History of the telephone in the United States

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telephone from regular customers. As upscale families moved out of inner city apartments to single-family dwellings, travel became more of a problem. Upscale households bought automobiles after 1910, but few housewives were drivers. The telephone solved the separation problem and made socializing with family and friends much easier and more frequent. The informal telephone increasingly replaced the formal visit. Michele Martin argues that in rural areas in the North, independent telephone companies created party line systems with relaxed usage rules and lower rates, making phones accessible to most homes. These communities were tightly knit socially despite being geographically dispersed. These factors led to the development of unique telephone norms in rural areas. For example, listening to others' conversations on party lines was not considered eavesdropping but rather a way to participate in community life. Rural party lines were often used for organizing church activities and conducting business among farmers. These unexpected uses of the telephone by women influenced telephone companies to recognize its value beyond business, leading to the development of a "telephone culture." Overall, the telephone's impact on society was complex and influenced by various factors, including gender, location, and social norms.

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401 drug stores, 363 liquor stores, 315 livery stables, 162 metal-working plants, 146 lawyers, 126 contractors, 100 printing shops, and so on. In addition there were 1442 residential subscribers, mostly doctors and business owners. The telephone made it much easier for businesses to communicate with customers, suppliers, and other companies, as long as no written record was needed such as telegrams and the mail provided. Telephones allowed for quick and efficient communication, making it possible to make deals, place orders, follow up on delivery times, and handle customer service inquiries in a timely manner. The telephone allowed businesses to take orders, which could then be fulfilled and shipped to customers. It was adopted soonest when speed was critical, as in for doctors and hospitals. The telephone also made it possible for different departments inside a company to communicate with each other more efficiently, improving coordination and workflow. For example, a sales team working in the downtown office district could call the factory located on the outskirts of the city regarding the status of a particular order.

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retained ownership. It always installed (and removed) the telephones it owned. Only nine cities were left in the United States with populations over 10,000 that did not yet have a telephone exchange. The young company spent heavily on lawsuits over patents, which it usually won. It reported profits of over US$ 500,000 in 1881 and nearly US$ 1 million in 1882 (equivalent to $ 30 million in 2023). Typical charges for businesses were US$ 150 for a thousand messages (equivalent to $ 4,736 in 2023). Pay stations were being set up around the business district, charging 15 cents per call (equivalent to $ 5.49 in 2023). American Bell would send a team to make a pitch to business leaders in a city about starting a branch. They had advantages: Bell's national prestige guaranteed an attentive audience. Bell would provide the expertise and equipment. it manufactured the gear and sold only to affiliates. A Bell setup meant good local service and the very good long-distance service, which was otherwise unavailable in that city.

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smaller regional firms. To maintain dominance, AT&T concentrated on creating a nationwide telephone system that provided good technology and the widest possible long-distance service. A key invention that would leave the competition far behind, would be a repeater device to allow coast-to-coast telephone transmission. This research became even more pressing when the engineers realized that the device would also be pivotal for radio development, which had the potential to render wired communication obsolete. The vacuum tube was the critical device. AT&T did not invent it but did purchase the patent and then significantly improved it. AT&T continued research to reinforce its existing telephone system. The research philosophy, according to

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32 million from local calls and $ 12 million from long-distance calls. The net income was $ 13.4 million. The payroll comprised 37,000 employees. By 1920, assets were $ 1.4 billion; local revenue was $ 301 million; long-distance revenue was $ 142 million; profit was $ 48 million, and there were 231,000 employees. By 1950, assets had climbed to $ 10.3 billion; local call revenue was $ 2.0 billion and toll revenue was $ 1.2 billion, with a profit of $ 367 million, and 535,000 employees. Inflation measured by the price index was 24.3 in 1900, 65.4 in 1920, and 80.2 in 1950, For the year 1927, the number of calls in the U.S. was 29 billion, or 5.4 calls per telephone per day.

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who manually connected calls by plugging and unplugging cords on the switchboard. The role of the switchboard and operator was important because they were responsible for connecting callers with the correct party and ensuring that calls were completed correctly. They handled emergency calls for medical, police or fire help. They also provided help with making long-distance calls, directory assistance, and getting needed repairs. Dial telephones replaced the operators. They were invented in the 1930s but took decades to become standard. New Hampshire switched to dials town by town starting in the largest city in 1950 and finishing in a remote village in 1973.

132: 598:—recorded sales pitches programmed to be played over the telephone by automatic dialing. Many people complain about nuisance robocalls. Telemarketers based outside the U.S. can ignore "Do Not Call" lists. Telemarketing techniques are increasingly used in political campaigns. Because of First Amendment free-speech protestions, state laws governing political telephone calls are much less stringent than those applying to commercial messages. Even so, a number of states have barred or restricted political robocalls. Get Out the Vote Campaigns (GOTV) calls are an effective way to spend money in 21st century election campaigns. 396:, in the early 1920s. It was a prestigious job for ambitious young middle class woman in a small logging town who needed money for college. The role demanded quick decision-making, meticulous attention to detail, a very good memory for names, and the ability to handle criticism. Switchboard technology was a demanding task, involving numerous plugs, keys, lights, connecting cords, and complicated protocols for establishing connections. The full-time operators were on duty 56 hours per week, and while they often grumbled about being overworked by a harsh boss, Johnson says they were reasonably compensated at $ 50 a month. 360: 444:(EEOC) to challenge the long-standing policy of not promoting women. AT&T had 700,000 employees and was one of the most important companies in the nation. EEOC now seized the opportunity and intervened in the rate request. It alleged that AT&T was using the rate hike to offset the inefficiencies stemming from its discriminatory practices. The FCC now launched an inquiry into these allegations, and the EEOC, equipped with enforcement powers, conducted hearings on AT&T's employment practices. As a result, AT&T was found guilty of violating 339:, a mobile operating system developed by Google, was introduced in 2008 and quickly became the most popular operating system for non-Apple smartphones. The new rivals demolished BlackBerry and Nokia sales. Since then, smartphones have continued to evolve, with advancements in technology and major producers based in South Korea and China. Today, billions of people around the world rely on smartphones for communication, entertainment, and productivity. In India, they have replaced currency, checks and credit cards. During the 419:

controlled by society, but rather played an active role in regulating it and shaping the lives of their clients and themselves. The female protagonists in these stories were motivated by their curiosity and empathy, and valued human connections over automated ones. By utilizing the switchboard's power, they aimed to achieve their own ideals of societal betterment. These stories reflect a deep admiration for strong female leads and a preference for human ingenuity and decision-making over machine efficiency.

