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medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Leo
Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's
31:
654:...every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust... there be nothing seen that is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, nothing that is profane, nothing indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the house of God. And that these things may be the more faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no one be allowed to place, or cause to be placed, any unusual image, in any place, or church, howsoever exempted, except that image have been approved of by the bishop ...
475:, made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very similar to Catholic saints. Later Protestant taste turned from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some continued to be displayed in homes. There was also a reaction against large images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of high style at the time. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the present times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully flower in the 17th century began during this period.
317:
1326:
faith, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the
Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate union with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy body and blood.
801:
712:. Likewise, "Lutheran places of worship contain images and sculptures not only of Christ but also of biblical and occasionally of other saints as well as prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained glass, ornate furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modern architecture, carved or otherwise embellished altar pieces, and liberal use of candles on the altar and elsewhere." The main difference between Lutheran and Roman Catholic places of worship was the presence of the
650:", but in fact the actual decrees of the council were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very short passage dealing with art came only in the final session in 1563, as a last minute and little-discussed addition, based on a French draft. The decree confirmed the traditional doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, not the image, and further instructed that:
111:
577:
507:
630:, a highly sophisticated style, striving for effect, that concerned many churchmen as lacking appeal for the mass of the population. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to have great impact on the development of Catholic art. Previous Catholic
683:
309:, she paid a small fine without complaint, but flatly refused to pay the additional sum the court ordered be paid to the convent to replace the statue, putting her at risk of serious penalties. Zwingli's letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did not replace the statue, but the eventual outcome is unknown. By the end of his life, after iconoclastic shows of force became a feature of the early phases of the
1568:
670:, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, often going into minute detail on what was acceptable. Many traditional iconographies considered without adequate scriptural foundation were in effect prohibited, as was any inclusion of classical pagan elements in religious art, and almost all nudity, including that of the infant Jesus. According to the great medievalist
130:
753:
728:, cautions against connecting this more austere style in religious painting, which spread from Rome from about 1550, too directly with the decrees of Trent, as it pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees as "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come to be conspicuous in Roman culture".
1325:
In this "sacramental union," Lutherans taught, the body and blood of Christ are so truly united to the bread and wine of the Holy
Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not just for the strengthening of
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While
Germany and the Scandinavian countries adopted the Lutheran model of church and state, France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Hungary, what is now the Czech Republic, and Scotland created Reformed Churches based, in varying ways, on the model Calvin set up in Geneva. Although England pursued the
434:
in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass-produced and widely available to the public at low cost. This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The
Protestant church was therefore able, as the Catholic Church had been doing since the early 15th century,
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of a monastery, contained, in the words of the
Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" as well as extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast. Veronese was told that he must change his indecorous painting
525:
from his famous set of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the country, with a few workers taking a lunch break under a nearby tree. This type of landscape painting, apparently void of religious or classical connotations, gave birth to a long line of northern
European landscape
352:
and scenes from the
Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, especially as book illustrations and prints, and, later, moralistic depictions of modern life were preferred. Both Cranachs painted allegorical scenes setting out Lutheran
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and saints were given much less emphasis or disapproved of in
Protestant theology. As a result, in much of northern Europe, the Church virtually ceased to commission figurative art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the hands of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism even objected to
614:
to institute some of their own reforms. The church felt that much religious art in
Catholic countries (especially Italy) had lost its focus on religious subject-matter, and became too interested in material things and decorative qualities. The council came together periodically between 1545 and
153:
was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a divide in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement "created a North-South split in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries
387:
in the summer of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions. This campaign of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region. Similar patterns to the German
85:
to produce a more stringent style of Catholic art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, but the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into
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work that gives a clear demonstration of what the holy council was striving for in the new style of religious art. With the focus of the painting giving direct attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while
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Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of
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continued to commission altarpieces centred on their saints), but nonetheless New Testament subjects probably did increase. Altarpieces became larger and more easy to make out from a distance, and the large painted or gilded carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern late
371:, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were also often painted with similar scenes to those in Catholic churches.
304:
that if she recovered from an illness she would donate an image of the saint to a local convent, which she did. Later she turned Protestant, and feeling she must reverse what she now saw as a wrong action, she went to the convent church, removed the statue and burnt it. Prosecuted for
1296:
Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant image-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might have hoped to make common
195:
in Germany allowed and encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church as a continuation of the "ancient, apostolic church". The use of images was one of the issues where Luther strongly opposed the more radical
978:
As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph painted in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure
645:
of the Council of Trent stipulated that art was to be direct and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint’s life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage
442:
by both sides; these were often highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were popular, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such as the
1023:. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.
