189:
517:— apologized for the first time for producing the drug and remaining silent about the birth defects. At a ceremony, Stock unveiled a statue of a disabled child to symbolize those harmed by thalidomide and apologized for not trying to reach out to victims for over 50 years. At the time of the apology, there were between 5,000 and 6,000 people still living with Thalidomide-related birth defects. Victim advocates called the apology "insulting" and "too little, too late", and criticized the company for not compensating victims and for their claim that no one could have known the harm the drug caused, arguing that there were plenty of red flags at the time.
492:, and other congenital defects affecting the ear, heart, or internal organs. Franks et al. looked at how the drug affected newborn babies, the severity of their deformities, and reviewed the drug in its early years. Webb in 1963 also reviewed the history of the drug and the different forms of birth defects it had caused. "The most common form of birth defects from thalidomide is shortened limbs, with the arms being more frequently affected. This syndrome is the presence of deformities of the long bones of the limbs resulting in shortening and other abnormalities."
381:
351:
as a discipline separate from pharmacology. The need for the testing and approval of the toxins in certain pharmaceutical drugs became more important after the disaster. The
Society of Toxicology of Canada is responsible for the Conservation Environment Protection Act, focusing on researching the impact to human health of chemical substances. Thalidomide brought on changes in the way drugs are tested, what type of drugs are used during pregnancy, and increased the awareness of potential side effects of drugs.
464:
109:
39:
561:
53:
259:, who also suspected the link, is credited with conducting the scientific research that proved thalidomide was causing birth defects in 1961. McBride was later awarded a number of honors, including a medal and prize money by L'Institut de la Vie in Paris, but he was eventually struck off the Australian medical register in 1993 for
411:
Although thalidomide was not approved for sale in the United States at the time, over 2.5 million tablets had been distributed to over 1,000 physicians during a clinical testing programme. It is estimated that nearly 20,000 patients, several hundred of whom were pregnant, were given the drug to help
222:
The
British Thalidomide Children's Trust was set up in 1973 as part of a ÂŁ20 million legal settlement between Distillers Company and 429 children with thalidomide-related disabilities. In 1997, Diageo (formed by a merger between Grand Metropolitan and Guinness, who had taken over Distillers in 1990)
505:
into a special foundation; the West German government added 320 million DM. The foundation paid victims a one-time sum of 2,500–25,000 DM (depending on severity of disability) and a monthly stipend of 100–450 DM. The monthly stipends have since been raised substantially and are now paid entirely by
500:
In 1968, a large criminal trial began in West
Germany, charging several GrĂĽnenthal officials with negligent homicide and injury. After GrĂĽnenthal settled with the victims in April 1970, the trial ended in December 1970 with no finding of guilt. As part of the settlement, GrĂĽnenthal paid 100 million
350:
Despite its severe side effects, thalidomide was sold in pharmacies in Canada until 1962. The effects of thalidomide increased fears regarding the safety of pharmaceutical drugs. The
Society of Toxicology of Canada was formed after the effects of thalidomide were made public, focusing on toxicology
231:
In Spain, thalidomide was widely available throughout the 1970s, and perhaps even into the 1980s. There were two reasons for this. First, state controls and safeguarding were poor; it was not until 2008 that the government even admitted the country had ever imported thalidomide. Second, GrĂĽnenthal
367:
A group of 120 Canadian survivors formed the
Thalidomide Victims Association of Canada, the goal of which is to prevent the approval of drugs that could be harmful to pregnant individuals and babies. The members from the thalidomide victims association were involved in the STEPS programme, which
179:
The severity and location of the deformities depended on how many days into the pregnancy the mother was before beginning treatment; thalidomide taken on the 20th day of pregnancy caused central brain damage, day 21 would damage the eyes, day 22 the ears and face, day 24 the arms, and leg damage
163:
The total number of embryos affected by the use of thalidomide during pregnancy is estimated at more than 10,000, and potentially up to 20,000; of these, approximately 40 percent died at or shortly after the time of birth. Those who survived had limb, eye, urinary tract, and heart defects. Its
428:. In September 2010, the FDA honored Kelsey with the first Kelsey award, given annually to an FDA staff member. This came 50 years after Kelsey, then a new medical officer at the agency, first reviewed the application from the William S. Merrell Pharmaceuticals Company of Cincinnati.
232:
failed to insist that its sister company in Madrid warn
Spanish doctors, and permitted its sister company not to warn doctors of the defects. The Spanish advocacy group for victims of thalidomide estimates that in 2015, there were 250–300 living victims of thalidomide in Spain.
282:, believed to be in the millions of dollars and providing precedence for class action victims to receive further compensation. In February 2014, the Supreme Court of Victoria endorsed the settlement of $ 89 million AUD to 107 victims of the drug in Australia and New Zealand.
475:
The numerous reports of malformations in babies brought about the awareness of the side effects of the drug on pregnant women. The birth defects caused by the drug thalidomide can range from moderate malformation to more severe forms. Possible birth defects include
99:
and medication for morning sickness without having been tested on pregnant women. While initially deemed to be safe in pregnancy, concerns regarding birth defects were noted in 1961, and the medication was removed from the market in Europe that year.
