1858:
594:
542:
423:, an important historiography of Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–1269, says that the Manichaeans worshipped the "white Buddha" and their leader wore a violet headgear, while the followers wore white costumes. Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song government and were eventually quelled. After that, all governments were suppressive against Manichaeism and its followers and the religion was banned by the
32:
612:
phrase, universally seen in China's
Buddhist temples, an inscription on a stone in the courtyard dated 1445 urges the faithful to remember "Purity (清净), Light (光明), Power (大力), and Wisdom (智慧)", which are the four attributes of the Father of Light, one of the chief figures of the Manichaean pantheon.
319:
Listen to my painful words and lead me out of the sea of poisonous fire. I wish to give the fragrant water of liberation, the twelve jeweled crowns and the drapes. To cleanse me from the dust of my wonderful nature, and to adorn my pure body to make it upright. May I be rid of the three winters and
253:
Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a
Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect") and lay followers (the "hearers") who supported
325:
monsters and devils. Send down the great Dharma medicine for speedy healing, and silence the divine incantation to drive away the spirits. I have been subjected to so many obstacles and countless other hardships. In view of this, the great sage should forgive me and save me from all the disasters.
307:
After
Manichaeism was introduced into China, because the image of Jesus was quite unfamiliar to Chinese culture, missionaries combined it with Buddhist culture, called Jesus Buddha, and gave him a model of great mercy and relief. Buddhist image. Therefore, believers wrote in the following excerpt
324:
spring glorify my nature, and let the trees of nature and flowers flourish. May the great waves of fire and the dark clouds and fogs be quenched. Let the great dharma day shine brightly, so that my mind may always be pure. May I be relieved of the disease of dumbness and blindness, and of the
582:
of the Buddha. Instead of being curly-haired and clean-shaven, as most other Buddha statues, this Buddha of Light is depicted having straight hair draped over his shoulders, and sporting a beard. The facial features of the prophet (arched eyebrows, fleshy jowls) are somewhat different from a
774:
369:
Following the introduction of
Manichaeism to China, Manichaeans in China adopted a syncretic, sinified vocabulary borrowed primarily from Chinese Buddhism. Between 9th and 14th-centuries, following centuries of pressure to assimilate and persecution by successive Chinese dynasties, Chinese
382:, practicing together so closely alongside the Mahayana Buddhists that over the years Manichaeism came to be absorbed into the Pure Land school making the two traditions indistinguishable. Through this close interaction, Manichaeism had profound influence on Chinese
583:
traditional
Chinese stone Buddha as well. It is even said that the stone Mani the Buddha of Light used to have a mustache or sideburns, but they were removed by a 20th-century Buddhist monk, trying to make the statue more like a traditional Buddha.
503:
civil authorities of the Song state, when the clandestine cells of Mani's followers came to their attention, they were usually lumped together with assorted other suspicious and potentially troublesome sects as "vegetarian demon worshipers"
520:. This temple - one of the northernmost known Manichaean sites of the Song era - was established in the 960s, and was still active - in a more standard Taoist way, but with a memory of Manichaeism retained - in the 1260s.
515:
Not surprisingly, such
Manichaean temples that were erected in Song China usually had an official Buddhist or Taoist affiliation. There are records, for example, of a Manichaean temple in Taoist disguise at
266:
and Marvin Meyer, evidence of the influence of
Buddhist thought on the teachings of Mani can be found throughout texts related to Mani. In the story of the death of Mani, the Buddhist term nirvana is used:
1419:
1371:
188:, Manichaeism lost its support. The Manichaeans were hostile to the closed society of farming and landownership, just like the Buddhism conflicted with the "non-urban world controlled by
613:
These four words (eight
Chinese characters) were apparently an important motto of Chinese Manichaeism; it is described as such in an anti-Manichean work by the Fujianese Taoist
184:, Manichaeism representing "the same urban and mercantile ambience of which Buddhism was an expression in India." When the mercantile economy declined due to the decline of the
843:
1088:
Augustine and
Manichaean Christianity: Selected Papers from the First South African Conference on Augustine of Hippo, University of Pretoria, 24–26 April 2012
560:
stands as a vivid example the subsumption of
Manichaeism into Buddhism, as a statue of the "Buddha of Light" is thought to be a representation of the prophet
2507:
1798:
1416:
1368:
2535:
442:. Those Manichaeans practiced their rituals so closely alongside the Mahayana Buddhists that over the years the two sects became indistinguishable.
