaning. A classificatory group will be defined by certain characters, called
1243:
1126:
713:, considered as a tool to improve relevance of search within a vertical domain
704:
140:
3285:
3229:
Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science.
2891:
2677:
2642:
Guilbeault, Douglas; Baronchelli, Andrea; Centola, Damon (12 January 2021).
2590:
2526:
2382:
2207:
1970:
1458:
1440:
1408:
1219:
1027:
871:
593:, an industry taxonomy developed by MSCI and Standard & Poor's (S&P)
527:
463:
273:
2859:
2695:
2558:
What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks
1947:
3365:
2899:
2783:. Special volume 17 Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 77-146 + references 493-501.
842:
In 2012, several major academic and scientific publishing bodies mounted
753:, Structure of Observed Learning Outcome, proposed by Biggs and Collis Tax
17:
2391:"Beyond authorship: attribution, contribution, collaboration, and credit"
1848:, formal representation of knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain
1830:
1599:, a problem in library science, information science and computer science
1085:
990:
556:
2741:
2149:
1922:
1806:, a fictional Chinese encyclopedia with an "impossible" taxonomic scheme
1359:
Theoretical foundation: A theory determines the classes and their order.
627:
United Kingdom Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities
2701:
1840:
350:
200:
3297:
Chester D Rowe and Stephen M Davis, 'The Excellence Engine Tool Kit';
2835:
Translated by Anthony Preus. Berkeley: University of California Press.
536:, biological taxonomy based on putative ancestral descent of organisms
3308:
Härlin, M.; Sundberg, P. (1998). "Taxonomy and Philosophy of Names".
3119:
Perspectives on Classification in Synthetic Sciences: Unnatural Kinds
2883:
2441:
2407:
2390:
2352:
2223:
1154:
paradigm - and have demanded new classifications. Smith's example of
190:
2347:
599:, an industry classification taxonomy launched by Dow Jones and FTSE
424:, following the work of the thirteenth-century Majorcan philosopher
420:
In the seventeenth century the German mathematician and philosopher
3397:
1884:, a population of organisms that a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit
1290:
system (at least partly) represented an artificial classification.
1281:
Natural classification is a concept closely related to the concept
629:, a Standard Industrial Classification by type of economic activity
518:, traditional post-Darwinian hierarchical biological classification
1881:
1583:, a figure of speech linking a proper noun to a common noun using
1109:
is used to refer to subcategories rather than single individuals.
617:, classification of firms by their principal sources of innovation
510:
scientific classification as opposed to clade-based classification
255:
611:(NAICS), used in Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America
2445:
1720:, information to which access is restricted by law or regulation
1034:
986:
375:
of classifications for a given set of objects. It is also named
30:"Scientific classification" redirects here. For other uses, see
2822:. New York, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 136-137
455:
An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language
605:(ISIC), a United Nations system for classifying economic data
313:
303:
3392:
Taxonomy 101: The Basics and Getting Started with Taxonomies
2740:
Smith, Barry (2004). Varzi, Achille C.; Vieu, Laure (eds.).
812:, a subject classification for law devised by Elizabeth Moys
701:, a classification for instruction-level parallelism methods
1492:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
368:
since ontologies apply a larger variety of relation types.
623:, a system for classifying industries by a four-digit code
530:, system for ordering species based on overall similarity
1305:"artificial classification. The term (like its opposite,
1022:
The "has-a" relationship is quite different: an elephant
3018:
Evolution and Classification: The Reformation of Cladism
524:, various taxonomic methods employing numeric algorithms
2989:
Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences
2960:
Biological Classification: A Philosophical Introduction
2779:
Fjeldså, Jon. 2013. “Avian Classification in Flux”. In
1121:
Comparison of categories of small and large populations
2976:
Springer Handbook of Science and Technology Indicators
2262:
Proceedings of the 33rd International Convention MIPRO
1995:"Deriving a large scale taxonomy from Knowledge (XXG)"
1966:
Zirn, Cäcilia, Vivi Nastase and Michael Strube. 2008.
1429:
Hornbostel–Sachs classification of musical instruments
1188:", which mixes historical and empiricist principles).