329:
in a similarly strict way. The parliamentary report rejected any relation with radioactivity and the abnormal increase of dysmelia. Also the DFG research project installed after the Mende request was not helpful. The project was led by pathologist
316:
requested an official statement from the federal government. For statistical reasons, the main data series used to research dysmelia cases started by chance at the same time as the approval date for thalidomide. After the Nazi regime with its
1655:
267:. Further animal tests were conducted by George Somers, Chief Pharmacologist of Distillers Company in Britain, which showed fetal abnormalities in rabbits. Similar results were also published showing these effects in rats and other species.
619:, an internationally acclaimed bass-baritone, who describes himself: "1.34 meters tall, short arms, seven fingers — four right, three left — large, relatively well-formed head, brown eyes, distinctive lips; profession: singer".
204:
In the UK, the drug was licensed in 1958 and withdrawn in 1961. Of the approximately 2,000 babies born with defects, around half died within a few months and 466 survived to at least 2010. In 1968, after a long campaign by
646:(UK). In the United States, the new regulations strengthened the FDA, among other ways, by requiring applicants to prove efficacy and to disclose all side effects encountered in testing. The FDA subsequently initiated the
64:
in 46 countries by women who were pregnant or who subsequently became pregnant resulted in the "biggest anthropogenic medical disaster ever," with more than 10,000 children born with a range of severe deformities, such as
423:
For denying the application despite the pressure from
Richardson-Merrell Pharmaceuticals Co., Kelsey eventually received the President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service at a 1962 ceremony with President
135:, who had escaped prosecution for war crimes for his experiments on prisoners of Nazi concentration camps, to head the development programme because of his experience researching and producing an anti-typhus vaccine for
223:
made a long-term financial commitment to support the
Thalidomide Trust and its beneficiaries. The UK government gave survivors a grant of ÂŁ20 million, to be distributed through the Thalidomide Trust, in December 2009.
2078:
2356:
294:, thalidomide was rejected by the Central Committee of Experts for the Drug Traffic in the GDR, and was never approved for use. There are no known thalidomide babies born in East Germany. Meanwhile, in
389:
1652:
412:
alleviate morning sickness or as a sedative, and at least 17 children were consequently born in the United States with thalidomide-associated deformities. While pregnant, children's television host
338:
theory. BĂĽchner saw lack of healthy nutrition and behavior of the mothers as being more important than genetic reasons. Furthermore, it took a while to appoint a
Surgeon General in Germany; the
1343:
318:
155:, a chemist and Nazi war criminal. Ambros was the chairman of GrĂĽnenthal's advisory committee during the development of thalidomide and was a board member when Contergan was being sold.
400:
In the U.S., the FDA refused approval to market thalidomide, saying further studies were needed. This reduced the impact of thalidomide in U.S. patients. The refusal was largely due to
416:
took thalidomide that her husband had purchased over-the-counter in Europe. When she learned that thalidomide was causing fetal deformities she wanted to abort her pregnancy, but the
582:, which looked at this historical tradition and its relevance to modern disabled performers. This work has become the subject of academic analysis in the field of disability studies.
435:
learned of the damaging effects of the drug thalidomide on newborns and in 1967, testified before
Congress on this matter after a trip to Germany where she worked with infants with
2588:
342:
was not founded until 1962, some months after thalidomide was banned from the market. In West Germany approximately 2,500 babies were born with birth defects from thalidomide.
2613:
550:
While we cannot change the past or end the physical suffering, I hope these important next steps of recognition and apology will help heal some of the emotional wounds.
2086:
2364:
2573:
2608:
1344:"'Thalidomide Doctor' Guilty of Medical Fraud: William McBride, Who Exposed the Danger of One Anti-Nausea Drug, Has Been Disgraced by Experiments with Another."
420:
allowed abortion only if the mother's life was in danger. Finkbine traveled to Sweden to have the abortion. Thalidomide was found to have deformed the fetus.
2335:
2435:
1992:"Click – Debating Reproductive Rights – Reproductive Rights and Feminism, History of Abortion Battle, History of Abortion Debate, Roe v. Wade and Feminists"
2603:
2301:
1819:
1121:
572:, born with phocomelia of both arms, drove the successful campaign for compensation from her government for Canadians who were affected by thalidomide.
2598:
2593:
2618:
2123:
193:
578:, born with phocomelia of both arms, is an English rock musician, actor, writer and performance artist. He produced a 2002 television documentary,
306:, wrote an article in a local newspaper claiming a relationship between nuclear weapons testing and cases of dysmelia in children. Based on this,
1244:
188:
2568:
1533:
2515:
2485:
1687:
1209:
858:
2147:
1505:
339:
219:), which had distributed the drug in the UK. Distillers Biochemicals paid out approximately ÂŁ28m in compensation following a legal battle.
2542:
2171:
1747:
1537:
529:
announced that they will issue a formal apology to people affected by thalidomide with the unveiling of a national memorial site, with
647:
600:
is a Canadian Paralympic gold medallist swimmer, thalidomide survivor, and president of the Thalidomide Victims Association of Canada
2360:
1463:
904:
825:
278:
dismissed GrĂĽnenthal's application in 2012, and the case was heard in Australia. On 17 July 2012, Rowe was awarded an out-of-court
248:
called Sister Pat Sparrow who first suspected the drug was causing birth defects in the babies of patients under McBride's care at
1973:
1317:
249:
148:
131:
company. The company's initial aim was to develop antibiotics for which there was an urgent market need. Wirtz appointed chemist
2558:
1486:
307:
2276:
451:
pharmaceutical admission conference, enforced restrictions on the sale of thalidomide (tradename Softenon) under the rules of
2628:
2583:
1562:
331:
1098:
506:
the government (as the foundation had run out of money). Grünenthal paid another €50 million into the foundation in 2008.