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
241:
were incomplete, and that his revelations were for the entire world, calling his teachings the "Religion of Light". Following Mani's travels to the
2593:
2523:
333:
2455:
579:
2517:
2512:
1535:
1513:
1193:
853:
814:
787:
586:
Instead of looking down, as Buddha statues usually do, the Mani statue looks straight at the worshipers. Instead of being held in a typical
605:
In order to give the statue an overall luminous impression, the sculptor carved its head, body, and hands from stones of different hues.
578:
While the statue may look like any other Buddha to a casual observer, experts note a number of peculiarities which distinguish it from a
1990:
1890:
2194:
2448:
2008:
1646:
38:
527:
there is also a strong veneration of the Sun and the Moon, which are often called the Sunlight Buddha and Moonlight Buddha by locals
172:
noted similarities in the symbolism of light and mystic knowledge, predating Manichaeism, and possibly going back to an early common
1224:
1162:
1095:
2179:
2067:
2047:
1791:
2494:
2542:
1874:
1626:
1599:
309:
176:. Mani considered himself to be a reincarnation of Buddha. He also claimed that he was preaching the same message of Buddha.
776:
Mani's Pictures: The Didactic Images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China
495:"Scripture of the Conversion of the Barbarians", popular with Chinese Manichaeans, declared Mani to be a reincarnation of
2204:
2255:
2015:
666:
394:
1784:
1154:
124:
was unfamiliar to a Chinese audience so Buddha was used as a substitute. It does not imply a belief in enlightenment.
2389:
117:
were incomplete, and that his revelations were for the entire world, calling his teachings the "Religion of Light".
2564:
2052:
1886:
1837:
677:. Power was decentralised in India, and Buddhism lost its support from royal courts, being replaced by Brahmanical
674:
196:
94:
50:
597:
Restored inscription urging the faithful to remember "Purity (清净), Light (光明), Power (大力), and Wisdom (智慧)", and "
2327:
1975:
453:. Chinese translations of Manichaean treatises are couched in Buddhist phraseology, and the religion's founder (
2157:
296:
The pure devout must sit down in pious meditation and he should turn away from sin and increase what is pious.
2637:
2173:
2003:
181:
165:
2293:
2112:
2082:
2396:
2384:
1985:
1945:
546:
173:
1735:"The Buddhists, the Gnostics and the Antinomistic Society, or the Arabian Sea in the First Century AD"
2632:
2600:
2586:
2152:
2062:
1970:
1866:
1827:
1699:
641:
571:, commonly referred to in the Chinese Manichaean tradition as the "Buddha of Light". According to an
98:
60:
2408:
2270:
2087:
2042:
2034:
1940:
636:
624:
364:
317:
The Buddha-Jesus, who is the most powerful and compassionate person in the world, forgives my sins.
289:
216:
2275:
2167:
2142:
1965:
1902:
1898:
1763:
1719:
1676:
1574:
1240:
398:
383:
371:
212:
161:
1594:, Volume 63 of Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen Zum Neuen Testament (2 ed.), Mohr Siebeck,
593:
541:
164:
and used this word, showing the significance of Buddhist influences. He further believed in the
614:
393:
Manichaeism survived among the population and had a profound influence on the tradition of the
2559:
2529:
2501:
2184:
2147:
1857:
1642:
1622:
1608:
1595:
1585:
1558:
1531:
1509:
1412:
1364:
1220:
1189:
1179:
1158:
1148:
1144:
1091:
849:
810:
783:
435:
375:
255:
90:
1754:
1417:
Manichaean and (Nestorian) Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China). ARC DP0557098
1369:
Manichaean and (Nestorian) Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China). ARC DP0557098
1210:
804:
2229:
2189:
1950:
1882:
1730:
1711:
1618:
1566:
1545:
Koenen, L.; Römer, C., eds. (1988). "Der Kölner Mani-Kodex. Über das Werden seines Leibes".