775:, a system to identify the human causes of an accident
2742:"Beyond Concepts: Ontology as Reality Representation"
1497:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
1388:
is the particular form of biological classification (
1133:
or human communication, and sense-making in general.
948:
Guidelines for writing taxonomy for the web include:
789:
Confidential Incident Reporting & Analysis System
504:, the original classification scheme of Carl Linnaeus
2792:
Leclercq, H. 1978. "Europe: Term for many Concepts.
1254:
Pragmatic, functionalist and teleological approaches
929:
The taxonomy is an open standard conformiing to the
874:
and co-authors summarise their intended outcome as:
574:
Uses of taxonomy in business and economics include:
2766:Arp, Robert, Barry Smith and Andrew D Spear. 2015.
2500:
2498:
2496:
1688:
for sorting materials by size, shape, density, etc.
587:, a system of classification for economic activity
2970:
2968:
2936:. San Francisco : W. H. Freeman and Company .
1513:Classification of customers, for marketing (as in
1309:) has many meanings; in this book I have picked a
1301:Ridley (1986) provided the following definitions:
1105:which is one of its hyponyms. Typically, however,
295:The word was coined in 1813 by the Swiss botanist
995:Two of the predominant types of relationships in
3057:
3055:
3053:
2987:Bowker, Geoffrey C. and Susan Leigh Star. 1999.
2932:Sokal , Robert R. and Peter H. A. Sneath 1963 .
2428:
2426:
2212:Software Testing, Verification & Reliability
1737:International Society for Knowledge Organization
773:Human Factors Analysis and Classification System
603:International Standard Industrial Classification
458:(1668), from which the classification scheme in
3245:Carbonell, J. G. and J. Siekmann, eds. (2005).
3117:Bursten, Julia, R. S. 2020. "Introduction". In
2508:Information architecture for the World Wide Web
3012:
3010:
2818:Parry, William T. and Edward A. Hacker. 1991.
2768:Building Ontologies with Basic Formal Ontology
2208:"A taxonomy of model-based testing approaches"
1694:classification, personnel grades in government
1101:, which in turn is a hypernym with respect to
1097:is a hypernym with respect to its subcategory
2540:
2538:
2536:
2389:; Hlava, Marjorie; Scott, Jo (1 April 2015).
609:North American Industry Classification System
371:Mathematically, a hierarchical taxonomy is a
226:
8:
3121:, ed. Julia R. S. Bursten. London: Routledge
2962:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
2726:
2724:
2722:
1804:Celestial Emporium of Benevolent Recognition
1795:, the process of dividing things into groups
1552:, a basic knowledge representation framework
681:A taxonomy of model-based testing techniques
3248:Computational Logic in Multi-Agent Systems,
3156:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
3071:. Vol. 1–2 (Eighth ed.). London:
2084:Computational Logic in Multi-Agent Systems,
828:Journal of the American Medical Association
336:
2028:"Taxonomy's not just design, it's an art,"
1660:, also known as classification of species
1636:Scientific classification (disambiguation)
981:Is-a and has-a relationships, and hyponymy
364:, taxonomies are considered narrower than
264:Originally, taxonomy referred only to the
233:
219:
36:
32:Scientific classification (disambiguation)
27:Development of classes and classifications
3134:. Lanham, MD: University Press of America
2685:
2667:
2406:
2377:
2375:
2139:
2128:IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering
1527:, as in legal or government documentation
414:Cognitive Foundations of Natural History.
3398:Parrochia, Daniel 2016. "Classification"
2809:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2258:"Taxonomy of static code analysis tools"
1277:Artificial versus natural classification
1116:
739:Classification of Instructional Programs
684:A taxonomy of static-code analysis tools
653:, eXtensible Business Reporting Language
3402:The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3154:The structure of scientific revolutions
2567:. IEEE Computer, 16 (10); October 1983.
2098:Kenneth Boulding; Elias Khalil (2002).
1908:
1234:Historical and hermeneutical approaches
728:Uses of taxonomy in education include:
591:Global Industry Classification Standard
299:and is irregularly compounded from the
121:
46:
39:
2481:from the original on 18 September 2019
2080:and John-Jules Charles Meyer. (2005).
