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the disc being proportional to the population of the city. This type of map is useful for visualization when raw data cannot be dealt with as a ratio or proportion. Although circles are the most typical symbol because they are more compact due to their low perimeter to area ratio, studies show that it is easier for the reader to estimate the size of the symbol if it is a square or a bar. Proportional symbol maps are commonly used for variables representing total counts or amounts.
597:
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may be lines (such as making the length of subway lines proportional to travel time), but most commonly it is regions that are scaled. The distorted shapes are sometimes used as a basis for additional thematic mapping techniques, such as the choropleth, and can be used to display absolute data not appropriate for choropleth maps.
113:, use very different strategies for representing the location and attributes of geographic phenomena, such that each is preferable for different forms of phenomena and different forms of available data. A wide variety of phenomena and data can thus be visualized using thematic maps, including those from the natural world (e.g.,
27:
455:
761:. The primary purpose of reference information is to establish the location of the thematic information in a context understood by the map readers (i.e., to answer questions such as "where is this red region in the real world?"). Common reference layers include government administrative boundaries, roads, cities, a
692:, where each dot represented one death due to cholera. Alternatively, aggregate statistical data (the same used in choropleth maps) may be mapped by randomly placing dots within each aggregation region (e.g., country, state, county) to show the general density of instances; this latter form is usually called a
554:
A cartogram is a map that intentionally distorts geographic space based on a given variable, usually by scaling features so their size is proportional to their value of the variable. For example, the countries of the world could be scaled proportional to their population. The features being distorted
528:
The proportional symbol technique uses point symbols of different sizes (height, length, area, or volume) to represent quantitative statistical values associated with different areas or locations within the map. For example, a disc may be shown at the location of each city in a map, with the area of
497:
is most common for quantitative differences, such as population density. Choropleth maps are the most popular form of thematic map due to their intuitive nature, widespread availability of such aggregate statistical data, and GIS data for common regions. The loss of information inherent in aggregate
168:
roots; almost all of the modern graphical techniques were invented between 1700 and 1850. Prior to this, the most important cartographic development was the production of accurate general base maps. Their accuracy improved slowly, and even in the mid-17th century, they were usually of poor quality;
721:
are maps that use line symbols to portray movement or relationship between two or more places, such as air travel, monetary aid, or economic trade. The lines may be schematic straight lines or curves, or may represent the actual travel route. Some flow maps simply show the presence of connections,
342:
By the early 20th century, established methods were in place for manually drafting a variety of thematic maps, but they were still produced in far fewer numbers than general reference maps, and occupied a relatively small portion of cartographic education. Their popularity vastly increased in the
376:
The most common purpose of a thematic map is to portray the geographic distribution of one or more phenomena. Sometimes this distribution is already familiar to the cartographer, who wants to communicate it to an audience, while at other times the map is created to discover previously unknown
73:
selected properties of geographic features that are not naturally visible, such as temperature, language, or population. In this, they contrast with general reference maps, which focus on the location (more than the properties) of a diverse set of physical features, such as rivers, roads, and
476:
A choropleth map shows statistical data aggregated over predefined regions, such as countries or states, by coloring or shading these regions. For example, countries with higher rates of infant mortality might appear darker on a choropleth map. The summary variable being mapped may be
451:) and with one or more reference map layers in a single map. For example, a cartogram technique could be used to distort the sizes of countries proportional to one variable, with the countries being filled with colors representing a second variable using the choropleth technique.
347:
in geography and the rise of cartography as an academic discipline, both of which increased the role of thematic maps as tools for scientific analysis and communication; second, technology that facilitates map design and production, especially the
270:
One of the most influential early works of thematic cartography was a small booklet of five maps produced in 1837 by Henry Drury
Harness as part of a government report on the potential for construction of railroads in Ireland. Included were early
325:. At Snow's request, the handle of the pump was removed, and new cholera cases ceased almost at once. Further investigation of the area revealed that the Broad Street pump was near a cesspit under the home of the outbreak's first cholera victim.
506:. Choropleth maps, in almost all cases, must employ normalized or rate data (such as people per square mile, or disease cases per 100,000) to avoid creating a misleading map. This step is often ignored, leading to potentially misleading maps.
305:. Though disease had been mapped thematically, Snow's cholera map in 1854 is the best-known example of using thematic maps for analysis. Essentially, his technique and methodology anticipated the principles of a geographic information system (
748:
is used to estimate a more detailed distribution of the phenomenon within each enumeration unit. For example, land cover data (forest, water, grassland, urbanization) may be used to refine the distribution of county-level population density.