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things that were described by the vanished word 'ladylike'--calm, gracious, diffident, never profane." The managers observed that women were generally more courteous to callers, and women's labor was cheaper as women were paid from one half to one quarter of a man's salary. In the United States, any switchboard operator employed by an independently owned public telephone company which had not more than seven hundred and fifty stations was excluded from the

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frequent targets were those who were divorced or separated, young women, and those in major urban areas. Most calls came at night when they were home alone. The callers were generally unknown adult men. Few reported these calls to the police or telephone company, and even then, they often did not receive adequate assistance. Emotionally, most women reported that these calls had affected them, with fear being the most commonly reported response.

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the most efficient workers. Starting in 1924 it brought in the National Research Council to run experiments that used test rooms to measure the effects of brighter or dimmer overhead lighting. Brighter and dimmer lights both improved productivity, but productivity fell when the experiment stopped. The conclusion was that being part of an experiment increased productivity temporarily. Management now brought in Harvard Business School Professor

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company faced growing public scrutiny in the 1920s over reports of health problems, specifically nervous disorders, resulting from the stress of operating the switchboard. AT&T then launched new preventive programs. These included in-house courses such as the "General Health Course" and "Design for Living Course," as well as company-owned rest homes. These programs were well received by the public and the employees.

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exhibited great caution and hesitancy in adopting the new Bell dial telephone system. They cited multiple reasons involving societal, cultural, economic, technical, and labor concerns. One key reason was their awareness that telephone users were pleased that the switchboard operators acted as personal assistants, and this supposed role helped increase demand across all segments of the working population.

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of suburbs and the separation of homes and businesses, but also became a reason for the separation between women occupying the private sphere and men in the public sphere. Both historically and currently, women are predominantly responsible for the telephone calls that bridge the public and private sphere, such as calls regarding doctor's appointments and meetings.

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potential threat to established race, class, and gender relationships. To counter such sentiments, AT&T launched a major advertising campaign, endorsing national commercial integration through telephony as a constructive measure. The campaign aimed to mitigate sectional political conflicts while leaving social divisions of race and class unaffected. Since the

4930: 2867: 1977: 664:. Their stories conveyed significant apprehensions about very well-organized criminals. They often had a specific focus on the perils of telephone or telegraph technology and the new danger it enables called "action at a distance," when they wielded power across vast distances. These novels were inspired by the writings of 400:

accommodate this labor force, rather than replacing them with automatic switches. Ultimately, the decision to automate was driven by the success of this strategy in establishing a national network that had become too extensive and intricate to be handled manually. The final decision was not based on cost considerations.

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that were owned by the users who leased the telephones. When the Great Depression hit after 1929 rural farmers were especially likely to discontinue the telephone. In 1949 most farms in the North, but few in the South, had electricity. Nationally only one in three had a telephone. Starting that year, the

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Historian John Brooks argues that the telephone created "a new habit of mind—a habit of tenseness and alertness, of demanding and expecting immediate results, whether in business, love or other forms of social intercourse." The telephone was instrumental to modernization. It aided in the development

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who brought in a team of psychologists who interviewed workers in depth to see how social relations affected productivity. Did workers became more productive when supervisors were more informal and friendly, or when they were more strict? Mayo concluded that a happy workplace and higher productivity

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Initially telephone companies had designed their product with a primary focus on emergency situations and business needs. They ignored its potential for social interaction. Vail recognized the importance of educating the public about the social opportunities created by the telephone. To achieve this,

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Men and women use telephones in different manner. For example, women tend to use their telephones more for social interaction and maintaining relationships with friends and family, while men use telephones more for work-related purposes and entertainment. Today there are differences in the types of

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The telephone had a significant impact on American business in the early 20th century, transforming the way that companies conducted their operations and interacted with customers. In 1891 the Long Island, New York, phone company counted its 7322 commercial subscribers: 937 physicians and hospitals,

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hit the industry hard, as telephone service was easy to discontinue when family income dropped. The Bell System found payrolls were the easiest place to save money, and its work force plunged 40% from 1929 to 1933. By 1930 the Bell System had converted a third of its telephones to dials, and dropped

448:, which prohibited sex discrimination in employment. A series of consent decrees were enacted between 1973 and 1979, mandating that AT&T establish affirmative action and upgrade and transfer programs, and provide back pay to individuals who were previously denied promotions due to their gender. 385:

with telephone switchboards and operators played a crucial role in connecting telephone calls. A telephone switchboard is a device that allows telephone lines to be interconnected, enabling the routing of calls between different telephones or telephone networks. The switchboard operator was a person

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in 1877. The American Bell Telephone Company formed the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) subsidiary in 1885. Its role was long-distance service. In 1899, AT&T became the parent company after the American Bell Telephone Company sold its assets to its subsidiary. After AT&T

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in 2001 a similar genre has appeared called "cyber-doom scenarios." These fictional stories depict the aftermath of cyberattacks, which often result in the widespread breakdown of vital infrastructures, causing severe economic damage or even complete societal, economic, or civilizational collapse.