2040:(Washington, D.C.). September 2, 2004.
1508:Business, organizations, and economics
635:EU taxonomy for sustainable activities
405:The Elementary Forms of Religious Life
3404:eds. James Fieser and Bradley Dowden.
3132:Contemporary Perspectives on Linnaeus
3002:Interests and the Growth of Knowledge
2860:"Theory of Biological Classification"
2360:from the original on 10 December 2019
933:principles, and is published under a
707:, classification based on user's tags
7:
3004:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
2914:from the original on 20 October 2023
2623:from the original on 25 January 2021
2346:Engstrom, Emelie (4 December 2019).
1033:Taxonomies are often represented as
762:Uses of taxonomy in safety include:
659:, in workplace user-interface design
565:, systematic categorization of soils
322:'law', connected by the French form
3340:Knowledge, Concepts, and Categories
3337:Lamberts, K.; Shanks, D.R. (1997).
2049:Suryanto, Hendra and Paul Compton.
1921:(partially updated December 2021),
717:ACM Computing Classification System
693:Other uses of taxonomy in computing
3274:State University of New York Press
2781:Handbook of the Birds of the World
1731:Organizations involved in taxonomy
1537:Standard Industrial Classification
1192:Logical and rationalist approaches
745:Mathematics Subject Classification
621:Standard Industrial Classification
25:
3073:Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer
2748:from the original on 4 March 2022
1993:S. Ponzetto and M. Strube. 2007.
1893:Thesaurus (information retrieval)
1756:All pages with titles containing
597:Industry Classification Benchmark
3376:
3364:
2934:Principles of Numerical Taxonomy
2700:
1982:European Semantic Web Conference
1919:. Oxford University Press. 1910.
1778:
1764:
1666:, an approach using similarities
1593:, decimal classification systems
1517:) or for profitability (e.g. by
1334:Examples of important taxonomies
850:of contributor roles. Known as
787:A taxonomy of rail incidents in
2991:. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
2858:Mayr, Ernst (9 November 1968).
2770:. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
2328:from the original on 2021-08-28
2268:from the original on 2022-06-27
2238:from the original on 2019-12-20
2101:Evolution, Order and Complexity
2013:S. Ponzetto, R. Navigli. 2009.
1799:Classification (general theory)
1158:demands an explanation. First,
1003:and the universally quantified
470:Taxonomy in various disciplines
260:Generalized scheme of taxonomy
186:Library and information science
1846:Ontology (information science)
1330:(where "simply" ≠"easily")."
1325:Taxonomic monism vs. pluralism
1064:is-an instance of the concept
913:Writing – Review & Editing
547:, taxonomic system for viruses
108:Science and technology studies
1:
3381:The dictionary definition of
2958:Richards, Richard A. (2016).
1937:Aperçus de Taxinomie Générale
1783:The dictionary definition of
1769:The dictionary definition of
1353:History of the periodic table
281:library classification system
3294:, XCV(1984), no. 1, 100–104.
2794:International Classification
2444:. 2 May 2018. Archived from
2067:Straights Knowledge website.
1623:Motion picture rating system
1084:, is-a relations are called
559:, classification of diseases
328:; the regular form would be
122:Related fields and subfields
2082:"Contextual Taxonomies" in
1888:Taxonomy for search engines
1867:Semantic similarity network
1724:Ship classification society
1581:Classification (literature)
1562:Mathematical classification
1271:phylogenetic classification
1239:Genealogical classification
1015:, which means the same as "
711:Taxonomy for search engines
645:Records management taxonomy
441:characteristica universalis
266:classification of organisms
206:Quantum information science
3454:
3266:Malone, Joseph L. (1988).
3233:Cambridge University Press
3062:Mill, John Stuart (1872).
2669:10.1038/s41467-020-20037-y
2256:Novak, Jernej (May 2010).
1825:Gellish English dictionary
1568:Statistical classification
1530:Job classification, as in
984:
854:Contributor Roles Taxonomy
810:Moys Classification Scheme
689:available for public use.
484:
473:
314:
304:
29:
2831:Pellegrin, Pierre. 1986.
2505:Peter., Morville (2007).