1483:
1216:
505:
472:
402:
387:
263:
177:
2332:
2214:
1423:
1375:
567:
The most remarkable Manichaean relic in the temple is the statue of Manichaeism's founder
517:
208:
77:
738:
673:(c. 320–650 CE), which was related to the decline of the Roman Empire and the decline of
430:
During and after the 14th century, some Chinese Manichaeans involved themselves with the
2425:
2413:
2401:
2077:
1878:
1821:
1734:
1656:
1553:(Critical ed.). Abhandlung der Reinisch-Westfälischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
598:
568:
561:
486:
458:
439:
379:
352:
157:
135:
communities and was regarded as an improper form of Buddhism by the Tang authorities.
106:
102:
2626:
2434:
2234:
2209:
1935:
1687:
1523:
416:
Mingjiao was seen as offensive to the Emperor, so it received particular persecution
242:
169:
1665:
The Chinese Transformation of Manichaeism: A Study of Chinese Manichaean Terminology
2462:
2137:
2021:
670:
500:
445:
Manichaeism in China assumes certain Chinese characteristics, assimilating to both
424:
409:
185:
132:
128:
1181:
Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800
320:
three poisonous knots, and the six thieves and six poisonous winds. Let the great
1768:(Speech). Lecture presented at the Worldwide Conference for Historical Research.
1636:
1612:
1589:
2285:
2224:
2199:
2104:
1960:
1916:
1807:
454:
413:
200:
149:
144:
86:
31:
699:"Manichaeism was a syncretic religion, proclaimed by the Iranian Prophet Mani."
2358:
2353:
2162:
1894:
223:
219:
1661:
Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China: A Historical Survey
1150:
Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China: A Historical Survey
308:
from the hymn "Praise Jesus Text", which is like a Buddhist scripture in the
2580:
2348:
2122:
1995:
1955:
572:
491:
431:
234:
110:
2379:
553:
536:
2260:
2219:
2132:
2117:
2094:
1980:
1842:
1343:"There are Mingjiao ruins in the treasury-Xuanzhen Temple, right here..."
1342:
678:
446:
246:
153:
2441:
2363:
1909:
1723:
1680:
1578:
1185:
709:
619:
344:
281:
189:
121:
2265:
2239:
2127:
2072:
728:
609:
557:
524:
450:
321:
230:
120:
Manichaeism also often calls Jesus a Buddha This is because the term
1570:
1062:
575:, the statue was donated to the temple by a local adherent in 1339.
1715:
1561:(Mar 1980), "Nestorians and Manichaeans on the South China Coast",
782:. Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies. Vol. 90. Leiden: Brill.
180:
notes that Manichaeism is the prime source for comparisons between
592:
587:
540:
496:
337:
238:
114:
2615:: † mainly a Tengrist text but recorded in a Manichaean monastery
590:, Mani's hands rest on his belly, with both palms facing upward.
1847:
204:
93:
is considered one of the four prophets of the faith, along with
1780:
327:
May Jesus have mercy on me and free me from all demonic bonds.
1776:
351:), the God of the Sun and the Moon, and fivefold God and the
168:, sangha, and used various Buddhist terms in his teachings.
623:. 1215). The original inscription was destroyed during the
347:
confession, four prayers are directed to the supreme God (
1591:
Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China
489:. At the same time, the supposedly Taoist treatise, the
627:, but later "restored" (apparently, on another rock).
245:
at the beginning of his proselytizing career, various
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
370:
Manichaeans increasing involved themselves with the
2573:
2552:
2424:
2372:
2341:
2320:
2284:
2248:
2103:
2033:
1926:
1865:
1814:
1694:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
1617:, Volume 45 of Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies,
1497:
Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices
1341:Lin Shundao; Cai Ting Tao (2017-08-18). 杨道敏 (ed.).
545:The Buddha of Light (Prophet Mani) carved from the
73:
56:
46:
18:
254:them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhist
1476:Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire
127:Manichaeism was introduced into China during the
471:) received the title of the "Buddha of Light" (
314:
301:Usage of the term to refer to other individuals
294:
269:
251:
249:influences seem to have permeated Manichaeism:
1036:
1792:
722:
480:
462:
64:
20:
8:
2508:Manichaean stone reliefs of Shangwan village
1565:, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 71–88,
1245:Worldwide Conference for Historical Research
837:
835:
833:
690:"He was Iranian, of noble Parthian blood..."