699:
While Calvinists largely removed public art from religion and Reformed societies moved towards more "secular" forms of art which might be said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural beauty of His creation and by depicting people who were created in His image",
481:(1525–1569) of Flanders is the great genre painter of his time, who worked for both Catholic and Protestant patrons. In most of his paintings, even when depicting religious scenes, most space is given to landscape or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel's
297:, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility between Catholics and Calvinists in communities – for it was generally at the level of the city, town or village that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland.
815:
Further waves of "Counter-Reformation art" occurred when areas formerly Protestant were again brought under Catholic rule. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could represent a boom time for artists. The best known example is the new
281:, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the control of their followers, and regarded the great majority of religious images as idolatrous. Early Calvinists were even suspicious of portraits of clergy; Christopher Hales (soon to be one of the
427:, as opposed to Catholic churches, which often chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Mass were one and the same, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.
53:
during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic art, and very often destroyed as much of it as it could reach. A new artistic tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed
374:
Lutherans strongly defended their existing sacred art from a new wave of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the second half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the
292:
The destruction was often extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable physical manifestation, often imposed from above, that could not be ignored. It was just for this reason that reformers favoured a single dramatic
941:
Despite the differences in approaches to religious art, stylistic developments passed about as quickly across religious divisions as within the two "blocs". Artistically Rome remained in closer touch with the Netherlands than with Spain.
487:, portrays a Flemish-peasant wedding dinner in a barn, which makes no reference to any religious, historical or classical events, and merely gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Another great painter of his age,
1263:
In an episode known as the Great Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in the Netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived as
289:, and felt it necessary to explain his motives in a letter of 1550: "this is not done ....with a view to making idols of you; they are desired for the reasons which I have mentioned, and not for the sake of honour or veneration".
1111:
In fact, Lutherans often justified their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is evident from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of
379:" of about 1560–1619. Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return". The
609:
and the Protestant Reformers of the north regarding the content and style of art work. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm as a threat to the church and in response came together at the
793:, still an episode from the Gospels, but a less doctrinally central one, and no more was said. No doubt any Protestant authorities would have been equally disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "
537:
in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and print publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for
435:
to bring their theology to the people, and religious education was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a direct link between the worshippers and the divine.
423:. Protestant churches that were not participating in the iconoclasm often selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper. This helped the worshippers to recall their theology behind the
938:. The Jesuits' impact was so profound during their missions of the time that today very similar styles of art from the Counter-Reformation period in Catholic Churches are found all over the world.
658:
The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, as did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian
564:
and France to find a style of art that could appeal to members of the courtly elite on both sides of the religious divide. Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic effect of encouraging
300:
But reformers often felt impelled by strong personal convictions, as shown by the case of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to advise. She was a Swiss lady who had once made a promise to
247:. Stories grew up of "indestructible" images of Luther, that had survived fires, by divine intervention. Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image."
824:), which had been the centre of Protestantism in the Netherlands but became (initially) exclusively Catholic after the Spanish drove the Protestants to the north, where they established the
1068:
Reformation ideal in its own way, leading to the formation of the Anglican Communion, the theology of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England were heavily influenced by Calvinism.
455:
After the early years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although there was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant
74:
remained steadfastly opposed to art in churches, and suspicious of small printed images of religious subjects, though generally fully accepting secular images in their homes.
41:
a relatively rare Protestant oil painting of Christ from the Reformation period. It is small, and generally naturalistic in style, avoiding iconic elements like the
568:
in art, since though they might disapprove, even the most stern Calvinists could not credibly claim that 16th century mythological art really represented idolatry.
895:(1542–1621). The image typically shows Peter in tears, as a half-length portrait with no other figures, often with hands clasped as at right, and sometimes "the
704:
Catholic church continued to encourage religious art, but insisted it was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Catholic traditions, including the
411:, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and wine into the body and blood of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the
189:
traditions, the latter two following the Reformed (Calvinist) faith. Lutherans and Reformed Christians had different views regarding religious imagery.
855:
in 1610 that in future the central panels of altarpieces should only show New Testament scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by
797:" (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting being placed within the painting) was also accelerated; these become rare after the council.
273:
and large paintings. Book illustrations and prints were more acceptable, because they were smaller and more private. Reformed leaders, especially
1717:
Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: the Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Market. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania P, 2006.