2300:10.1007/s11219-016-9322-x
2185:10.1007/s11219-012-9190-y
1917:Oxford English Dictionary
1898:Typology (disambiguation)
1708:Locomotive classification
1641:Biological classification
1625:, for film classification
1503:Sample list of taxonomies
1411:is a fine example on how
436:alphabet of human thought
337:
3087:Philosophical Psychology
2805:Ereshefsky, Marc. 2000.
2288:Software Quality Journal
2173:Software Quality Journal
2038:Government Computer News
1836:Knowledge representation
1698:Classification of swords
1658:Taxonomic classification
1259:Pragmatic classification
997:knowledge-representation
962:In communications theory
910:Writing – Original Draft
3423:Scientific nomenclature
3322:10.1023/a:1006583910214
3130:Weinstock, John. 1985.
2945:Darwin, Charles. 1859.
2591:10.1109/MC.1983.1654194
2061:University of Karlsruhe
1718:Security classification
1647:Chemical classification
1597:Document classification
1556:Classification theorems
1056:, which are subsets of
1044:, which is a subset of
438:. Leibniz intended his
332:, as used in the Greek
3310:Biology and Philosophy
3213:Knowledge Organization
3152:Kuhn, Thomas S. 1962.
2348:"SERP-connect backend"
2065:"Defining 'Taxonomy',"
1852:Philosophical language
1815:Faceted classification
1742:Classification Society
1713:Product classification
1703:Classification of wine
1652:Medical classification
1609:Library classification
1603:Classified information
1591:Decimal classification
1550:Attribute-value system
1525:Classified information
1519:Activity-based costing
1515:Master data management
1465:A fifth top category,
1396:, as set forth in his
1307:natural classification
1299:
1201:faceted classification
1142:Knowledge organization
1137:Theoretical approaches
1122:
922:Project Administration
880:
840:
724:Education and academia
570:Business and economics
285:search engine taxonomy
261:
171:Information technology
93:Knowledge organization
3000:Barnes, Barry. 1977.
2648:Nature Communications
2206:Utting, Mark (2012).
1786:classification scheme
1539:, economic activities
1295:
1211:Empiricist approaches
1186:evolutionary taxonomy
1120:
1017:All dogs are mammals"
876:
848:controlled vocabulary
833:
516:Evolutionary taxonomy
476:Lumpers and splitters
474:Further information:
377:containment hierarchy
259:
181:Intellectual property
151:Computer data storage
3373:at Wikimedia Commons
3343:. Psychology Press.
3016:Ridley, Mark. 1986.
2949:. London: J. Murray.
1686:mechanical screening
1617:Image classification
941:Taxonomy for the web
669:Software engineering
545:Virus classification
466:ultimately derives.
431:Ars generalis ultima
362:knowledge management
176:Intellectual freedom
2876:1968Natur.220..545M
2660:2021NatCo..12..327G
2150:10.1109/TSE.2009.13
1315:defining characters
925:Funding acquisition
817:Research publishing
639:European Green Deal
563:Soil classification
41:Information science
3438:Types of groupings
3272:Albany, New York:
3215:44, no. 8: 668-76.
3020:. London: Longman.
2820:Aristotelian logic
2712:2017-10-16 at the
2563:2020-06-30 at the
2554:Ronald J. Brachman
2395:Learned Publishing
2056:2017-08-09 at the
2033:2020-02-05 at the
2000:2017-08-14 at the
1976:2019-12-20 at the
1953:2023-01-26 at the
1857:Protégé (software)
1682:industrial process
1619:in computer vision
1226:numerical taxonomy
1123:
1013:A dog is a mammal"
1009:John is a bachelor
779:Swiss cheese model
579:Corporate taxonomy
522:Numerical taxonomy
487:Taxonomy (biology)
446:universal language
358:network structures
262:
3369:Media related to
3303:978-0-615-24850-9
3282:978-0-887-06653-5
3262:978-3-540-28060-6
3241:978-0-521-43871-1
3227:Atran, S. (1993)
2870:(5167): 545–548.
2848:, 52(3), 541-570.