732:
2442:
1948:"Thalidomide: The Connection Between a Statue in Trafalgar Square, a 1960s Children's Show Host and the Abortion Debate"
740:
169:
1947:
1845:
1558:
606:
530:
2100:
1875:
1639:
634:
The disaster prompted many countries to introduce tougher rules for the testing and licensing of drugs, such as the
954:
72:
Thalidomide was introduced in 1953 as a tranquilizer, and was later marketed by the German pharmaceutical company
2623:
2446:
1510:
1214:
1022:
As they report in the current issue of Science, a protein known as cereblon latched on tightly to the thalidomide
635:
275:
380:
2309:
439:(severe limb deformities). As a result of her efforts, thalidomide was banned in the United States and Europe.
241:
116:
1161:
1451:
2537:
1129:
452:
279:
921:
180:
would occur if taken up to day 28. Thalidomide did not damage the fetus if taken after 42 days' gestation.
2532:
1415:
McColl JD, Globus M, Robinson S (1965). "Effect of some therapeutic agents on the developing rat fetus".
302:
at the end of the 1950s was connected with thalidomide. In 1958, Karl Beck, a former pediatric doctor in
274:
lawsuit against the drug's manufacturer, GrĂĽnenthal, which fought to have the case heard in Germany. The
2148:"Australian government will apologise to people affected by thalidomide tragedy | Health | The Guardian"
1776:
Racz WJ, Ecobichon DJ, Baril M (August 2003). "On-line sources of toxicological information in Canada".
1567:
485:
404:
385:
165:
513:— who served as the chief executive officer of Grünenthal GmbH from January 2009 to May 28, 2013
2563:
1785:
888:
881:
639:
361:
128:
590:
569:
526:
463:
417:
326:
144:
132:
119:
in 1953. In 1954, Ciba abandoned the product, and it was acquired by German pharmaceutical company
2253:
1219:
1925:
643:
575:
408:
212:
120:
73:
19:
This article is about the thalidomide scandal and birth defect crisis. For the drug itself, see
2035:
850:
768:"Thalidomide Embryopathy: A Model for the Study of Congenital Incomitant Horizontal Strabismus"
2511:
2495:
2481:
2417:
2057:
1991:
1917:
1857:
1801:
1729:
1683:
1594:
1459:
1432:
1397:
1245:"Dr William McBride: The Flawed Character Credited with Linking Thalidomide to Birth Defects."
929:
900:
854:
821:
815:
789:
708:
690:
360:, most, but not all, victims of thalidomide receive annual benefits as compensation from the
1751:
2578:
2507:
2407:
2399:
2210:
1909:
1793:
1719:
1424:
1389:
892:
842:
779:
698:
680:
616:
533:
432:
260:
207:
108:
92:
1380:
King C, Kendrick F (1962). "Teratogenic effects of thalidomide in the Sprague Dawley rat".
896:
2017:
1659:
1347:
603:
585:
425:
393:
356:
310:
173:
1005:
1820:"The plight of the thalidomide 'sample babies' who don't qualify for gov't compensation"
1789:
2412:
2387:
1977:
1724:
1707:
1589:
1010:
784:
767:
703:
668:
455:
and as a result relatively few affected children were born in Austria and Switzerland.
413:
401:
1913:
1797:
1456:
Animals and Medicine: The Contribution of Animal Experiments to the Control of Disease
1428:
1393:
1321:
2552:
2477:
2470:
2331:
1929:
843:
597:
502:
256:
253:
140:
2499:
2230:
1534:"Supreme Court formally approves $ 89m compensation payout for Thalidomide victims"
976:
613:
of both arms and legs, is the only thalidomide survivor to carry the Olympic Torch.
594:, based on the lives of 12 people affected by the drug, which was released in 2008.
364:. Excluded are those who cannot provide the documentation the government requires.
295:
291:
271:
136:
124:
123:. The company had been established by Hermann Wirtz Sr, a Nazi Party member, after
38:
115:
Thalidomide was first developed as a tranquilizer by Swiss pharmaceutical company
1261:
1087:
1060:
1001:
545:
313:
152:
61:
20:
2198:
1034:
610:
560:
489:
477:
436:
369:
335:
197:
77:
66:
1183:
933:
694:
1291:
622:
322:
2436:"The evolution of pharmacy, Theme E, Level 3 Thalidomide and its aftermath"
2421:
2215:
2108:
1921:
1861:
1805:
1733:
1436:
1401:
1093:
712:
139:. He hired Martin Staemmler, a medical doctor and leading proponent of the
2472:
Dark Remedy: The Impact of Thalidomide and Its Revival as a Vital Medicine
1879:
1628:"Die Contergan-Katastrophe: Die trĂĽgerische Sicherheit der "harten" Daten"
1627:
793:
172:(FDA). The birth defects of thalidomide led to the development of greater
2533:
WHO Pharmaceuticals Newsletter No. 2, 2003 – See page 11, Feature Article
2403:
1153:
481:
303:
299:
264:
96:
88:
733:"Frances Oldham Kelsey: FDA Medical Reviewer Leaves Her Mark on History"
56:
Feet of a baby born to a mother who had taken thalidomide while pregnant
2543:
Remind me again, what is thalidomide and how did it cause so much harm?