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prison. They have hijacked a western railroad's telegraph system and are using it to commit train robberies. A scholarly analysis of these novels reveals that these fears represented a broader concern about the economic and cultural unification of America's regions. This consolidation was seen as a

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While many of the functions of the switchboard and operator have been automated, telephone operators still play a role in some contexts, such as in emergency services or customer support centers. Thus according to a 1995 study, the operators who provide directory assistance, "serve as experts in a

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and replaced by a system of competitors. Originally targeted at business users and upscale families, by the 1920s the "phone" became widely popular in the general population. Ordinary people either subscribed to telephone service themselves, or used a telephone in the neighborhood, including public

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Western Electric's Hawthorne plant near Chicago was the scene of famous studies into worker behavior. AT&T had a deep commitment to research, and now became innovative in applying research methodology to personnel problems. AT&T wanted the technically best best products, but it also wanted

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According to Kenneth Lipartito, AT&T had the option of reducing costs by replacing women operators but waited twenty years before actually doing so. Senior management had recognized the importance of women operators to their competitive advantage and had chosen to modify existing technology to

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By 2000 most of the 111 million cell phone subscribers talked on them while driving. Many local and state jurisdictions considered bans. The industry claimed cell phones are no more dangerous than listening to car radios. Furthermore, they argued that increased productivity and their necessity in

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decentralized, locally owned and locally oriented telephone networks that offered cheaper but mediocre quality service to a small towns and rural areas, and did not provide long distance. By 1912 there were 3200 rural telephone systems, reaching 6000 in 1927. Most were not-for-profit cooperatives

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in 1925. Research often led to opportunities for increased automation. In particular, the proposed dial telephones would sharply reduce payroll expenses. Company executives were worried about the negative effects of depersonalization and the possibility of labor strikes. Vail and his inner circle

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Telephone Operators' Department for better wages and working conditions. In the 1919 strike, after five days, Postmaster General Burleson agreed to negotiate an agreement between the union and the telephone company, resulting in an increase in pay for the operators and recognition of the right to

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In the 1880s, when telephone switchboards were introduced, the task of connecting subscribers was initially assigned to teenage boys. However, their unruly conduct, defiance of authority, and impolite demeanor towards customers resulted in their replacement by women, who were considered, "all the

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subsidiary founded in 1869. Large local businesses and upscale customers were the first target, in an era when a dollar a day was good pay for a worker. In one of the first newspaper ads for the new telephone, the Bell Telephone Association stated: "The terms for leasing two telephones for social

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Historian Leonard S. Reich (1985) argues that in the early 1900s, AT&T and other companies established research labs as a defensive measure against competitors threatening their core businesses. Despite AT&T's very large investment in its telephone system, it faced fierce competition from

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started in the late 1960s for people with dial telephones to quickly and easily obtain emergency services. Until then people had to find the number for a nearby police or fire station or hospital, and speak directly to someone who might not be prepared to handle emergencies. By 1979 about 800

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Operators were rule-followers, but according to April Middeljans, in drama, film, and magazines, they were often portrayed as rule-breaking rebels who challenged societal norms. Through disaster tales, detective stories, and romantic comedies, fiction writers suggest that operators were not just

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The technology steadily advanced. Starting around the turn of the century, the dial telephone allowed users to place calls themselves without operator assistance. By mid-century, mobile radio telephone service became available to free users from fixed locations in some cities. The arrival of the

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Brooks notes that during the social unrest of the late 1960s there was a sharply increased rate of abusive, obscene, and threatening calls. According to Michael D. Smith and Norman N. Morra, a 1992 Canadian nationwide survey of women found that 83% had received lewd or menacing calls. The most

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As upscale households acquired the first residential telephones starting in the late 19th century, the wife at home all day found new uses. It was available for emergencies, but those calls were infrequent. Daily shopping was a priority. Most stores delivered, and now they could take orders by

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According to Jill E. Cooper, AT&T in 1913 responded to growing criticism of the working conditions for its switchboard operators. It implemented an employee benefit plan, which was managed by a medical department and provided benefits for sickness, disability, and a retirement pension. The

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During most of the 20th century, due to federal agreements, AT&T maintained a monopoly on telephone service in the United States. It was usually the largest company in the U.S. in terms of assets. In 1900, the Bell system plant was valued at $ 181 million; operating revenue included $

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in 1913 was the resulting compromise with the federal government to prevent legal action by the government. In return for the government's agreement not to pursue a case against the company as a monopolist, AT&T agreed to divest the controlling interest it had acquired in the Western Union

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of the newly renamed American Bell Telephone Company issued the first annual report indicating that the 1880 profits were over US$ 200,000 (equivalent to $ 6,314,000 in 2023), and it now operated 133,692 telephones. It set a policy that it leased telephones to customers (by the month) and

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to manufacture telephone equipment and supplies exclusively. It invested in local exchanges throughout the country which led to standardization and more business for Western Electric. This dramatic transformation was primarily due to the backing of New England financiers, who not only supplied

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According to historian Robert W Garnet, in the six years after Bell's invention of the telephone in 1876, his new company managed to increase its capital from a small amount to US$ 10 million (equivalent to $ 320 million in 2023). Furthermore, the company struck a deal with

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local 9-1-1 systems were operational. In terms of population coverage, by 1979, 26% of the U.S. population could dial the number. This increased to 50% by 1987, 93% by 2000; as of March 2022, 98.9% had access. The cost is paid by a fee on the monthly bill of telephone subscribers.

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In 1890 1% of U.S. households owned at least one telephone while a majority did by 1946 and 75 percent did by 1957. In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone. In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning a smartphone.

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pay telephones. Long-distance service was metered and much more expensive than local, flat-rate calling. Ordinary Americans contacted businesses, friends, and relatives. Business-to-business communication was important, and increasingly displaced telegrams.

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introduced their innovative models. BlackBerry was particularly successful in the business market, thanks to its emphasis on email-by-phone. Meanwhile, Nokia was popular among consumers due to its user-friendly interface and attractive design. In 2007,

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emergencies outweigh the safety factor. By 2015 most states prohibited drivers from texting and talking on handheld cell phones. They cut usage about in half but did not reduce traffic accidents because only the careful drivers stopped using phones.