1063:"A Manichaean Portrait of the Buddha Jesus"
1000:
1799:
1785:
1777:
1710:(2), University of Chicago Press: 99–115,
1408:
1406:
1404:
1243:". academia.edu. Lecture presented at the
30:
747:) is the Chinese translation of the name
2489:Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 8259
2484:Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 6368
2479:Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4979
2474:Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4974
2469:Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4959
1702:(1985), "Manichaean Views of Buddhism",
940:
2594:Story of the Twin Dragons of Great Tang
928:
916:
904:
892:
880:
765:
743:
658:
485:), and a life story resembling that of
334:Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus
2536:Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation
1178:Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall (2013).
1131:
1119:
976:
868:
803:John Kevin Coyle (15 September 2009).
105:. Mani believed that the teachings of
15:
2518:Manichaean wall painting MIK III 6918
2513:Manichaean temple banner MIK III 6286
1614:Manichaeism in Central Asia and China
1048:
1024:
1012:
988:
952:
215:, Mani's parents were members of the
199:Persian by birth, was born 216 AD in
7:
2456:Episodes from Mani's Missionary Work
1458:
1446:
1434:
1395:
1328:
1316:
1304:
1292:
1280:
1268:
1256:
964:
288:Manichaeism might have also adopted
229:Mani believed that the teachings of
2180:Huichang Persecution of Manichaeism
1991:Incomplete scripture of Manichaeism
1753:Werner, Sundermann (20 July 2009).
1107:
2009:Sogdian-language Manichaean letter
1530:(2 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
39:Manichaean Diagram of the Universe
14:
1635:Ma, Xisha; Meng, Huiying (2011).
2068:Two Principles and Three Moments
1856:
1765:Monijiao (Manichaeism) in China
1241:Monijiao (Manichaeism) in China
1209:Xisha Ma, Huiying Meng (2011).
708:Several religious paintings in
2543:Veneration of the Tree of Life
1875:Seven treatises of Manichaeism
1638:Popular Religion and Shamanism
1212:Popular Religion and Shamanism
733:
723:
601:(摩尼) the Buddha of Light (光佛)"
310:Chinese Manichaean hymn scroll
1:
842:Gong, Fangzhen (2012-08-01).
145:Manichaeism § Influences
2524:Painting of the Buddha Jesus
2495:Mani's Community Established
2016:Xiapu Manichaean manuscripts
395:Chinese folk religious sects
1486:; Meyer, Marvin W. (2005).
1155:Manchester University Press
1061:Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (2009).
773:Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (2015).
386:Buddhist sects such as the
359:Late syncretism and decline
275:when the messenger of light
207:), then within the Persian
152:was directly influenced by
2654:
2565:Manichaean (Unicode block)
2053:Zarathustra in Manichaeism
1854:
1692:Hinduism. Past and present
1528:Religions of the Silk Road
1506:Manichaeism and Its Legacy
1504:Coyle, John Kevin (2009).
1037:Barnstone & Meyer 2005
806:Manichaeism and Its Legacy
667:Buddhism declined in India
534:
362:
142:
2610:
2058:The Buddha in Manichaeism
1976:Dunhuang Manichaean texts
1499:. Routledge. p. 111.
1478:. Routledge. p. 437.
675:sea trade with the Romans
617:(real name Ge Changgeng;
509:
481:
476:
463:
279:when he entered complete
65:
29:
21:
1757:. Encyclopaedia Iranica.
1547:Papyrologica Coloniensia
139:Influences from Buddhism
2449:Diagram of the Universe
2174:Three Persian religions
2004:Turpan Manichaean texts
1331:, pp. 268, 292–294
1307:, pp. 280–283, 298
1283:, pp. 243, 255–257
1219:. pp. 56, 57, 99.
1001:Koenen & Römer 1988
848:(in Chinese). 新潮社文化出版.
809:. BRILL. pp. 13–.
530:
408:Due to the rise of the
336:is titled referring to
182:Buddhism and Gnosticism
166:transmigration of souls
2083:Xroshtag and Padvaxtag
1663:by Samuel N. C. Lieu;
1474:Ball, Warwick (2001).
712:are attributed to him.
602:
549:
330:
298:
286:
260:
1986:Manichaean Compendium
1946:Manichaean Psalm Book
1891:The Book of Mysteries
1659:(1987), "(Review of)
669:after the end of the
596:
544:
397:integrating with the
2601:The Secret of Heaven
2587:The Gardens of Light
2205:Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri
2063:Jesus in Manichaeism
1971:Medinet Madi library
1704:History of Religions
1563:Vigiliae Christianae
1495:Boyce, Mary (2001).