1630:[The thalidomide disaster: The false security of 'hard' data].
685:
468:
448:
245:
84:
2538:
CBC Digital Archives – Thalidomide: Bitter Pills, Broken Promises
2199:"Exploitations of embodiment: Born Freak and the academic bally plank"
2053:
216:
2079:"Speech on the occasion of the inauguration of Thalidomide-Memorial"
1897:
52:
2124:"Australia to apologise half a century after 'Thalidomide tragedy'"
559:
462:
379:
187:
107:
51:
2172:"Outstanding eight to receive honorary doctorates at Convocation"
1974:"Bendectin Part 1: How a Commonly Used Drug Caused Birth Defects"
211:, a compensation settlement for the UK victims was reached with
192:
Artificial limbs made for an affected child in the 1960s by the
955:"The Nazis and Thalidomide: The Worst Drug Scandal of All Time"
2178:. Windsor, Ontario, Canada: University of Windsor. 9 June 2016
1038:
625:, Canadian motivational speaker and former radio broadcaster.
509:
On 31 August 2012, GrĂĽnenthal chief executive Harald F. Stock
2392:
Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition
390:
President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service
270:
Lynette Rowe, who was born without limbs, led an Australian
244:
took credit for raising concern about thalidomide, it was a
1006:"Answers Begin to Emerge on How Thalidomide Caused Defects"
820:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 643–644.
669:"Thalidomide-induced teratogenesis: history and mechanisms"
1592:[East German citizens slept without thalidomide].
1035:"Thalidomide: The Fifty Year Fight (no longer available)"
319:
Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring
1361:
Somers GF (1963). "The foetal toxicity of thalidomide".
1318:"Report of Thalidomide at University of New South Wales"
849:(Rev. and updated ed.). Chichester: Wiley. p.
588:, a thalidomide survivor, produced a documentary called
321:
used mandatory statistical monitoring to commit various
1846:"Living in a world with thalidomide: a dose of reality"
1506:"Landmark thalidomide payout offers hope for thousands"
1680:
The thalidomide catastrophe takes stock after 40 years
1487:"Australian thalidomide victims win right for hearing"
1148:
1146:
922:"The Unseen Survivors of Thalidomide Want to Be Heard"
396:
for blocking sale of thalidomide in the United States.
2056:[10,000 cases of malformations] (in German).
1748:"Turning Points of History–Prescription for Disaster"
772:
Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society
325:, western Germany had been very reluctant to monitor
673:
Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews
164:
initial entry into the U.S. market was prevented by
1676:
Die Contergankatastrophe eine Bilanz nach 40 Jahren
31:
2469:
2018:"The Public's Quiet Savior From Harmful Medicines"
1122:"Thalidomide: the battle for compensation goes on"
880:
2101:"Thalidomide apology insulting, campaigners say"
2388:"Unlicensed and off label drug use in neonates"
2386:Conroy S, McIntyre J, Choonara I (March 1999).
2302:"Orpheus lives: A small good thing in Quastoff"
1891:
1889:
1771:
1769:
1701:
1699:
1896:Franks ME, Macpherson GR, Figg WD (May 2004).
1563:"Thalidomide survivors' compensation approved"
1285:
1283:
1128:. London: Times Newspapers Ltd. Archived from
354:According to Canadian news magazine programme
60:In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the use of
46:Cases of severe thalidomide-induced phocomelia
2504:Suffer The Children: The Story of Thalidomide
1674:Zichner L, Rauschmann MA, Thomann KD (2005).
1239:
1237:
8:
2336:Food and Drug Administration (United States)
1320:. Embryology.med.unsw.edu.au. Archived from
143:programme, as head of pathology, as well as
2589:Medical controversies in the United Kingdom
650:to reclassify drugs already on the market.
544:” in Australia history and Health Minister
298:, it took some time before the increase in
2614:Medical controversies in the United States
2332:"50 Years: The Kefauver-Harris Amendments"
1682:] (in German). Darmstadt: Steinkopff.
761:
759:
757:
37:
28:
2411:
2214:
1723:
977:"Thalidomide Monograph for Professionals"
874:
872:
870:
809:
807:
805:
803:
783:
702:
684:
2277:"Mid Sussex residents honoured by Queen"
1941:
1939:
1088:"They just didn't know what it would do"
194:Department of Health and Social Security
69:, as well as thousands of miscarriages.
2231:"NoBody's Perfect (2008): Release Info"
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1363:Proc. European Soc. Study Drug Toxicity
659:
334:, who ran the project to propagate his
16:Birth defects linked to thalidomide use
2574:Health disasters in the United Kingdom
1342:Millikin, Robert (20 February 1993).
953:Williams, Roger (September 10, 2012).
726:
724:
722:
409:Richardson-Merrell Pharmaceuticals Co.
1669:
1667:
1590:"DDR-BĂĽrger schliefen ohne Contergan"
240:Although the Australian obstetrician
7:
2609:Medical controversies in New Zealand
2468:Stephens T, Brynner R (2001-12-24).