2796:5, no. 3: 156-162
1587:or other articles
1386:Linnaean taxonomy
1381:Linnaean taxonomy
886:Conceptualization
804:Military taxonomy
615:Pavitt's Taxonomy
585:Economic taxonomy
502:Linnaean taxonomy
422:Gottfried Leibniz
297:A. P. de Candolle
243:
242:
16:(Redirected from
3445:
3380:
3368:
3354:
3333:
3216:
3209:
3203:
3200:
3194:
3191:
3185:
3182:
3176:
3173:
3167:
3163:
3157:
3150:
3144:
3141:
3135:
3128:
3122:
3115:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3096:
3090:
3089:17, no. 1: 135-9
3083:
3077:
3076:
3070:
3059:
3048:
3045:
3039:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3021:
3014:
3005:
2998:
2992:
2985:
2979:
2972:
2963:
2956:
2950:
2943:
2937:
2930:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2884:10.1038/220545a0
2855:
2849:
2842:
2836:
2829:
2823:
2816:
2810:
2803:
2797:
2790:
2784:
2777:
2771:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2737:
2731:
2728:
2717:
2705:Available under
2704:
2699:
2689:
2671:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2574:
2568:
2551:
2545:
2542:
2531:
2530:
2502:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2450:
2430:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2408:10.1087/20150211
2379:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2294:(4): 1269–1305.
2283:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2224:10.1002/stvr.456
2203:
2197:
2196:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2143:
2123:
2117:
2115:
2095:
2089:
2076:Grossi, Davide,
2074:
2068:
2047:
2041:
2024:
2018:
2011:
2005:
1991:
1985:
1971:(video lecture).
1964:
1958:
1933:
1927:
1920:
1913:
1862:Semantic network
1782:
1768:
1761:
1434:Hornbostel–Sachs
1349:Dmitri Mendeleev
1197:Logical division
935:Creative Commons
798:Other taxonomies
733:Bloom's taxonomy
699:Flynn's taxonomy
481:Natural sciences
340:
339:
327:
317:
316:
307:
306:
235:
228:
221:
156:Cultural studies
37:
21:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3408:
3407:
3361:
3351:
3336:
3307:
3254:Springer-Verlag
3224:
3219:
3210:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3160:
3151:
3147:
3142:
3138:
3129:
3125:
3116:
3112:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3093:
3084:
3080:
3068:
3061:
3060:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3015:
3008:
2999:
2995:
2986:
2982:
2973:
2966:
2957:
2953:
2944:
2940:
2931:
2927:
2917:
2915:
2857:
2856:
2852:
2843:
2839:
2830:
2826:
2817:
2813:
2804:
2800:
2791:
2787:
2778:
2774:
2765:
2761:
2751:
2749:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2720:
2714:Wayback Machine
2641:
2640:
2636:
2626:
2624:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2565:Wayback Machine
2552:
2548:
2543:
2534:
2519:
2504:
2503:
2494:
2484:
2482:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2452:
2451:on 12 June 2018
2448:
2432:
2431:
2424:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2363:
2361:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2331:
2329:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2271:
2269:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2241:
2239:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2141:10.1.1.221.7589
2125:
2124:
2120:
2112:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2075:
2071:
2058:Wayback Machine
2048:
2044:
2035:Wayback Machine
2026:Jackson, Joab.
2025:
2021:
2012:
2008:
2002:Wayback Machine
1992:
1988:
1978:Wayback Machine
1965:
1961:
1955:Wayback Machine
1934:
1930:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1754:
1751:
1733:
1677:
1632:
1577:
1546:
1510:
1505:
1494:
1431:
1406:
1398:Systema Naturae
1383:
1341:
1336:
1327:
1279:
1256:
1236:
1213:
1194:
1177:
1144:
1139:
1115:
1077:
993:
985:Main articles:
983:
967:Frederick Suppe
964:
943:
898:Formal Analysis
819:
800:
783:James T. Reason
767:Safety taxonomy
760:
726:
695:
671:
666:
572:
489:
483:
478:
472:
396:folk taxonomies
392:Anthropologists
389:
347:
323:
293:
239:
210:
117:
48:General aspects
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3451:
3449:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3410:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3395:
3388:
3374:
3360:
3359:External links
3357:
3356:
3355:
3349:
3334:
3316:(2): 233–244.