1132:Ma & Meng (2011)
869:Ma & Meng (2011)
642:Jesus in Manichaeism
461:(known in China as (
273:and a time of sorrow
271:It was a day of pain
2271:Chinese Manichaeism
2043:Father of Greatness
1941:Fundamental Epistle
1295:, pp. 258–259.
919:, pp. 332–333.
895:, pp. 323–324.
751:by the Manichaeans.
637:Chinese Manichaeism
625:Cultural Revolution
365:Chinese Manichaeism
290:Buddhist meditation
211:. According to the
174:Indo-Iranian source
19:Siddartha Gautama (
2397:Flying Road Pagoda
2385:Puxi Fushou Palace
2078:Messenger of Light
2048:Prince of Darkness
1966:Cologne Mani-Codex
1903:Psalms and Prayers
1899:The Book of Giants
1762:Yar, Char (2012).
1667:by Peter Bryder",
1609:Lieu, Samuel N. C.
1586:Lieu, Samuel N. C.
1559:Lieu, Samuel N. C.
1461:, pp. 291–292
1422:2014-08-08 at the
1398:, pp. 256–257
1374:2014-08-08 at the
1271:, pp. 317–318
1120:Ma & Meng 2011
1090:BRILL, 01.08.2013
1086:Johannes van Oort
603:
550:
222:sect known as the
213:Cologne Mani-Codex
36:The Buddha in the
2620:
2619:
2560:Manichaean script
2530:Sealstone of Mani
1731:Verardi, Giovanni
1537:978-0-230-62125-1
1515:978-90-04-17574-7
1488:The Gnostic Bible
1484:Barnstone, Willis
1413:Samuel N. C. Lieu
1365:Samuel N. C. Lieu
1195:978-1-285-54623-0
855:978-986-316-114-1
816:978-90-04-17574-7
789:978-90-04-30894-7
580:typical portrayal
436:Mahayana Buddhism
399:Maitreyan beliefs
376:Mahayana Buddhism
91:Siddartha Gautama
83:
82:
2645:
2442:Book of Pictures
2417:
2405:
2393:
2230:Uyghur Khaganate
2195:East-West Schism
2190:Sergius-Tychicus
1951:Psalms of Thomas
1910:Book of Pictures
1883:Treasure of Life
1860:
1801:
1794:
1787:
1778:
1773:
1758:
1749:
1739:
1726:
1695:
1683:
1675:(4/5): 313–324,
1652:
1631:
1604:
1581:
1554:
1541:
1519:
1500:
1491:
1479:
1462:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1437:, pp. 80–82
1432:
1426:
1410:
1399:
1393:
1378:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1260:
1254:
1248:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1217:Brill Publishers
1206:
1200:
1199:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1145:Samuel N.C. Lieu
1141:
1135:
1134:, p. 19-56.
1129:
1123:
1117:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
1004:
998:
992:
986:
980:
974:
968:
962:
956:
950:
944:
938:
932:
926:
920:
914:
908:
902:
896:
890:
884:
878:
872:
871:, p. 55–56.
866:
860:
859:
839:
828:
827:
825:
823:
800:
794:
793:
781:
770:
752:
745:
735:
726:
725:
719:
713:
706:
700:
697:
691:
688:
682:
663:
511:
484:
483:
478:
466:
465:
403:White Lotus Sect
388:White Lotus Sect
372:Pure Land school
264:Willis Barnstone
217:Jewish Christian
178:Giovanni Verardi
68:
67:
34:
24:
23:
16:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2606:
2569:
2548:
2420:
2411:
2399:
2387:
2368:
2337:
2316:
2280:
2244:
2215:Synod of Gangra
2099:
2029:
1928:
1922:
1861:
1852:
1810:
1805:
1761:
1752:
1737:
1729:
1700:Scott, David A.
1698:
1686:
1657:Mair, Victor H.
1655:
1649:
1634:
1629:
1607:
1602:
1584:
1571:10.2307/1582860
1557:
1544:
1538:
1522:
1516:
1503:
1494:
1482:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1424:Wayback Machine
1415:and Ken Parry,
1411:
1402:
1394:
1381:
1376:Wayback Machine
1367:and Ken Parry,
1363:
1359:
1350:
1348:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1287:
1279:
1275:
1267:
1263:
1255:
1251:
1239:Dr. Char Yar. "
1238:
1234:
1227:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1196:
1188:. p. 228.