1876:"TVAC and its mission – Thalidomide"
1750:. History Television. Archived from
1712:Canadian Medical Association Journal
1164:from the original on 14 January 2013
897:10.1093/acref/9780198524038.001.0001
2545:. The Conversation, 7 December 2015
2107:. September 1, 2012. Archived from
1538:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1417:Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
1154:"Thalidomide survivors to get ÂŁ20m"
1061:"Apology for thalidomide survivors"
887:. Oxford University Press. p.
147:, the chief medical officer at the
2604:Medical controversies in Australia
2197:Mitchell D, Snyder S (June 2005).
1642:from the original on July 28, 2012
648:Drug Efficacy Study Implementation
447:Ingeborg Eichler, a member of the
176:and monitoring in many countries.
14:
2361:National Health Service (England)
2040:U.S. National Library of Medicine
1708:"Canadian Thalidomide Experience"
609:of the United Kingdom, born with
564:Niko von Glasow, German filmmaker
170:U.S. Food and Drug Administration
2599:Medical controversies in Austria
2594:Medical controversies in Germany
2398:(2): F142–4, discussion F144–5.
2308:. April 19, 2002. Archived from
2054:"10.000 Fälle von Missbildungen"
1638:(41): A–2778 / B–2454 / C–2382.
1532:Farnsworth S (7 February 2014).
1218:. pp. 12–19. Archived from
883:The Oxford Companion to the Body
407:who withstood pressure from the
149:Sachsenhausen concentration camp
127:as a subsidiary of the family's
2619:Medical controversies in Canada
2254:"Film Review: NoBody's Perfect"
1878:. June 24, 2009. Archived from
1208:Scott C, Haupt O (3 May 2015).
1101:from the original on 2004-07-07
2016:Harris G (13 September 2010).
1243:Swan, Norman (28 June 2018).
817:Encyclopedia of Women's Health
1:
2569:20th-century health disasters
2256:. Spirituality & Practice
1914:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16308-3
1798:10.1016/S0300-483X(03)00192-6
1429:10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90822-X
1394:10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90822-X
1120:Flintoff JP (23 March 2008).
667:Vargesson, Neil (June 2015).
250:Crown Street Women's Hospital
2443:Royal Pharmaceutical Society
2203:Disability Studies Quarterly
2042:. Bethesda, MD. 3 June 2015.
1946:Braun W (29 December 2015).
1598:(in German). 4 November 2007
920:Thomas, Katie (2020-03-23).
814:Loue S, Sajatovic M (2004).
741:Food and Drug Administration
521:Australian National Memorial
1559:Australian Associated Press
731:Bren L (28 February 2001).
2645:
2275:Tamplin H (12 June 2015).
2122:Jose, Renju (2023-11-13).
2036:"Dr. Helen Brooke Taussig"
630:Change in drug regulations
340:Federal Ministry of Health
196:'s Limb Fitting Centre in
104:Development of thalidomide
18:
1706:Webb JF (November 1963).
1511:The Sydney Morning Herald
1504:Petrie A (19 July 2012).
1351:. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
1292:"Thalidomide:40 years on"
1250:. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
1215:The Sunday Times Magazine
845:Drug discovery: a history
636:Kefauver Harris Amendment
525:On 13 November 2023, the
496:GrĂĽnenthal criminal trial
384:1962: FDA pharmacologist
276:Supreme Court of Victoria
236:Australia and New Zealand
95:. It was introduced as a
45:
36:
1450:Botting J (April 2015).
467:Thalidomide Memorial in
2252:Brussat F, Brussat MA.
2083:GrĂĽnenthal GmbH Website
1458:. OpenBook Publishers.
1210:"The forgotten victims"
1086:Ryan C (1 April 2004).
538:the thalidomide tragedy
453:prescription medication
2559:Congenital amputations
2445:. 2011. Archived from
2216:10.18061/dsq.v25i3.575
565:
472:
397:
201:
112:
57:
2629:History of disability
2584:Medical controversies
1754:on September 29, 2011
1568:The Sunday Star-Times
1188:The Thalidomide Trust
563:
527:Australian Government
466:
405:Frances Oldham Kelsey
386:Frances Oldham Kelsey
383:
191:
166:Frances Oldham Kelsey
111:
55:
2404:10.1136/fn.80.2.F142
2306:The Portland Phoenix
2089:on 1 September 2012.
1980:on 18 December 2013.
1632:Deutsches Ă„rzteblatt
1290:Anon (7 June 2002).
1268:. Ole Daniel Enersen
1160:. 23 December 2009.
640:Directive 65/65/EEC1
459:Aftermath of scandal
362:Government of Canada
327:congenital disorders
83:as a medication for
2452:on 14 October 2011.
2152:amp.theguardian.com
1996:www.cliohistory.org
1790:2003Toxgy.190....3R
1626:Thomann KD (2007).
1561:(7 February 2014).
1493:. 19 December 2011.
879:Cuthbert A (2003).
263:related to work on
159:Birth defect crisis
2367:on 3 December 2013
2022:The New York Times
1658:2013-10-19 at the
1324:on 28 October 2012
926:The New York Times
841:Sneader W (2005).
766:Miller MT (1991).
686:10.1002/bdrc.21096
644:Medicines Act 1968
566:
473:
398:
252:in Sydney. German
213:Distillers Company
202:
129:Mäurer & Wirtz
113:
58:
2517:978-0-670-68114-3
2487:978-0-7382-0590-8
2111:on 16 March 2016.