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for, among other things, nudity (later painted over for several centuries), not showing Christ seated or bearded, and including the pagan figure of
412:
553:
and engravings over two decades. Between 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Cock with almost 40 drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.
212:, to replace Catholic ones, often containing portraits of leading reformers as the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional
70:
churches, as they developed, accepted a limited role for larger works of art in churches, and also encouraged prints and book illustrations.
1633:
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who received many commissions, and produced several of his best known works re-filling the empty churches. Several cities in France in the
30:
388:
actions, but with the addition of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national government, were seen in Anglican England in the
499:, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to religion or
134:
1671:
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1612:
1598:
1509:
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1289:
1256:
1142:
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971:
580:
1396:
1760:
1687:
383:, a large and very disorderly wave of Calvinist mob destruction of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the
1584:
1192:
1180:
789:
762:
934:
and used the arts as an effective means of articulating their message of the Catholic Church's dominance over the Christian
1692:
Christensen, Carl C. "Art and the Reformation in Germany." The Sixteenth Century Journal Athens: Ohio UP, 12 (1979): 100.
1765:
42:
1616:
316:
1476:
1426:
906:
As the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Catholic Church felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation,
1149:
According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
216:. As such, "Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior." The
911:
775:
468:
521:
Bruegel was also an accomplished landscape painter. Frequently Bruegel painted agricultural landscapes, such as
1770:
833:
472:
355:
82:
34:
1720:
Wisse, Jacob. "The Reformation." In Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-
800:
323:'s paintings are mostly cycles on the parapets of Lutheran church galleries. Here the Creation (left) to the
1573:
1281:
837:
719:
464:
310:
209:
313:, even Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had become counter-productive.
1775:
1745:
1196:
336:
301:
150:
50:
1714:
Mayor, A. Hyatt, "The Art of the Counter Reformation." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 4 (1945).
884:
735:
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in the second half of the century has been seen as partly motivated by the desire of rulers in both the
244:
221:
217:
201:
118:
110:
1337:
Trevor-Roper, 98-101 on Rudolf, and Strong, Pt. 2, Chapter 3 on France, especially pp. 98-101, 112-113.
739:
254:, or the destruction of religious imagery. This began very early in the Reformation, when students in
1780:
393:
182:
59:
265:
in December 1521. Later, Reformed Christianity showed consistent hostility to religious images, as
1785:
879:, was not often seen before the Counter-Reformation, when it became popular as an assertion of the
869:
817:
701:
616:
594:
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483:
397:
232:
are important examples of the relatively small number of attempts to continue the tradition of the
78:
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1563. The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the basis for what is known as the
396:
in the next century, when more damage was done to art in medieval parish churches than during the
598:
557:
527:
420:
408:
376:
213:
91:
1683:
Avalli-Bjorkman, Gorel. "A Bolognese Portrait of a Butcher." The Burlington Magazine 141 (1999).
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and effigies beloved of the Renaissance rich. Where there was religious art, iconic images of
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389:
225:
197:
166:
114:
95:
1235:
1698:
Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Market in Early Modern Antwerp. New Haven: Yale UP, 1998.
1623:
1605:
Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe
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229:
174:
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became visible again after restoration in 1919 removed the false wall placed in front of it.
87:
63:
1400:
867:
Some subjects were given increased prominence to reflect Counter-Reformation emphases. The
671:
1560:
875:
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724:
606:
542:
332:
1701:
1169:
825:
794:
771:
756:
631:
586:
439:
17:
1185:
Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries
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giving an explicitly Lutheran interpretation. This phase was mostly finished by 1555.
129:
1754:
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510:
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192:
162:
158:
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324:
138:
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Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation
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agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the
55:
1664:
Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633
161:; one was the Evangelical Lutheran churches, which followed the teachings of
1733:
880:
783:
752:
627:
492:
424:
306:
270:
71:
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Italian painting after the 1520s, with the notable exception of the art of
1709:
Iconography of the Counter Reformation in the Netherlands: Heaven on Earth
1704:. The Reformation of the Image. London: The University of Chicago P, 2004.
919:
808:
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266:
240:
186:
178:
67:
1695:
Coulton, G G. "Art and the Reformation Reviews." Art Bulletin 11 (1928).