1177:
1176:
1172:
1165:
1157:. p. 261.
1143:
1142:
1138:
1130:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1085:
1081:
1071:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1007:
999:
995:
987:
983:
975:
971:
963:
959:
951:
947:
939:
935:
927:
923:
915:
911:
903:
899:
891:
887:
879:
875:
867:
863:
856:
841:
840:
831:
821:
819:
817:
802:
801:
797:
790:
779:
772:
771:
767:
761:
756:
755:
720:
716:
707:
703:
698:
694:
689:
685:
664:
660:
655:
650:
633:
539:
533:
367:
361:
329:
326:
318:
303:
278:
276:
274:
272:
209:Sassanid Empire
156:. Like Buddha,
147:
141:
78:Magadhi Prakrit
42:
12:
11:
5:
2651:
2649:
2641:
2640:
2638:Gautama Buddha
2635:
2625:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2597:
2590:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2553:Writing system
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2539:
2532:
2527:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2502:Mani's Parents
2498:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2430:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2406:
2394:
2382:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2290:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2256:See of Babylon
2252:
2250:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2109:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1932:
1930:
1927:Extracanonical
1924:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1913:
1906:
1879:Gospel of Mani
1871:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1811:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1796:
1789:
1781:
1775:
1774:
1759:
1750:
1748:(3/4): 324–346
1727:
1716:10.1086/463029
1696:
1688:Michaels, Axel
1684:
1653:
1648:978-9004174559
1647:
1632:
1627:
1605:
1600:
1582:
1555:
1542:
1536:
1524:Foltz, Richard
1520:
1514:
1501:
1492:
1480:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1463:
1451:
1439:
1427:
1400:
1379:
1357:
1333:
1321:
1319:, pp. 268
1309:
1297:
1285:
1273:
1261:
1249:
1232:
1225:
1201:
1194:
1170:
1163:
1136:
1124:
1112:
1100:
1079:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1017:
1005:
993:
981:
969:
957:
945:
933:
931:, p. 333.
921:
909:
907:, p. 332.
897:
885:
883:, p. 323.
873:
861:
854:
829:
815:
795:
788:
764:
760:
757:
754:
753:
714:
701:
692:
683:
657:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
645:
644:
639:
632:
629:
588:Buddhist mudrā
535:Main article:
532:
529:
487:Gautama Buddha
440:southern China
419:An account in
380:southern China
363:Main article:
360:
357:
315:
302:
299:
143:Main article:
140:
137:
107:Gautama Buddha
81:
80:
75:
71:
70:
58:
54:
53:
48:
44:
43:
35:
27:
26:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2650:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2435:Birth of Mani
2432:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2415:
2410:
2409:Leshan Temple
2407:
2403:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2235:Cangnan Stele
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2024:
2023:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1936:New Testament
1934:
1933:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1790:
1788:
1783:
1782:
1779:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1633:
1630:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1549:(in German).
1548:
1543:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1449:, p. 136
1448:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1347:
1344:
1337:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1262:
1259:, p. 316
1258:
1253:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1226:9789004174559
1222:
1218:
1214:
1213:
1205:
1202:
1197:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1174:
1171:
1166:
1164:9780719010880
1160:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1140:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1096:9789004255067
1093:
1089:
1083:
1080:
1068:
1064:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1018:
1015:, p. 13.
1014:
1009:
1006:
1002:
997:
994:
990:
985:
982:
978:
973:
970:
967:, p. 437
966:
961:
958:
955:, p. 111
954:
949:
946:
943:, p. 42.