1908:(9423): 1802–11.
1844:Warren R (2001).
1689:978-3-7985-1479-9
1595:Neues Deutschland
1067:. 14 January 2010
1004:(15 March 2010).
860:978-0-471-89979-2
368:aimed to prevent
121:Chemie GrĂĽnenthal
74:Chemie GrĂĽnenthal
50:
49:
26:Medical condition
2636:
2624:Medical scandals
2521:
2508:The Viking Press
2491:
2475:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2440:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2415:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2363:. Archived from
2353:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2281:Mid Sussex Times
2272:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2085:. Archived from
2075:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2013:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1976:. Archived from
1969:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1943:
1934:
1933:
1893:
1884:
1883:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1773:
1764:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1727:
1703:
1694:
1693:
1671:
1662:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1623:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1423:(7265): 409–17.
1412:
1406:
1405:
1388:(7265): 409–17.
1377:
1371:
1370:
1358:
1352:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1287:
1278:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1257:
1251:
1241:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1150:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1126:The Sunday Times
1117:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1018:
998:
992:
991:
989:
987:
973:
967:
966:
964:
962:
950:
944:
943:
941:
940:
917:
911:
910:
886:
876:
865:
864:
848:
838:
832:
831:
811:
798:
797:
787:
763:
752:
751:
749:
747:
728:
717:
716:
706:
688:
664:
642:(E.U.), and the
617:Thomas Quasthoff
591:NoBody's Perfect
570:Mercédes Benegbi
534:Anthony Albanese
516:
512:
433:Helen B. Taussig
261:scientific fraud
208:The Sunday Times
145:Heinz Baumkötter
133:Heinrich MĂĽckter
93:morning sickness
89:trouble sleeping
41:
29:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2549:
2548:
2529:
2524:
2518:
2494:
2488:
2467:
2463:
2461:Further reading
2458:
2457:
2449:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2370:
2368:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2340:
2338:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2313:
2312:on 6 March 2012
2300:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2283:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2259:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2181:
2179:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2156:
2154:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2132:
2130:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2062:
2060:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2000:
1998:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1956:
1954:
1952:Huffington Post
1945:
1944:
1937:
1895:
1894:
1887:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1828:
1826:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1775:
1774:
1767:
1757:
1755:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1705:
1704:
1697:
1690:
1673:
1672:
1665:
1660:Wayback Machine
1645:
1643:
1625:
1624:
1611:
1601:
1599:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1573:
1571:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1542:
1540:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1516:
1514:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1348:The Independent
1341:
1337:
1327:
1325:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1301:
1299:
1289:
1288:
1281:
1271:
1269:
1262:"Widukind Lenz"
1259:
1258:
1254:
1242:
1235:
1225:
1223:
1222:on May 27, 2015
1207:
1206:
1202:
1192:
1190:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1167:
1165:
1152:
1151:
1144:
1135:
1133:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1104:
1102:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1070:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1044:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1016:
1014:
1000:
999:
995:
985:
983:
975:
974:
970:
960:
958:
952:
951:
947:
938:
936:
919:
918:
914:
907:
878:
877:
868:
861:
840:
839:
835:
828:
813:
812:
801:
765:
764:
755:
745:
743:
730:
729:
720:
666:
665:
661:
656:
632:
604:Lorraine Mercer
586:Niko von Glasow
558:
523:
514:
510:
498:
461:
445:
426:John F. Kennedy
418:laws of Arizona
414:Sherri Finkbine
394:John F. Kennedy
392:from President
378:
348:
288:
242:William McBride
238:
229:
186:
174:drug regulation
161:
106:
91:, tension, and
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2642:
2640:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2551:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2540:
2535:
2528:
2527:External links
2525:
2523:
2522:
2516:
2492:
2486:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2427:
2378:
2348:
2323:
2293:
2267:
2244:
2222:
2189:
2163:
2139:
2114:
2092:
2070:
2045:
2027:
2008:
1983:
1964:
1935:
1885:
1882:on 2009-06-24.
1867:
1836:
1811:
1765:
1739:
1718:(19): 987–92.
1695:
1688:
1663:
1609:
1581:
1550:
1524:
1496:
1478:
1464:
1442:
1407:
1372:
1353:
1335:
1309:
1279:
1252:
1233:
1200:
1175:
1142:
1112:
1078:
1052:
1026:
1011:New York Times
993:
968:
945:
912:
905:
866:
859:
833:
826:
799:
753:
718:
679:(2): 140–156.
658:
657:
655:
652:
631:
628:
627:
626:
620:
614:
601:
595:
583:
573:
557:
554:
531:Prime Minister
522:
519:
497:
494:
490:hypoplasticity
460:
457:
444:
441:
402:pharmacologist
377:
374:
370:teratogenicity
347:
344:
287:
284:
237:
234:
228:
225:
185:
184:United Kingdom
182:
160:
157:
105:
102:
48:
47:
43:
42:
34:
33:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2641:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2479:
2478:Perseus Books
2474:
2473:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2448:
2444:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2379:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2357:"Thalidomide"
2352:
2349:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2324:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2268:
2255:
2248:
2245:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2217:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2190:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2140:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2009:
1997:
1993:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1965:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1898:"Thalidomide"
1892:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1837:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1784:(1–2): 3–14.