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Ward, Robert C. "The chaos of convergence: A study of the process of decay, change, and transformation within the telephone policy subsystem of the United States" (PhD dissertation, . Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1998)

185:, the research director, centered around science's usefulness in the systematic advancement of electrical communication. The vacuum tube thus played a critical role in the company's success in both telephone and radio industries. 593:

in which a salesperson solicits prospective customers to buy products, subscriptions or services, either by telephone call or through a subsequent face to face appointment scheduled during the call. Telemarketing can also include

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variety of domains of relevance to their customers' lives, helping them to navigate through government agencies, complex business hierarchies, partially remembered geographies, and dynamic changes in their customers' worlds."

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resulted when supervisors treated workers like patients, to discover their grievances and treating their problems with diplomacy and tact, while maintaining the upper hand. However another researcher, anthropologist

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Tarullo, Patsy Ronald. "American Telephone and Telegraph company: survey of its development through basic strategy and structure" ( PhD dissertation, University of Pittsburgh ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,

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Rakow, Lana Fay. "Gender, communication, and technology: A case study of women and the telephone (PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1987. 8711857.

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to approve AT&T purchases of other telephone companies. AT&T took quick advantage and by 1930, 80% of the nation's telephones were owned by AT&T, and 98% of the remainder connected to its network.

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he hired J. D. Ellsworth to create a nationwide advertising campaign. By the 1930s, telephone companies were promoting this aspect of their service with the slogan, "Reach out, reach out and touch someone!".

237:. By 2000 there were 2 million public pay telephone. Only 300,000 pay telephones remained in service by 2014, with the largest concentration in New York City, and they were nearly all gone by 2020. 1369:

Jill V. Klosky, et al. "Effects of Remote Education During the COVID‐19 Pandemic on Young Children's Learning and Academic Behavior in Georgia: Perceptions of Parents and School Administrators."

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and exaggerated the dangers associated with electronic technology. One plot for example tells of "The Wire Devils," a nefarious team of technically sophisticated thieves, all former inmates of

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Bjørn Olsson, et al. "Evaluating the impact of penalizing the use of mobile phones while driving on road traffic fatalities, serious injuries and mobile phone use: a systematic review."

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in 1917–1919. They were bilingual female switchboard operators sent to France in the World War I. These 223 women were not formally recognized for their military service until 1978.

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Moyer, Judith N. "Number, please: New Hampshire telephone operators in the predial era, 1877–1973" (PhD dissertation,. University of New Hampshire, 2000); based on oral histories;

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argued the experiments proved something different: supervisors must understand the culture of the shop floor, and create incentive systems that are congruent with that culture.

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apps and features that men and women use on their telephones. Women use social media apps more frequently than men, while men are more likely to use gaming or sports apps.

212:(1925–1948) gave heavy emphasis and large budgets to advanced engineering innovation. This was shown by the upgrading of the Western Electric Engineering Department to the 1356:

Enrico Battisti, et al. "Remote working and digital transformation during the COVID-19 pandemic: Economic–financial impacts and psychological drivers for employees."

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is the contacting, qualifying, and canvassing of prospective customers using telecommunications devices such as telephone and Internet. Telemarketing is a method of

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Switchboards and operators were an integral part of the telecommunications system until the introduction of electronic switching systems in the mid-20th century.

3688: 277:(RBOCs), commonly referred to as "Baby Bells", resulting in seven independent companies. Critics were divided on whether the decision was good for the economy. 56:

in the early 21st century provided every user a small mobile computer with microphone and speaker, that was bundled with powerful features, such as cameras and

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Judith N. Moyer, "Number, please: New Hampshire telephone operators in the predial era, 1877–1973" (PhD dissertation,. University of New Hampshire, 2000)

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Steven D. Levitt, and John A. List, "Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect at the Hawthorne Plant? An Analysis of the Original Illumination Experiments."

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purposes connecting a dwelling house with any other building will be $ 20 a year; for business purposes $ 40 a year, payable semi-annually in advance."

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telegraph company, and to allow non-competing independent telephone companies to interconnect with the AT&T long-distance network. In 1921, the

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remotely, accessing work emails, documents, spreadsheets and other important information from their phones, and meeting together on platforms like

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In the 1920s the Bell System crushed independent unions, replacing them with company unions that did not negotiate contracts. After 1929, the

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Peoples, James, and Rhoda Robinson. "Market structure and racial and gender discrimination: Evidence from the telecommunication industry."

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Juha-Antti Lamberg, et al., "The curse of agility: The Nokia Corporation and the loss of market dominance in mobile phones, 2003–2013."

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Sean Lawson, "Beyond Cyber-Doom: Cyberattack Scenarios and the Evidence of History" (Mercatus Center, George Mason University, 2011),

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The iPhone's touch screen interface, sleek design, and extensive app store quickly made it the most popular smartphone on the market.

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Middeljans, April. "On the Wire with Death and Desire: The Telephone and Lovers' Discourse in the Short Stories of Dorothy Parker."

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Michael D. Smith, and Norman N. Morra. "Obscene and threatening telephone calls to women: Data from a Canadian national survey."

869: 4628: 3379: 2411: 459:, a former telephone operator, led the Telephone Operators' Strike of 1919 and the Telephone Operators' Strike of 1923 against 437: 274: 263: 2858: 4959: 4623: 4174: 3841: 3422: 971: 164: 2265: 906: 91:, the giant telegram company, preventing them from entering the telephone market. It acquired a controlling interest in the 2871: 2186: 4969: 4648: 3807: 3638: 3285: 3209: 1680:

Yeh Hsueh, "The Hawthorne experiments and the introduction of Jean Piaget and American industrial psychology, 1929–1932,"

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bargain collectively. However, the 1923 strike was called off after less than a month without achieving any of its goals.