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121:. An early Lutheran work depicting leading Reformers as Apostles at the
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896:
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against Protestant attacks. This followed an influential book by the
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142:
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With the great development of the engraving and printmaking market in
331:
Subjects prominent in Catholic art other than Jesus and events in the
923:
888:
856:
829:
709:
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364:
349:
286:
262:
255:
1686:
Caldwell, Dorigen. "Reviewing Counter-Reformation Art." 5 Feb. 2007
1625:
Lucas Cranach the Elder: Art and Devotion of the German Reformation
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within a three-month period – in fact he just changed the title to
1502:
Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto
935:
927:
681:
647:
575:
109:
29:
1376:, chapter VIII, especially pp. 107-128, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn),
430:
The Protestant Reformation also capitalized on the popularity of
1563:, "Painting and the Counter-Reformation", from the catalogue to
1249:
Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise History of Western Art
907:
634:
had rarely felt the need to pronounce on these matters, unlike
81:
both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of
1377:
914:
to other nations around the world. The religious order of the
605:
During the Reformation a great divergence arose between the
899:" in the background; it was often coupled with a repentant
438:
There was also a violent propaganda war fought partly with
285:) tried to have portraits of six divines sent to him from
1095:
Marquardt, Janet T.; Jordan, Alyce A. (14 January 2009).
638:
ones which have often ruled on specific types of images.
403:
A major theological difference between Protestantism and
208:
were produced in Germany, especially by Luther's friend
1309:
Mattox, Mickey L.; Roeber, A. G. (27 February 2012).
1446:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138.
1006:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138.
864:
medieval cities were often replaced with paintings.
177:. Out of these branches grew three main sects, the
1097:
Medieval Art and Architecture after the Middle Ages
918:or the Society of Jesus, sent missionaries to the
641:Statements are often made along the lines of "The
1444:Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation
1004:Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation
859:and other Flemish artists (and in particular the
503:, although much of his other work features both.
749:keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human.
463:. In the early Reformation artists, especially
459:of Bible illustration in book illustrations and
1412:Art of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation.
1359:Text of the 25th decree of the Council of Trent
851:The rather extreme pronouncement by a synod in
1647:Art and Power; Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650
1349:Paoletti, John T., and Gary M. Radke. Pg. 514.
770:Ten years after the Council of Trent's decree
593:(1534–41) came under persistent attack in the
157:The Reformation produced two main branches of
1099:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71.
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
200:. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces like
8:
1591:A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art
957:
955:
27:Protestant Reformation: 16th century, Europe
903:, another exemplar from Bellarmine's book.
549:provided the public with almost a thousand
1437:
1435:
1313:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54.
243:as it highlighted their high view of the
1051:Picken, Stuart D.B. (16 December 2011).
1035:The Reformation and Counter-Reformation.
964:Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe
873:, showing the end of the episode of the
799:
751:
674:, this was "the death of medieval art".
505:
413:real presence of Christ in the Eucharist
315:
128:
1466:(Sydney) Freedberg, 427–428, 427 quoted
1080:Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000).
951:
250:On the other hand, there was a wave of
1170:Institutes, 1:11, section 7 on crosses
1137:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146.
1666:, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976,
1084:. University of California, Berkeley.
966:. Taylor & Francis. p. 237.
695:, a typical Counter-Reformation work.
491:(1489–1533), is known mostly for his
353:doctrines, in particular a series on
7:
1477:"Transcript of Veronese's testimony"
1442:Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017).
1424:The Art of the Counter Reformation.
1374:Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660
1276:Marshall, Peter (22 October 2009).
1247:Kleiner, Fred S. (1 January 2010).
1002:Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017).
239:Lutherans continued the use of the
1082:Holbein and the Reformation of Art
1053:Historical Dictionary of Calvinism
962:Spicer, Andrew (5 December 2016).
848:saw similar bursts of restocking.
25:
1251:. Cengage Learning. p. 254.
1133:Dixon, C. Scott (9 March 2012).
258:destroyed a wooden altar in the
137:, attacked by Calvinists in the
1628:. University Press of America.
910:once again began to assert its
738:which was commissioned for the
734:'s (1550–1598) painting of the
678:Art and the Counter-Reformation
367:painter of the 18th century in
135:St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht
1055:. Scarecrow Press. p. 1.
790:The Feast in the House of Levi
763:The Feast in the House of Levi
541:, a publishing house owned by
169:, which followed the ideas of
45:, which is barely discernible.