942:
941:Michaels 2004
937:
934:
930:
925:
922:
918:
913:
910:
906:
901:
898:
894:
889:
886:
882:
877:
874:
870:
865:
862:
857:
851:
847:
846:
838:
836:
834:
830:
818:
812:
808:
807:
799:
796:
791:
785:
778:
777:
769:
766:
763:
758:
750:
746:
740:
736:
730:
718:
715:
711:
705:
702:
696:
693:
687:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
662:
659:
652:
647:
643:
640:
638:
635:
634:
630:
628:
626:
622:
621:
616:
611:
608:Instead of a
606:
600:
595:
591:
589:
584:
581:
576:
574:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
548:
543:
538:
531:Cao'an temple
528:
526:
521:
519:
513:
507:
502:
499:. As to the
498:
494:
493:
488:
474:
470:
460:
456:
452:
448:
443:
441:
437:
433:
428:
426:
422:
417:
415:
412:the name for
411:
406:
404:
400:
396:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
366:
358:
356:
354:
350:
346:
341:
340:as a Buddha.
339:
335:
328:
323:
313:
311:
305:
300:
297:
293:
291:
285:
284:
283:
277:entered death
268:
265:
262:According to
259:
257:
250:
248:
244:
243:Kushan Empire
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
193:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
170:Mircea Eliade
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
146:
138:
136:
134:
133:Central Asian
130:
125:
123:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
79:
76:
72:
62:
59:
55:
52:
49:
45:
41:
40:
33:
28:
17:
2612:
2599:
2592:
2585:
2541:
2534:
2522:
2500:
2493:
2463:Icon of Mani
2461:
2454:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2321:Commandments
2286:Organisation
2172:
2138:Shad Ohrmazd
2088:
2057:
2022:Moni Guangfo
2020:
1915:
1908:
1887:The Epistles
1832:
1770:academia.edu
1769:
1764:
1745:
1741:
1707:
1703:
1691:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1637:
1613:
1590:
1562:
1550:
1546:
1527:
1505:
1496:
1487:
1475:
1468:Bibliography
1454:
1442:
1430:
1360:
1349:. Retrieved
1345:
1336:
1324:
1312:
1300:
1288:
1276:
1264:
1252:
1244:
1235:
1211:
1204:
1180:
1173:
1149:
1139:
1127:
1115:
1103:
1087:
1082:
1070:. Retrieved
1067:academia.edu
1066:
1056:
1044:
1032:
1020:
1008:
996:
984:
972:
960:
948:
936:
929:Verardi 1997
924:
917:Verardi 1997
912:
905:Verardi 1997
900:
893:Verardi 1997
888:
881:Verardi 1997
876:
864:
844:
820:. Retrieved
805:
798:
775:
768:
762:
748:
742:
732:
717:
704:
695:
686:
671:Gupta Empire
661:
618:
607:
604:
585:
577:
566:
551:
522:
514:
490:
468:
444:
429:
425:Ming Dynasty
420:
418:
410:Ming dynasty
407:
401:such as the
392:
368:
348:
342:
331:
316:
306:
304:
295:
287:
280:
270:
261:
252:
228:
194:
186:Roman Empire
148:
129:Tang dynasty
126:
119:
84:
74:Ethnic group
37:
2633:Manichaeism
2412: [
2400: [
2388: [
2328:Three Seals
2225:Persecution
2200:Amr ibn Adi
2185:Bögü Qaghan
1961:Xuastvanift
1917:Shabuhragan
1838:Zarathustra
1808:Manichaeism
1072:28 November
977:Werner 2009
648:Annotations
573:inscription
547:living rock
421:Fozu Tongji
414:Manichaeism
201:Mesopotamia
150:Manichaeism
87:Manichaeism
51:Zarathustra
47:Predecessor
2627:Categories
2574:In fiction
2426:Visual art
2359:Repentance
2354:Evangelism
2333:Pañcavidyā
2276:Miqlāsiyya
2210:Lü Shinang
2163:Hegemonius
2158:Aphthonius
1929:literature
1895:Pragmateia
1772:. Beijing.
1669:T'oung Pao
1628:9004104054
1601:3161458206
1351:2018-12-28
1049:Scott 1985
1025:Foltz 2010
1013:Coyle 2009
989:Coyle 2009
953:Boyce 2001
759:References
739:Wade–Giles
665:Note that
556:temple in
434:school of
224:Elcesaites
160:aimed for
2581:Ming Cult
2373:Buildings
2349:Eucharist
2307:Presbyter
2298:Patriarch
2123:Mar Sisin
1996:Irk Bitig
1956:Kephalaia
1867:Scripture
1833:Sakyamuni
1824:(Founder)
1641:. Brill.
1508:. BRILL.