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Mueller, Milton. "The switchboard problem: scale, signaling, and organization in manual telephone switching, 1877–1897."

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Robert MacDougall, "The wire devils: Pulp thrillers, the telephone, and action at a distance in the wiring of a nation."

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Hochfelder, David. "Constructing an Industrial Divide: Western Union, AT&T, and the Federal Government, 1876–1971,"

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Milton Mueller, "The switchboard problem: scale, signaling, and organization in manual telephone switching, 1877–1897."

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Middeljans, April. " 'Weavers of Speech': Telephone Operators as Defiant Domestics in American Literature and Culture"

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April Middeljans, " 'Weavers of Speech': Telephone Operators as Defiant Domestics in American Literature and Culture."

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AT&T as a grasping octopus taking control of the independent telephone systems in cities out West. It appeared in

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Frahm, Jill. "The Hello Girls: Women Telephone Operators with the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I"

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A Nation Transformed by Information: How Information Has Shaped the United States from Colonial Times to the Present

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Lipartito, Kenneth. "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890–1920."

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In the 1890s to 1910s, a particular type of pulp fiction, known as "wire thriller," was written by authors such as

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Betsey, Charles L. "Litigation of employment discrimination under title VII: the case of African-American women."

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Jill E. Cooper. "Keeping the girls on the line: The medical department and women workers at AT&T, 1913–1940."

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Green, Venus. "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of ‘Personal Service’ in the Bell System, 1878–1921."

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Daniel T. Kling, and Thomas Stratmann. "Large-Scale Evidence for the Effectiveness of Partisan GOTV Robo Calls."

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Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890–1920"

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MacDougall, Robert. "Long lines: AT&T's long-distance network as an organizational and political strategy."

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From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, 1830–1920

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Michael J. Muller et al. "Telephone Operators as Knowledge Workers: Consultants Who Meet Customer Needs" p. 130.

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Venus Green, "Goodbye central: Automation and the decline of 'personal service' in the Bell system, 1878–1921"

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Frissen, Valerie. "Gender is calling: Some reflections on past, present and future uses of the telephone." in

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The Anatomy of a Business Strategy: Bell, Western Electric, and the Origins of the American Telephone Industry

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Reich, Leonard S. "Industrial Research and the Pursuit of Corporate Security: The Early Years of Bell Labs"

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to construct and manage a nationwide system. Vail, for example, had been superintendent of the Post Office's

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Muller, Michael J., et al. "Telephone operators as knowledge workers: Consultants who meet customer needs."

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Your Call Is (Not That) Important to Us: Customer Service and What It Reveals About Our World and Our Lives

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Wall telephones by the National Bell Telephone Company (left) and by Gilliland and Company (right); c. 1880

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Martin, Michele. "'Rulers of the Wires'? Women's Contribution to the Structure of Means of Communication"

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91.3 (2013): 326–348, national attention focused on strike in a small city where Bolshevism was alleged.