1:
1593:, 1983, John Murray, London,
1567:, 1993, Boston/Toledo, Ohio,
1520:(David) Freedberg, throughout
1738:The Reformation of the Image
1577:Painting in Italy, 1500–1600
1504:, 2nd ed 1997, Cambridge UP
1195:; Hales was the brother of
1802:
1740:by Joseph Leo Koerner, by
1649:, 1984, The Boydell Press;
1529:(David) Freedberg, 139-140
1427:Metropolitan Museum of Art
1135:Contesting the Reformation
1039:Causes of the Reformation.
181:tradition, as well as the
86:secular forms of art like
1397:The death of Medieval Art
1347:Art in Renaissance Italy.
776:Venetian Holy Inquisition
1707:Knipping, John Baptist,
834:Flemish Baroque painters
782:, a huge canvas for the
722:, who invented the term
83:art in Roman Catholicism
62:art produced during the
35:Hans Holbein the Younger
1579:, 3rd edn. 1993, Yale,
1282:Oxford University Press
838:French wars of religion
832:was one of a number of
720:Sydney Joseph Freedberg
311:French Wars of Religion
106:Art and the Reformation
18:The Reformation and art
1761:Protestant Reformation
1746:London Review of Books
1622:Noble, Bonnie (2009).
1538:(David) Freedberg, 141
1197:John Hales (died 1572)
1187:, p. 193, 1990, Yale,
812:
767:
696:
656:
602:
518:
328:
206:by the younger Cranach
151:Protestant Reformation
146:
126:
77:In turn, the Catholic
51:Protestant Reformation
46:
1603:Michalski, Sergiusz.
1399:Extract from book by
844:and elsewhere in the
803:
755:
685:
652:
579:
556:The courtly style of
515:Peasant Wedding Feast
509:
319:
245:Theology of the Cross
222:Schneeberg Altarpiece
218:Wittenberg Altarpiece
132:
119:Wittenberg Altarpiece
113:
33:
1574:Freedberg, Sydney J.
1547:Hall, pp. 10 and 315
820:(essentially modern
774:was summoned by the
419:and the latter as a
394:English Commonwealth
183:Continental Reformed
165:, and the other the
154:remained Catholic."
1766:Counter-Reformation
1607:, Routledge, 1993,
870:Repentance of Peter
818:Spanish Netherlands
805:Repentance of Peter
778:to explain why his
702:Counter-Reformation
617:Counter-Reformation
595:Counter-Reformation
566:classical mythology
451:Genre and landscape
407:is the question of
398:English Reformation
79:Counter-Reformation
1660:Trevor-Roper, Hugh
1160:Noble, 19, note 12
813:
768:
740:Church of the Gesù
697:
603:
558:Northern Mannerism
528:Jacob van Ruisdael
519:
421:pneumatic presence
415:, the former as a
409:transubstantiation
377:Second Reformation
329:
214:depiction of Jesus
147:
127:
92:landscape painting
47:
1702:Koerner, Joseph L
1635:978-0-7618-4337-5
1565:The Age of Rubens
893:Robert Bellarmine
668:Gabriele Paleotti
626:, developed into
582:The Last Judgment
562:Holy Roman Empire
526:artists, such as
465:Cranach the Elder
417:sacramental union
390:English Civil War
302:Saint Apollinaris
226:Weimar Altarpiece
198:Andreas Karlstadt
167:Reformed Churches
115:Cranach the Elder
96:portrait painting
16:(Redirected from
1793:
1639:
1615:, 9780203414255
1548:
1545:
1539:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1512:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1479:. Archived from
1473:
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1266:
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1238:
1232:
1226:
1225:Michalski, 72-73
1223:
1217:
1216:Michalski, 73-74
1214:
1208:
1207:Michalski, 87-88
1205:
1199:
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1037:Historicist and
1032:
1026:
1025:
1021:theologia crucis
999:
982:
981:
959:
846:Thirty Years War
840:and in Germany,
826:United Provinces
732:Scipione Pulzone
687:Scipione Pulzone
664:Charles Borromeo
612:Council of Trent
572:Council of Trent
489:Lucas van Leyden
275:Huldrych Zwingli
230:Gotha Altarpiece
175:Huldrych Zwingli
88:history painting
64:High Renaissance
21:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1771:Renaissance art
1751:
1750:
1730:
1723:(October 2002).
1680:
1678:Further reading
1636:
1621:
1561:David Freedberg
1557:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1524:
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1500:David Rostand,
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1292:
1284:. p. 114.
1278:The Reformation
1275:
1274:
1270:
1259:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1234:Michalski, 84.
