372:. He discusses reasons why governments were willing participants in the repatriation program, even when it was obvious that many Russians did not wish to return and that the fate of repatriates was death, torture, or forced labor. One issue for Western Allies was reciprocity, namely concern for their prisoners who had fallen into Soviet hands. While Tolstoy had access to British documents that were opened 30 years after World War II, he indicates Soviet documents remained sealed. Generally, on their side, agents from
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sentence or a 25-year labor camp sentence, 15–20% received sentences of 5 to 10 years, 10% were exiled for 6 years or more, 15% worked as conscripts in assigned areas and not allowed to return home subsequently, and 15–20% were allowed to return home but remained ostracized. The remainder was "wastage", that is people who died in transit, got lost, or escaped.
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as "an honorable, and profoundly disturbing book which pulled no punches", but he was highly critical of
Tolstoy's follow-up books, arguing that their increasing stridency and tendency to twist the evidence to fit a preconceived theory effectively vitiated them as serious works of history. Horne also
367:
While
Tolstoy primarily discusses the reaction of the British and Americans to the Soviet requests for repatriation, he also describes the actions of other governments. Repatriation programs were enacted in Belgium, Finland, France, Holland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. The only country known to
384:
Tolstoy estimates that overall, two or more million Soviet nationals were repatriated. Repatriation efforts were most ardently followed by the
British, while American forces were conciliatory with Soviet demands but Tolstoy noted increasing reluctance. While the Soviet government also attempted to
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conducted the handling of the repatriates. Tolstoy, however, also obtained information from survivors and defectors. According to his estimate, based on data of a former NKVD officer, a total of 5.5 million
Russians were repatriated from formerly occupied areas; of these 20% either received a death
194:, Italy, and France after the Normandy landing consisted usually of forced-labour contingents or, after Normandy, also of Russians fighting within the context of the German Army. The repatriation process resulted in their execution or transport to labor camps, such as
407:(1986). In these books, he deals more with the issue that in May 1945 British forces in Carinthia handed over emigres from Russia who were not Soviet citizens and, in the latter, chronicles also the British release of the anti-communist
179:. The Moscow conference of 1944 and the Yalta agreement laid the groundwork for the participation of the British and American governments to support the repatriation program of the Soviet government. Tolstoy was especially critical of
38:
249:
345:). Those in areas under Soviet control came into Soviet possession directly. Those in areas controlled by the Western Allies were to be repatriated. By July 4, 1945, over 1.5 million Russians had been transferred by
602:(1990). "The unquiet graves of Yalta: forty-five years ago, seventy thousand Cossacks and Yugoslavs were "repatriated" to torture, slavery and death at the hands of Stalin and Tito. Was this a war crime?".
228:, and when German troops came in 1942 hoped to be able to resume their struggle with German help. During the German retreat they moved westwards with their families and ended up at the end of the war in
273:. These groups, estimated to number about 35,000 people, surrendered to the British in early May 1945, who handed all Cossacks and Caucasians (even if they were not Soviet citizens) to the Soviet
385:"repatriate" people of countries it conquered in and after 1939, the Western Allies resisted returning possibly millions of people from Bessarabia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.
296:, in Austria, on May 10, 1945. By the end of May, 17,702 soldiers, including their German officers, and some women and children, were handed over to the Soviet NKVD at Judenburg.
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notes that
Macmillan, then 90, felt he was too old to initiate a suit to defend himself. Horne's final judgement is that fresh evidence, uncovered after the publication of
167:. Conditions in Germany for Soviet prisoners were appalling and their mortality rate high, making it attractive for many to join laborers, Russian auxiliary troops, or the
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315:, only to be handed over to the Soviets. Vlasov, its commander, was arrested by the Americans and repatriated as well. Execution, torture, and labor camps awaited them.
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307:. A part of it helped to liberate the city from the German occupation, only to fight alongside German troops days later to escape capture by the
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had been formed from men from the
Caucasus and from Turkic land further east, and fought in Italy; its main body surrendered near
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171:(ROA). The situation for Russian soldiers was complicated by the stance of the Soviet government that rejected efforts by the
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that indicates some initial responses to the book and added some additional notes. Tolstoy followed his investigations with
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Tolstoy describes the various groups of over five million
Russians who had fallen into German hands. These include
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With the surrender of
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was the final repatriation process that took place in Italy between August 14, 1946 and May 8–9, 1947.
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277:within four weeks. Many Cossacks were executed in
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341:(volunteers in the Army), and slave laborers (
121:, all citizens of the Soviet Union were to be
303:found itself by the end of World War II near
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281:and the remainder sent to the East.
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216:, and a number of groups from the
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670:History books about World War II
292:surrendered to the British near
117:that was confirmed at the 1945
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404:The Minister and the Massacres
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286:XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps
224:, had been persecuted under
131:extermination through labour
101:that chronicles the fate of
27:1977 book by Nikolai Tolstoy
622:. Charles Scribner's Sons.
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113:. According to the secret
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320:162nd Turkoman Division
301:Russian Liberation Army
173:International Red Cross
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290:Helmuth von Pannwitz
620:The Secret Betrayal
399:Stalin's Secret War
259:Vyacheslav Naumenko
145:, forced laborers (
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610:(2): 27–33.
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343:Ostarbeiter
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123:repatriated
654:Categories
464:References
395:postscript
389:Reactions
279:Judenburg
265:, Sultan
232:and near
230:Carinthia
204:from the
127:execution
64:Publisher
618:(1977).
442:See also
409:Slovenes
309:Red Army
218:Caucasus
202:Cossacks
157:refugees
137:Contents
56:Language
328:Taranto
238:Austria
196:Vorkuta
177:traitor
161:émigrés
59:English
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413:Croats
378:SMERSH
332:Odessa
313:Pilsen
305:Prague
269:, and
245:Pavlov
242:Ataman
212:, and
163:, and
103:Soviet
48:Author
347:SHAEF
339:Hiwis
324:Padua
236:, in
234:Lienz
214:Terek
210:Kuban
624:ISBN
411:and
374:NKVD
318:The
299:The
284:The
275:NKVD
80:1977
70:(UK)
415:to
376:or
349:as
206:Don
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250:ru
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