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Stockford, 434:Federal Communications Commission 275:Regional Bell Operating Companies 4928: 4918: 4909: 4908: 4897: 4518:Free-space optical communication 3837: 3836: 3803:IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal 3399: 2997:Bell Telephone Company of Nevada 2889: 2865: 2639:Journal of communication inquiry 2614:99#4 (1994) pp. 1074–111. 1830:Science, Technology, and Society 972:"Milestones in AT&T History" 870:American Statistical Association 106:Bell Telephone Company of Canada 39:onward. In the 20th century the 3380:Regional Bell Operating Company 2794:92#4 (2001), pp. 190–202. 1763:https://doi.org/10.2307/3110600 438:National Organization for Women 163:amended Kingsbury to allow the 3118:Southern New England Telephone 2514:The gender-technology relation 1887:The gender-technology relation 1635:New York Times, April 21, 1919 1578:New York Times, April 21, 1919 1065:Willey and Rice (1933) p. 199. 165:Interstate Commerce Commission 1: 3808:Pioneers, a Volunteer Network 3639:Aerial Experiment Association 3286:Telephone Pioneers of America 3210:Advanced Mobile Phone Service 2704:(U of Illinois Press, 1990). 2658:33#3 (2010), pp. 38–63. 2342:54#4 (1980) pp. 504–529. 2325:(New York: Dodd, Mead, 1953). 2313:Theodore N. Vail: A Biography 2238:Bell System Technical Journal 1504:Technology and Women's Voices 1477:Journal of Modern Literature, 1205:17#5 (July 1993) pp. 352–369 532:Hello Central, Give Me Heaven 461:New England Telephone Company 413:American Expeditionary Forces 363:Telephone switchboard in 1922 4904:Telecommunication portal 4685:Telecommunications equipment 2656:Journal of Modern Literature 2576:58.3 (1984): 221–238 online. 2183:The history of the telephone 1777:14.1 (1987): 38–80 at p. 48. 1543:Norwood, Stephen H. 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AT&T 4644:Orbital angular-momentum 4081:Satellite communications 3920:Communications satellite 3714:Life Extension Institute 2546:36.2 (1995): S101-S144. 2460:American Economic Review 2410:(Springer Praxis, 2010) 2181:Casson, Herbert Newton. 1790:pp. 41, 130–138, 196–200 1775:Journal of Urban History 1479:33#3, (2010), pp. 38–63. 1371:Journal of School Health 1312:53.3 (2015): 1420–1436. 1130:(1995) 36#4 pp. 912–949. 1128:Technology & Culture 561:Gender and culture roles 287:History of mobile phones 4523:Molecular communication 4346:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 4175:Undersea telegraph line 3910:Cable protection system 3785:Bell Telephone Memorial 3537:Melville Bell Grosvenor 3507:Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor 3502:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 3462:Alexander Melville Bell 3292:Spirit of Communication 3281:Bell Telephone Memorial 3219:Regional Bell companies 3027:Diamond State Telephone 2860:Bell Telephone Magazine 2340:Business History Review 2321:Pier, Arthur Stanwood. 2311:Paine, Albert Bigelow. 2296:Business History Review 2245:Business History Review 2221:Business History Review 2074:See Robert MacDougall, 1761:15#6 (1941) pp. 81–86. 1684:(2002) 5#2 pp. 163–189. 1115:Business History Review 723:Private branch exchange 241:Rural telephone service 225:Urban public telephones 118:William Hathaway Forbes 4665:Communication protocol 4451:Charles Sumner Tainter 4266:Walter Houser Brattain 4211:Edwin Howard Armstrong 4019:Information revolution 3664:Bell Telephone Company 3598:Walter Seymour Allward 3527:Mabel Gardiner Hubbard 3309:Bell Telephone Company 3077:Pacific Northwest Bell 2744:Pool, Ithiel de Sola. 2717:O'Neill, William, ed. 2666:Chronicles of Oklahoma 2624:83.1 (2006): 101–115. 2544:Technology and culture 2534:Technology and Culture 2480:Technology and Culture 2437: 2305:30.3 (1989): 534–560. 2303:Technology and Culture 2091:58.3 (2006): 715–741. 1920:BusinessDictionary.com 1819:(1988) 3#2 pp 211–233. 1710:64.4 (1997): 490–508. 1387:Technology and Culture 1373:92.7 (2022): 656–664. 1344:63.4 (2021): 574–605. 1328:26.4 (2020): 378–385. 1141:Technology and Culture 1052:Bureau of the Census, 708:Party line (telephony) 648: 570: 520: 364: 210:Walter Sherman Gifford 143:Bell Telephone Company 136: 4970:AT&T subsidiaries 4960:Alexander Graham Bell 4639:Polarization-division 4371:Narinder Singh Kapany 4336:Erna Schneider Hoover 4256:Jagadish Chandra Bose 4236:Alexander Graham Bell 3967:online video platform 3472:Bell House (Virginia) 3446:Alexander Graham Bell 3406:Telephones portal 3052:New England Telephone 2896:Telephones portal 2499:5.2 (1997): 149–160. 2462:84.2 (1994): 98–102. 2435: 2366:Smith, George David. 2332:(Cambridge UP, 2002) 2298:80.2 (2006): 297–327. 2223:66.1 (1992): 95–126. 1992:18.2 (1999): 208–217. 1682:History of psychology 1656:Labor's Flaming Youth 1615:Labor's Flaming Youth 1602:Labor's Flaming Youth 1389:30.3 (1989): 534–560. 1263:3.2 (1986): 119–154. 1188:58.3 (1984): 221–238 1078:(Cambridge UP, 1985). 956:Brooks, John (1976). 642: 568: 515: 430:Equal Pay Act of 1963 362: 295:History of the iPhone 189:Targeting an audience 147:Alexander Graham Bell 134: 37:Alexander Graham Bell 4481:Vladimir K. Zworykin 4441:Almon Brown Strowger 4411:Charles Grafton Page 4066:Prepaid mobile phone 3994:Electrical telegraph 3568:Charles Williams Jr. 3512:Gilbert M. Grosvenor 2874:at Wikimedia Commons 2700:Norwood, Stephen H. 2648:62.4 (2006): 47–70. 2602:Mobile Communication 2574:Agricultural History 2509:3.3 (2004): 271–293. 2436:1913 See the lyrics. 2287:Lipartito, Kenneth. 2061:8.4 (1994): 584–596 2059:Gender & Society 1708:Pennsylvania History 1415:47.4 (1997): 68–75. 1186:Agricultural History 1117:66.1 (1992): 95–126. 999:(December 19, 2013) 830:Simon & Schuster 792:Simon & Schuster 675:September 11 attacks 647:(April 1907) p. 235. 374:Switchboard operator 156:Kingsbury Commitment 125:AT&T (1899–1982) 102:Railway Mail Service 98:Theodore Newton Vail 4431:Johann Philipp Reis 4190:Wireless revolution 4152:The Telephone Cases 4009:Hydraulic telegraph 3739:Phonograph cylinder 3102:Wisconsin Telephone 2872:Telephone operators 2780:(Rutgers UP, 1985). 