1459:Lieu 1992
1447:Lieu 1998
1435:Lieu 1980
1396:Lieu 1992
1329:Lieu 1992
1317:Lieu 1992
1305:Lieu 1992
1293:Lieu 1992
1281:Lieu 1992
1269:Mair 1987
1257:Mair 1987
965:Ball 2001
845:融合四方文化的智慧
822:27 August
615:Bo Yuchan
501:Confucian
492:Huahujing
469:(Mo)-Mani
432:Pure Land
427:in 1370.
384:Maitreyan
235:Zoroaster
195:Mani, an
192:laymen."
111:Zoroaster
95:Zoroaster
57:Successor
2294:Archegos
2261:Denawars
2220:Lin Deng
2133:Mar Adda
2128:Mar Zaku
2118:Mar Ammo
2113:Apostles
2095:Asrestar
2035:Theology
1981:Xiabuzan
1843:Narayana
1815:Prophets
1733:(1997),
1690:(2004),
1611:(1998),
1588:(1992),
1526:(2010).
1420:Archived
1372:Archived
1346:sohu.com
1147:(1985).
1108:Yar 2012
679:Hinduism
631:See also
447:Buddhism
247:Buddhist
203:(modern
154:Buddhism
131:through
2364:Fasting
2342:Rituals
2313:Hearers
2301:Apostle
2153:Agapius
2148:Faustus
2105:History
1724:1062608
1681:4528393
1579:1582860
1247:, 2012.
1186:Cengage
710:Bamiyan
506:Chinese
473:Chinese
353:buddhas
343:In the
282:Nirvana
220:Gnostic
197:Arsacid
190:Brahman
162:nirvana
122:prophet
2380:Cao'an
2304:Bishop
2266:Astati
2240:Qianku
2168:Marcus
2089:Archon
2073:Gnosis
1755:"Mani"
1722:
1679:
1645:
1625:
1598:
1577:
1534:
1512:
1223:
1192:
1161:
1094:
852:
813:
786:
741::
731::
729:pinyin
610:nianfo
558:Fujian
554:Cao'an
537:Cao'an
525:Qianku
518:Siming
508::
475::
467:)摩尼,
451:Taoism
345:Uighur
322:dharma
256:sangha
237:, and
231:Buddha
113:, and
2613:Notes
2416:]
2404:]
2392:]
2310:Elect
2249:Sects
1828:Jesus
1738:(PDF)
1720:JSTOR
1677:JSTOR
1619:Brill
1575:JSTOR
1098:p. 75
780:(PDF)
749:Jesus
744:I-shu
734:Yíshù
653:Notes
497:Laozi
349:Äzrua
338:Jesus
239:Jesus
115:Jesus
99:Jesus
61:Jesus
2143:Mihr
1848:Seth
1822:Mani
1742:AION
1643:ISBN
1623:ISBN
1596:ISBN
1532:ISBN
1510:ISBN
1221:ISBN
1190:ISBN
1159:ISBN
1092:ISBN
1074:2018
850:ISBN
824:2012
811:ISBN
784:ISBN
599:Moni
569:Mani
562:Mani
552:The
510:吃菜事魔
459:Mani
449:and
332:The
205:Iraq
158:Mani
103:Mani
101:and
22:釋迦文佛
1712:doi
1567:doi
727:" (
523:In
512:).
479:or
477:光明佛
455:Mar
438:in
378:in
374:of
85:In
2629::
2414:zh
2402:zh
2390:zh
1901:,
1897:,
1893:,
1889:,
1885:,
1881:,
1746:57
1744:,
1740:,
1718:,
1708:25
1706:,
1673:73
1671:,
1621:,
1573:,
1551:14
1403:^
1382:^
1215:.
1184:.
1153:.
1065:.
832:^
737:;
724:夷數
620:fl
564:.
482:光佛
457:)
405:.
390:.
355:.
312::
292:.
233:,
226:.
109:,
97:,
89:,
66:夷數
1998:†
1905:)
1877:(
1800:e
1793:t
1786:v
1714::
1651:.
1569::
1540:.
1518:.
1490:.
1354:.
1229:.
1198:.
1167:.
1122:.
1110:.
1076:.
1051:.
1039:.
1027:.
1003:.
991:.
979:.
858:.
826:.
792:.
721:"
681:.
504:(
464:末
258:.
69:)
63:(
25:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