3305:
3295:
3288:
3264:
3243:
3223:
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3204:
3195:
3186:
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3168:
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3110:
3100:
3091:
3078:
3049:
3040:
3031:
3022:
3006:
2993:
2980:
2964:
2951:
2938:
2925:
2850:
2846:Library Trends
2837:
2824:
2811:
2798:
2785:
2772:
2759:
2732:
2718:
2634:
2604:
2569:
2546:
2532:
2517:
2492:
2462:
2422:
2401:(2): 151–155.
2385:; Allen, Liz;
2371:
2338:
2322:"SERP-connect"
2313:
2278:
2248:
2218:(5): 297–312.
2198:
2163:
2134:(4): 551–565.
2118:
2110:
2090:
2069:
2042:
2019:
2006:
1986:
1959:
1928:
1907:
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1900:
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1849:
1843:
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1833:
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1822:
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1793:Categorization
1790:
1776:
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1558:in mathematics
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1447:Membranophones
1444:
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1427:
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1421:
1405:
1402:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1345:periodic table
1340:
1339:Periodic table
1337:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1278:
1275:
1255:
1252:
1235:
1232:
1212:
1209:
1193:
1190:
1176:
1173:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1114:
1111:
982:
979:
963:
960:
959:
958:
954:
942:
939:
927:
926:
923:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
844:Project CRediT
818:
815:
814:
813:
807:
799:
796:
795:
794:
793:
792:
785:
776:
759:
756:
755:
754:
748:
742:
736:
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722:
721:
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714:
708:
702:
694:
691:
686:
685:
682:
670:
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661:
660:
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632:
631:
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624:
618:
612:
606:
600:
594:
582:
571:
568:
567:
566:
560:
554:
548:
542:
540:Plant taxonomy
537:
531:
525:
519:
513:
512:
511:
505:
496:Alpha taxonomy
485:Main article:
482:
479:
471:
468:
400:Émile Durkheim
388:
385:
373:tree structure
346:
343:
292:
289:
251:classification
241:
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146:Classification
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136:Categorization
133:
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119:
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54:
51:
50:
44:
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26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3450:
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3387:at Wiktionary
3386:
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3286:OCLC 15856738
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2638:
2635:
2622:
2618:
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2600:
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2585:(10): 30–36.
2584:
2580:
2579:IEEE Computer
2573:
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2518:9780596527341
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2387:Altman, Micah
2384:
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2119:
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2111:9780203013151
2107:
2104:. Routledge.
2103:
2102:
2094:
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2087:
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2016:
2010:
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2003:
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1990:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1949:
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1872:Structuralism
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1789:at Wiktionary
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1775:at Wiktionary
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1692:Civil service
1690:
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1662:
1661:
1659:
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1516:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1471:
1470:Electrophones
1468:
1467:
1466:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1428:
1422:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1394:Carl Linnaeus
1391:
1387:
1380:
1378:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1324:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1287:Carl Linnaeus
1284:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1181:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1119:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1037:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