2758:(1988) pp: 207–29. 2738:(MIT Press, 1977). 2526:(Routledge, 2006) 2485:Fischer, Claude S. 2482:29.1 (1988): 32–61. 2445:12 (1971): 153–167. 2317:online 1921 edition 2270:Kleinfield, Sonny. 2264:(Harvard UP, 2010) 2146:(Icon Books, 2013) 1667:Richard Gillespie, 1533:(Rutgers UP, 2004). 1516:Lois Kathryn Herr, 1506:. pp. 207–225. 1466:(Harvard UP, 2017). 1217:Robert MacDougall, 1143:29.1 (1988): 32–61. 1100:J. Warren Stehman, 903:Pew Research Center 602:Telemarketing fraud 116:In 1881, President 78:History of AT&T 4629:Frequency-division 4606:Telephone exchange 4476:Charles Wheatstone 4406:Jun-ichi Nishizawa 4381:Innocenzo Manzetti 4316:Reginald Fessenden 4051:Optical telegraphy 3884:Telecommunications 3790:Graham Bell Island 3532:Mabel H. Grosvenor 3497:Edwin S. Grosvenor 3145:Other subsidiaries 3087:South Central Bell 3062:New York Telephone 2438: 2328:Reich, Leonard S. 2284:(McFarland, 2010). 2206:(Oxford UP, 2000) 2178:(Harvard UP, 2015) 2103:Frank L. Packard. 2089:American Quarterly 2016:"9-1-1 Statistics" 1817:Sociological Forum 1360:150 (2022): 38–50. 1246:Walter Adams, ed. 1074:Leonard S. Reich, 931:(1985), pp. 48–73. 927:Robert W. Garnet, 649: 571: 521: 394:Whitefish, Montana 390:Dorothy M. Johnson 383:telephone exchange 365: 206:Harry Bates Thayer 137: 4942: 4941: 4680:Store and forward 4675:Data transmission 4589:Network switching 4540:Transmission line 4386:Guglielmo Marconi 4351:Internet pioneers 4216:Mohamed M. Atalla 4185:Whistled language 3850: 3849: 3709:Hubbard Monoplane 3684:Dictation machine 3412: 3411: 3392: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3351: 3350: 3347: 3346: 3329:Northern Electric 3239: 3238: 3235: 3234: 3135: 3134: 3131: 3130: 3097:Southwestern Bell 3082:Pacific Telephone 3067:Northwestern Bell 2970: 2969: 2966: 2965: 2870:Media related to 2776:Schacht, John N. 2630:Martin, Michele. 2349:(2018) pp: 35–66 2260:John, Richard R. 2229:Garnet, Robert W. 2164:Bruce, Robert V. 1960:16 (2009): 213+. 1902:(2000): 238–252. 1462:Elizabeth Cobbs, 1326:Injury prevention 1282:(2018) pp: 35–66 1042:. pp. 11–12. 820:Putnam, Robert D. 782:Putnam, Robert D. 504:Employee benefits 480:Hawthorne studies 463:on behalf of the 436:. Meanwhile, the 341:COVID-19 pandemic 299:From Finland the 176:Research priority 161:Willis Graham Act 16:(Redirected from 4987: 4932: 4931: 4922: 4921: 4912: 4911: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4773:Notable networks 4763:Wireless network 4703:Cellular network 4695:Types of network 4670:Computer network 4557:Network topology 4471:Thomas A. Watson 4326:Oliver Heaviside 4311:Philo Farnsworth 4286:Daniel Davis Jr. 4261:Charles Bourseul 4221:John Logie Baird 3930:Data compression 3925:Computer network 3877: 3870: 3863: 3854: 3840: 3839: 3593:Thomas A. Watson 3588:Thomas Selfridge 3578:Marcellus Bailey 3492:Graham Fairchild 3439: 3432: 3425: 3416: 3404: 3403: 3402: 3368: 3357: 3256: 3245: 3162:Western Electric 3152: 3141: 2987: 2976: 2951: 2940: 2925: 2918: 2911: 2902: 2894: 2893: 2892: 2880: 2869: 2827:Winston, Brian. 2787:(2000): 238–252. 2522:Goggin, Gerard. 2212:Danielian, N.R. 2123: 2117: 2111: 2101: 2095: 2085: 2079: 2072: 2066: 2055: 2049: 2042: 2036: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2012: 2006: 1999: 1993: 1986: 1980: 1970: 1964: 1954: 1948: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1932: 1931: 1922:. Archived from 1912: 1906: 1896: 1890: 1883: 1877: 1876: 1852: 1846: 1839: 1833: 1826: 1820: 1813: 1807: 1797: 1791: 1788:America Calling, 1784: 1778: 1771: 1765: 1755: 1749: 1742: 1736: 1729: 1723: 1720: 1714: 1704: 1698: 1691: 1685: 1678: 1672: 1665: 1659: 1652: 1646: 1645: 1643: 1642: 1637:. April 21, 1919 1632: 1624: 1618: 1611: 1605: 1598: 1589: 1588: 1586: 1585: 1580:. April 21, 1919 1575: 1567: 1561: 1560: 1540: 1534: 1527: 1521: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1499: 1493: 1486: 1480: 1473: 1467: 1460: 1454: 1451: 1445: 1438: 1432: 1425: 1419: 1409: 1403: 1396: 1390: 1383: 1377: 1367: 1361: 1354: 1348: 1342:Business History 1338: 1332: 1322: 1316: 1310:Economic Inquiry 1306: 1300: 1293: 1287: 1276: 1267: 1257: 1251: 1244: 1238: 1228: 1222: 1215: 1209: 1199: 1193: 1182: 1176: 1172:(Feb. 28, 2020) 1166: 1160: 1150: 1144: 1137: 1131: 1124: 1118: 1111: 1105: 1098: 1092: 1085: 1079: 1072: 1066: 1063: 1057: 1050: 1044: 1043: 1035: 1029: 1022: 1016: 1009: 1003: 997:Public Knowledge 993: 987: 986: 984: 983: 974:. Archived from 968: 962: 961: 953: 947: 946: 938: 932: 925: 919: 918: 916: 914: 905:. 7 April 2021. 895: 889: 888: 886: 884: 878: 872:. p. 4002. 863: 854: 848: 847: 816: 810: 809: 778: 772: 765: 759: 749: 662:Frank L. Packard 591:direct marketing 486:Hawthorne effect 473:Great Depression 305:BlackBerry Pearl 208:(1919–1925) and 195:Western Electric 60:by operation of 33:American history 21: 4995: 4994: 4990: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4945: 4944: 4943: 4938: 4898: 4896: 4888: 4830: 4767: 4689: 4653: 4610: 4559: 4551: 4492: 4485: 4391:Robert Metcalfe 4246:Tim Berners-Lee 4194: 4014:Information Age 3886: 3881: 3851: 3846: 3828: 3753: 3629:AEA Silver Dart 3602: 3551: 3547:Telephone Cases 3487:David Fairchild 3482:Chichester Bell 3454: 3448: 3443: 3413: 3408: 3400: 3398: 3384: 3362: 3343: 3297: 3250: 3231: 3214: 3198: 3182: 3166: 3146: 3127: 3123:Cincinnati Bell 3111:Partially owned 3106: 3057:New Jersey Bell 2981: 2962: 2945: 2934: 2929: 2890: 2888: 2878: 2855: 2841:Yellin, Emily. 2764:Rakow, Lana F. 2748:(Ablex, 1983). 2604:(Polity, 2009) 2586:Kern, Stephen. 2579:Herr, Kathryn. 2430: 2406:Wheen, Andrew. 2384:1976. 7703043). 