1783:
1779:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1641:
1637:
1634:(in German).
1633:
1629:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1585:
1582:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1500:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1467:
1465:9781783741175
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1323:
1319:
1313:
1310:
1297:
1293:
1286:
1284:
1280:
1267:
1266:who named it?
1263:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1132:on 2008-05-13
1131:
1127:
1123:
1116:
1113:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1053:
1041:. 15 May 2014
1040:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1023:
1013:
1012:
1007:
1003:
997:
994:
982:
978:
972:
969:
956:
949:
946:
935:
931:
927:
923:
916:
913:
908:
906:9780198524038
902:
898:
894:
890:
885:
884:
875:
873:
871:
867:
862:
856:
852:
847:
846:
837:
834:
829:
827:9780306480737
823:
819:
818:
810:
808:
806:
804:
800:
795:
791:
786:
781:
777:
773:
769:
762:
760:
758:
754:
742:
738:
734:
727:
725:
723:
719:
714:
710:
705:
700:
696:
692:
687:
682:
678:
674:
670:
663:
660:
653:
651:
649:
645:
641:
637:
629:
624:
621:
618:
615:
612:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
592:
587:
584:
581:
577:
574:
571:
568:
567:
562:
556:Notable cases
555:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
532:
528:
520:
518:
507:
504:
495:
493:
491:
487:
483:
479:
470:
465:
458:
456:
454:
450:
442:
440:
438:
434:
431:Cardiologist
429:
427:
421:
419:
415:
410:
406:
403:
395:
391:
388:receives the
387:
382:
376:United States
375:
373:
371:
365:
363:
359:
358:
352:
345:
343:
341:
337:
336:teratological
333:
332:Franz BĂĽchner
328:
324:
320:
315:
312:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
285:
283:
281:
277:
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
257:Widukind Lenz
255:
254:paediatrician
251:
247:
243:
235:
233:
226:
224:
220:
218:
215:(now part of
214:
210:
209:
199:
195:
190:
183:
181:
177:
175:
171:
167:
158:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
141:Nazi eugenics
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
110:
103:
101:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
79:
75:
70:
68:
63:
54:
44:
40:
35:
30:
22:
2506:. New York:
2503:
2471:
2447:the original
2430:
2395:
2391:
2381:
2369:. Retrieved
2365:the original
2351:
2339:. Retrieved
2326:
2314:. Retrieved
2310:the original
2305:
2296:
2284:. Retrieved
2280:
2270:
2258:. Retrieved
2247:
2235:. Retrieved
2225:
2206:
2202:
2192:
2180:. Retrieved
2175:
2166:
2155:. Retrieved
2151:
2142:
2131:. Retrieved
2127:
2117:
2109:the original
2104:
2095:
2087:the original
2082:
2073:
2061:. Retrieved
2048:
2039:
2030:
2021:
2011:
1999:. Retrieved
1995:
1986:
1978:the original
1967:
1955:. Retrieved
1951:
1905:
1901:
1880:the original
1870:
1853:
1850:FDA Consumer
1849:
1839:
1827:. Retrieved
1823:
1814:
1781:
1777:
1756:. Retrieved
1752:the original
1742:
1715:
1711:
1679:
1675:
1644:. Retrieved
1635:
1631:
1600:. Retrieved
1593:
1584:
1572:. Retrieved
1566:
1553:
1541:. Retrieved
1527:
1515:. Retrieved
1509:
1499:
1490:
1481:
1469:. Retrieved
1455:
1452:"Chapter 18"
1445:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1346:
1338:
1326:. Retrieved
1322:the original
1312:
1300:. Retrieved
1295:
1270:. Retrieved
1265:
1255:
1247:
1224:. Retrieved
1220:the original
1213:
1203:
1191:. Retrieved
1187:
1178:
1166:. Retrieved
1157:
1134:. Retrieved
1130:the original
1125:
1115:
1103:. Retrieved
1097:. BBC News.
1091:
1081:
1069:. Retrieved
1064:
1055:
1045:13 September
1043:. Retrieved
1029:
1021:
1015:. Retrieved
1009:
996:
984:. Retrieved
980:
971:
959:. Retrieved
948:
937:. Retrieved
925:
915:
882:
844:
836:
816:
775:
771:
744:. Retrieved
737:FDA Consumer
736:
676:
672:
662:
633:
589:
579:
549:
542:dark chapter
541:
537:
536:describing “
524:
508:
499:
474:
446:
430:
422:
399:
366:
355:
353:
349:
296:West Germany
292:East Germany
289:
272:class action
269:
239:
230:
221:
206:
203:
178:
162:
137:Nazi Germany
125:World War II
114:
80:
71:
59:
2564:Drug safety
2496:Knightley P
2286:27 December
1972:Mekdeci B.
1829:28 November
1758:24 February
1574:14 February
1543:14 February
1517:14 February
1328:30 December
1094:News:Health
986:14 November
778:: 623–674.