992:
988:
980:
978:
974:
970:
968:
961:
955:
951:
950:
949:
946:
940:
938:
936:
932:
924:
921:
918:
916:Visualization
915:
912:
909:
907:Data curation
906:
903:
901:Investigation
900:
897:
894:
891:
888:
885:
884:
883:
879:
875:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
855:
849:
846:to develop a
845:
839:
838:
832:
830:
829:
824:
816:
811:
808:
805:
802:
801:
797:
790:
786:
784:
780:
777:
774:
771:
770:
768:
765:
764:
763:
757:
752:
751:SOLO taxonomy
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:
730:
729:
723:
718:
715:
712:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
696:
692:
690:
683:
680:
679:
678:
675:
668:
663:
658:
655:
652:
651:XBRL Taxonomy
649:
646:
643:
640:
636:
633:
628:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
598:
595:
592:
589:
588:
586:
583:
580:
577:
576:
575:
569:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
551:Folk taxonomy
549:
546:
543:
541:
538:
535:
534:Phylogenetics
532:
529:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
509:
506:
503:
500:
499:
497:
494:
493:
492:
488:
480:
477:
469:
467:
465:
461:
457:
456:
451:
447:
443:
442:
437:
433:
432:
427:
423:
418:
415:
411:
407:
406:
401:
397:
393:
386:
384:
380:
378:
374:
369:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
344:
342:
335:
331:
326:
321:
311:
302:
298:
290:
288:
286:
282:
277:
275:
270:
267:
258:
254:
252:
247:
236:
231:
229:
224:
222:
217:
216:
214:
213:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
161:Data modeling
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
131:Bibliometrics
129:
128:
126:
125:
120:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
56:
55:
53:
52:
49:
45:
42:
38:
33:
19:
3401:
3390:
3383:
3339:
3313:
3309:
3291:
3268:
3247:
3228:
3212:
3207:
3198:
3189:
3180:
3171:
3161:
3153:
3148:
3139:
3131:
3126:
3118:
3113:
3103:
3094:
3086:
3081:
3064:
3043:
3034:
3025:
3017:
3001:
2996:
2988:
2983:
2975:
2959:
2954:
2946:
2941:
2933:
2928:
2916:. Retrieved
2867:
2863:
2853:
2845:
2840:
2832:
2827:
2819:
2814:
2806:
2801:
2793:
2788:
2780:
2775:
2767:
2762:
2750:. Retrieved
2735:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2625:. Retrieved
2616:
2607:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2549:
2507:
2483:. Retrieved
2474:
2465:
2453:. Retrieved
2446:the original
2437:
2398:
2394:
2362:. Retrieved
2351:
2341:
2330:. Retrieved
2316:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2270:. Retrieved
2261:
2251:
2240:. Retrieved
2215:
2211:
2201:
2179:(1): 21–48.
2176:
2172:
2166:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2100:
2093:
2083:
2078:Frank Dignum
2072:
2045:
2037:
2022:
2009:
1989:
1984:(ESWC 2008).
1962:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1923:
1916:
1911:
1785:
1771:
1757:
1643:of organisms
1584:
1532:job analysis
1495:
1479:
1475:
1464:
1432:
1407:
1392:) set up by
1389:
1384:
1375:
1342:
1328:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1283:natural kind
1280:
1270:
1266:
1258:
1257:
1248:
1238:
1237:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1205:essentialism
1196:
1195:
1182:
1178:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1127:folksonomies
1124:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1079:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1035:
1032:
1023:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
999:systems are
994:
975:
971:
965:
947:
944:
928:
881:
877:
867:
863:
859:
851:
843:
841:
837:contributor.
835:
834:
826:
822:
820:
761:
727:
687:
676:
672:
657:SRK taxonomy
573:
490:
453:
452:in his work
450:John Wilkins
439:
429:
419:
413:
403:
390:
381:
370:
355:
348:
345:Applications
329:
324:
319:
312:'order' and
309:
294:
278:
271:
263:
245:
244:
196:Preservation
112:
63:Architecture
3231:Cambridge:
2752:5 September
2627:13 February
2471:"OpenStand"
2264:: 418–422.
1980:5th Annual
1877:Systematics
1544:Mathematics
1453:Chordophone
1263:kitchenware
1082:linguistics
1038:hierarchies
1005:conditional
1001:predication
919:Supervision
889:Methodology
426:Ramon Llull
410:Scott Atran
334:reborrowing
274:hierarchies
166:Informatics
3412:Categories
3250:Vol. 3487.
3222:References
2918:23 October
2654:(1): 327.
2383:Brand, Amy
2364:25 October
2332:2021-08-28
2272:2020-03-03
2242:2017-04-23
1935:review of
1820:Folksonomy
1810:Conflation
1664:Cladistics
1486:organology
1482:musicology
1459:Aerophones
1441:Idiophones
1372:testable."
1244:cladistics
1175:Ereshevsky
895:Validation
868:supporting
705:Folksonomy
508:rank-based
366:ontologies
141:Censorship
103:Philosophy
73:Management
18:Taxonomies
3428:Hierarchy
2892:1476-4687
2707:CC BY 4.0
2678:2041-1723
2475:OpenStand
2136:CiteSeerX
2086:pp. 33–51
1409:Astronomy
1404:Astronomy
1220:Phenetics
1028:mereology
937:licence.
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