2132: 2130:Further reading 2127: 2126: 2118: 2114: 2105:The Wire Devils 2102: 2098: 2086: 2082: 2073: 2069: 2056: 2052: 2043: 2039: 2029: 2027: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2000: 1996: 1987: 1983: 1971: 1967: 1955: 1951: 1942: 1938: 1929: 1927: 1914: 1913: 1909: 1897: 1893: 1884: 1880: 1873: 1854: 1853: 1849: 1840: 1836: 1827: 1823: 1814: 1810: 1798: 1794: 1785: 1781: 1772: 1768: 1756: 1752: 1746:America Calling 1743: 1739: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1705: 1701: 1692: 1688: 1679: 1675: 1666: 1662: 1653: 1649: 1640: 1638: 1630: 1626: 1625: 1621: 1612: 1608: 1599: 1592: 1583: 1581: 1573: 1569: 1568: 1564: 1557: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1528: 1524: 1515: 1511: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1487: 1483: 1474: 1470: 1461: 1457: 1452: 1448: 1439: 1435: 1426: 1422: 1410: 1406: 1397: 1393: 1384: 1380: 1368: 1364: 1355: 1351: 1339: 1335: 1323: 1319: 1307: 1303: 1294: 1290: 1277: 1270: 1258: 1254: 1245: 1241: 1229: 1225: 1216: 1212: 1200: 1196: 1183: 1179: 1167: 1163: 1151: 1147: 1138: 1134: 1125: 1121: 1112: 1108: 1099: 1095: 1086: 1082: 1073: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1051: 1047: 1037: 1036: 1032: 1023: 1019: 1013:America Calling 1010: 1006: 994: 990: 981: 979: 970: 969: 965: 955: 954: 950: 940: 939: 935: 926: 922: 912: 910: 897: 896: 892: 882: 880: 876: 861: 856: 855: 851: 844: 818: 817: 813: 806: 780: 779: 775: 766: 762: 750: 746: 741: 684: 658:Arthur Stringer 654: 633: 631:Harassing calls 620: 612:Main articles: 610: 584: 563: 554: 545: 526: 506: 488: 482: 454: 425: 376: 370: 357: 297: 285:Main articles: 283: 260: 243: 231:telephone booth 227: 191: 183:Frank B. Jewett 178: 139: 138: 127: 114: 84: 76:Main articles: 74: 58:Internet access 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4993: 4991: 4983: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4947: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4936: 4926: 4916: 4906: 4893: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4886: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4858: 4857: 4852: 4844: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4777: 4775: 4769: 4768: 4766: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4699: 4697: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4661: 4659: 4655: 4654: 4652: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4624:Space-division 4620: 4618: 4612: 4611: 4609: 4608: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4596: 4586: 4585: 4584: 4574: 4569: 4563: 4561: 4553: 4552: 4550: 4549: 4548: 4547: 4537: 4536: 4535: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4514: 4513: 4503: 4497: 4495: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4461:Camille Tissot 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4436:Claude Shannon 4433: 4428: 4426:Tivadar Puskás 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4396:Antonio Meucci 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4366:Charles K. Kao 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4341:Harold Hopkins 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4241:Emile Berliner 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4202: 4200: 4196: 4195: 4193: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4180:Videotelephony 4177: 4172: 4171: 4170: 4165: 4155: 4148: 4143: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4095: 4094: 4093: 4083: 4078: 4076:Radiotelephone 4073: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4042: 4041: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3980: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3962:Internet video 3954: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3896: 3894: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3880: 3879: 3872: 3865: 3857: 3848: 3847: 3845: 3844: 3833: 3830: 3829: 3827: 3826: 3818: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3761: 3759: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3634:AEA White Wing 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3583:Thomas Cowherd 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3563:Anthony Pollok 3559: 3557: 3553: 3552: 3550: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3477:Bras d'Or Lake 3474: 3469: 3464: 3458: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3434: 3427: 3419: 3410: 3409: 3397: 3394: 3393: 3390: 3389: 3386: 3385: 3383: 3382: 3377: 3371: 3364: 3363: 3361:Related topics 3360: 3353: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3305: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3296: 3295: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3262: 3260: 3252: 3251: 3248: 3241: 3240: 3237: 3236: 3233: 3232: 3230: 3229: 3222: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3212: 3206: 3204: 3200: 3199: 3197: 3196: 3190: 3188: 3184: 3183: 3181: 3180: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3164: 3158: 3156: 3148: 3147: 3144: 3137: 3136: 3133: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3126: 3125: 3120: 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2131: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2112: 2096: 2080: 2067: 2050: 2046:The Telephone, 2037: 2007: 1994: 1981: 1976:(2022): 1–13. 1965: 1949: 1936: 1907: 1891: 1878: 1872:978-0710206794 1871: 1847: 1843:The Telephone, 1834: 1821: 1808: 1792: 1779: 1766: 1750: 1737: 1733:Network Nation 1724: 1715: 1699: 1686: 1673: 1660: 1658:(1990) p. 307. 1647: 1619: 1606: 1604:, pp. 262–291. 1590: 1562: 1555: 1535: 1522: 1509: 1494: 1492:(1976), p. 66. 1481: 1468: 1455: 1446: 1433: 1420: 1404: 1391: 1378: 1362: 1349: 1333: 1317: 1301: 1288: 1268: 1252: 1239: 1223: 1210: 1194: 1177: 1161: 1145: 1132: 1119: 1106: 1093: 1080: 1067: 1058: 1045: 1030: 1017: 1004: 988: 963: 948: 933: 920: 890: 866:Alexandria, VA 849: 843:978-0684832838 842: 811: 805:978-0684832838 804: 773: 771:(2018): 35–66. 760: 743: 742: 740: 737: 736: 735: 730: 725: 720: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 683: 680: 653: 652:Literary fears 650: 632: 629: 609: 606: 583: 580: 562: 559: 553: 550: 544: 541: 525: 522: 505: 502: 484:Main article: 481: 478: 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