746:23 December
546:Mark Butler
314:Erich Mende
153:Otto Ambros
62:thalidomide
21:thalidomide
2553:Categories
2176:Daily News
2157:2023-11-13
2133:2023-11-13
2001:2 December
1957:2 December
1778:Toxicology
1382:The Lancet
1248:ABC.net.au
1184:"About Us"
1136:2009-05-01
1071:14 January
1017:2010-03-21
957:. Newsweek
939:2020-03-23
654:References
611:phocomelia
598:Josée Lake
580:Born Freak
576:Mat Fraser
478:phocomelia
437:phocomelia
280:settlement
198:Roehampton
78:trade name
76:under the
67:phocomelia
32:Phocomelia
1930:208789946
1856:(2): 40.
1471:12 August
981:Drugs.com
961:25 August
934:0362-4331
695:1542-9768
623:Alvin Law
548:saying “
81:Contergan
2502:(1979).
2422:10325794
2105:BBC News
1922:15172781
1862:11444250
1806:12909394
1734:14076167
1656:Archived
1640:Archived
1491:ABC News
1437:14288814
1402:14288814
1296:BBC News
1193:21 April
1162:Archived
1158:BBC News
1099:Archived
1065:BBC News
1002:Zimmer C
713:26043938
638:(U.S.),
540:” as a “
482:dysmelia
449:Austrian
304:Bayreuth
300:dysmelia
265:Debendox
200:, London
97:sedative
2579:Leprosy
2500:Evans H
2413:1720896
2182:6 March
2128:Reuters
2063:July 5,
1786:Bibcode
1725:1921912
1653:Alt URL
1646:June 6,
1602:June 6,
1168:26 July
794:1808819
785:1298636
739:. U.S.
704:4737249
515:
511:
488:, bone
471:, Wales
469:Cardiff
443:Austria
286:Germany
246:midwife
168:at the
85:anxiety
2514:
2484:
2420:
2410:
2371:6 June
2341:6 June
2316:6 June
2260:6 June
2237:6 June
2233:. IMDB
1928:
1920:
1902:Lancet
1860:
1804:
1732:
1722:
1686:
1462:
1435:
1400:
1260:Anon.
932:
903:
857:
824:
792:
782:
711:
701:
693:
486:amelia
346:Canada
323:crimes
217:Diageo
151:, and
2450:(PDF)
2439:(PDF)
2209:(3).
1926:S2CID
1678:[
1369:: 49.
1302:1 May
1298:. BBC
1272:1 May
1226:8 May
1105:1 May
227:Spain
2512:ISBN
2482:ISBN
2418:PMID
2373:2013
2343:2013
2318:2013
2288:2015
2262:2013
2239:2013
2184:2017
2065:2023
2003:2017
1959:2017
1918:PMID
1858:PMID
1831:2016
1802:PMID
1760:2010
1730:PMID
1684:ISBN
1648:2013
1604:2013
1576:2017
1545:2017
1519:2017
1473:2015
1460:ISBN
1433:PMID
1398:PMID
1330:2012
1304:2009
1274:2009
1228:2015
1195:2020
1170:2011
1107:2009
1092:BBC
1073:2010
1047:2015
988:2019
963:2021
930:ISSN
901:ISBN
855:ISBN
822:ISBN
790:PMID
748:2009
709:PMID
691:ISSN
311:whip
117:Ciba
2408:PMC
2400:doi
2211:doi
2058:ORF
1910:doi
1906:363
1794:doi
1782:190
1720:PMC
1636:104
1425:doi
1390:doi
1386:280
1039:BBC
893:doi
889:682
851:367
780:PMC
699:PMC
681:doi
677:105
607:MBE
308:FDP
290:In
2555::
2510:.
2498:,
2480:.
2476:.
2441:.
2416:.
2406:.
2396:80
2394:.
2390:.
2359:.
2334:.
2304:.
2279:.
2207:25
2205:.
2201:.
2174:.
2150:.
2126:.
2103:.
2081:.
2038:.
2020:.
1994:.
1950:.
1938:^
1924:.
1916:.
1904:.
1900:.
1888:^
1854:35
1852:.
1848:.
1824:W5
1822:.
1800:.
1792:.
1780:.
1768:^
1728:.
1716:89
1714:.
1710:.
1698:^
1666:^
1612:^
1565:.
1536:.
1508:.
1489:.
1454:.
1431:.
1419:.
1396:.
1384:.
1365:.
1294:.
1282:^
1264:.
1236:^
1212:.
1186:.
1156:.
1145:^
1124:.
1090:.
1063:.
1037:.
1020:.
1008:.
979:.
928:.
924:.
899:.
891:.
869:^
853:.
802:^
788:.
776:81
774:.
770:.
756:^
735:.
721:^
707:.
697:.
689:.
675:.
671:.
552:”
503:DM
484:,
480:,
372:.
357:W5
87:,
2520:.
2490:.
2424:.
2402::
2375:.
2345:.
2320:.
2290:.
2264:.
2241:.
2219:.
2213::
2186:.
2160:.
2136:.
2067:.
2024:.
2005:.
1961:.
1932:.
1912::
1864:.
1833:.
1808:.
1796::
1788::
1762:.
1736:.
1692:.
1650:.
1606:.
1578:.
1547:.
1521:.
1475:.
1439:.
1427::
1421:7
1404:.
1392::
1367:1
1332:.
1306:.
1276:.
1230:.
1197:.
1172:.
1139:.
1109:.
1075:.
1049:.
990:.
965:.
942:.
909:.
895::
863:.
830:.
796:.
750:.
715:.
683::
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