1233:
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1181:Campbell, Lorne
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985:
974:
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953:
948:
876:Denial of Peter
795:donor portraits
745:Counter-Maniera
725:Counter-Maniera
716:in the latter.
680:
632:Church councils
607:Catholic Church
574:
543:Hieronymus Cock
484:Peasant Wedding
453:
133:Altar piece in
108:
39:Noli me tangere
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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5:
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1728:External links
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587:Sistine Chapel
585:fresco in the
573:
570:
547:The Four Winds
539:The Four Winds
452:
449:
440:popular prints
356:Law and Gospel
344:, such as the
340:non-religious
141:in 1566. This
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1483:on 2009-09-29
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1123:Michalski, 89
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1106:9781443803984
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761:Last Supper (
758:
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750:
747:
746:
742:in 1593 is a
741:
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721:
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666:and Cardinal
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524:
516:
512:
511:Peter Bruegel
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479:Peter Bruegel
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385:Low Countries
382:
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361:Daniel Hisgen
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321:Daniel Hisgen
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210:Lucas Cranach
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193:Martin Luther
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163:Martin Luther
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159:Protestantism
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32:
19:
1737:
1711:2 vols, 1974
1708:
1663:
1646:
1624:
1617:Google Books
1604:
1590:
1589:James Hall,
1576:
1564:
1543:
1534:
1525:
1516:
1501:
1496:
1485:. Retrieved
1481:the original
1471:
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1236:Google books
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932:eastern Asia
912:universality
905:
874:
868:
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814:
811:, 1580–1586.
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591:Michelangelo
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497:The Milkmaid
496:
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454:
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381:Beeldenstorm
373:
354:
342:funerary art
330:
327:can be seen.
325:Annunciation
299:
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238:
203:
191:
156:
148:
139:Beeldenstorm
76:
48:
38:
1781:Art history
1742:Eamon Duffy
1264:idolatrous.
1041:New Advent.
922:, parts of
780:Last Supper
736:Lamentation
692:Lamentation
457:iconography
445:Last Supper
432:printmaking
405:Catholicism
369:Upper Hesse
363:, a German
279:John Calvin
204:Last Supper
171:John Calvin
123:Last Supper
1786:Iconoclasm
1755:Categories
1643:Roy Strong
1585:0300055870
1569:online PDF
1555:References
1487:2007-03-26
1401:Émile Mâle
1193:0300046758
885:Confession
714:tabernacle
706:sacraments
672:Émile Mâle
501:classicism
495:, such as
493:engravings
335:, such as
260:Franciscan
252:iconoclasm
234:altarpiece
100:still life
72:Calvinists
56:Protestant
891:Cardinal
881:sacrament
784:refectory
628:Mannerism
425:Eucharist
307:blasphemy
271:sculpture
1112:Doberan.
920:Americas
809:El Greco
708:and the
662:, Saint
636:Orthodox
551:etchings
346:heraldry
267:idolatry
241:crucifix
187:Anglican
179:Lutheran
68:Lutheran
60:humanist
916:Jesuits
861:Jesuits
853:Antwerp
842:Bohemia
822:Belgium
660:Molanus
643:decrees
535:Antwerp
473:Holbein
469:Younger
143:retable
66:. The
1734:Review
1670:
1653:
1632:
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1297:cause.
1288:
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979:5.5.).
970:
924:Africa
889:Jesuit
857:Rubens
830:Rubens
710:saints
624:Venice
599:Charon
523:Summer
461:prints
365:Rococo
350:Christ
287:Zurich
263:friary
256:Erfurt
946:Notes
936:faith
928:India
648:piety
333:Bible
1668:ISBN
1651:ISBN
1630:ISBN
1609:ISBN
1595:ISBN
1581:ISBN
1506:ISBN
1448:ISBN
1382:ISBN
1315:ISBN
1286:ISBN
1253:ISBN
1189:ISBN
1139:ISBN
1101:ISBN
1057:ISBN
1008:ISBN
968:ISBN
930:and
908:Rome
897:cock
471:and
467:and
392:and
337:Mary
295:coup
277:and
228:and
202:the
185:and
173:and
149:The
98:and
49:The
43:halo
1736:of
1378:OUP
883:of
828:.
807:by
759:'s
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589:by
513:'s
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117:'s
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1645:;
1434:^
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1280:.
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954:^
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90:,
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1429:.
765:)
601:.
517:.
375:"
125:.
20:)
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