589:(sometimes conceptualized as "statistical surfaces" by cartographers), such as precipitation or elevation by partitioning space into regions, each containing a consistent range of values of the field. The boundary of each region, an
242:
The early to middle 19th century could be considered, as
Robinson called it, a "golden age" of thematic mapping, when many of the current techniques were invented or further developed. For example, the earliest known
684:
places small point symbols over a given space to indicate the distribution of a given phenomenon. The location of each dot may represent the actual location of a single instance, as in the map made by
408:
By focusing on a single subject matter, the thematic map is typically intended to be used for a narrower range of tasks than a reference map. These tasks tend to fall into three types:
744:
is an alternative to a choropleth map. As with a choropleth map, data are collected by enumeration units. But instead of mapping the data so that the region appears uniform,
97:
Several types of thematic maps have been invented, starting in the 18th and 19th centuries, as large amounts of statistical data began to be collected and published, such as
335:. In the 1850s and 1860s, he integrated thematic maps (especially flow maps) with statistical charts to create visual narratives, most notably his 1869 map of Napoleon's
1448:
Chen, Xiang; Ye, Xinyue; Widener, Michael J.; Delmelle, Eric; Kwan, Mei-Po; Shannon, Jerry; Racine, Racine F.; Adams, Aaron; Liang, Lu; Peng, Jia (27 December 2022).
207:(1656–1742), who introduced the Enlightenment conception of the thematic map as a tool for scientific thinking. His first significant cartographic contribution was a
593:, thus represents the set of locations of constant value. For example, on a topographic map, each contour line indicates an area at the listed elevation.
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and published in 1686. In that same year he also published his first terrestrial map in an article about trade winds, and this map is called the first
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219:. In 1701 he published the "New and Correct Chart Shewing the Variations of the Compass", see first image, the first chart to show lines of equal
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231:(nominal area-class) maps also appeared in the late 18th century as scientific instruments for exploring geographic phenomena such as
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Brewer, Cynthia. A.; Pickle, L. (2002). "Evaluation of methods for classifying epidemiological data on choropleth maps in series".
65:
that portrays the geographic pattern of a particular subject matter (theme) in a geographic area. This usually involves the use of
1700:
1839:
600:
1620:"Integrating geographic information system technique with Google Trends data to analyse COVID-19 severity and public interest"
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353:
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Contiguous cartogram (Gastner-Newman) of the world with each country rescaled in proportion to the hectares of certified
762:
1225:
MacEachren, Alan M.; Ganter, John H. (Summer 1990). "A Pattern
Identification Approach to Cartographic Visualization".
389:. A thematic map usually focuses on visualizing the distribution of values of a single property or type of feature (a
558:
412:
Provide specific information about particular locations. For example, "what is the
Hispanic proportion of Chicago?"
364:; and third, the widespread availability of large volumes of data, notably the first digital releases of national
815:
Bartz
Petchenik, Barbara (April 1979). "From Place to Space: The Psychological Achievement of Thematic Mapping".
405:) properties or feature types that are hypothesized to be statistically correlated or otherwise closely related.
336:
332:
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While the thematic information is the core of a thematic map, other geographic features may also be included as
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1135:"Carte figurative des pertes successives en hommes de l'Armée Française dans la campagne de Russie 1812–1813"
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but they were good enough to display basic information, allowing the production of the first thematic maps.
90:, but these have generally fallen out of common usage. Thematic mapping is closely allied with the field of
2018:
1902:
1450:"A systematic review of the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) in community food environmental research"
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Cartographers use many methods to create thematic maps. These are often referred to as different types of
1419:
1907:
769:. These layers play a secondary role in the use of the map, so they are usually included sparingly, and
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1356:"Normalizing the pandemic: exploring the cartographic issues in state government COVID-19 dashboards"
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system to recognize patterns in a complex visual field, which is necessary for common tasks such as
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1991:
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1081:"Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization"
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634:(usually color hue) to represent regions of homogeneous value. Common examples include maps of
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381:). Thematic maps accomplish these two goals by leveraging the natural ability of the human
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Compare patterns on two or more maps. For example, "how did the vote change between the
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Provide general information about spatial patterns. For example, "where is maize grown?"
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1516:"The disguised pandemic: the importance of data normalization in COVID-19 web mapping"
2012:
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Crawford, P. (1973). "The
Perception of Graduated Squares as Cartographic Symbols".
1996:
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106:
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Slocum, Terry A.; McMaster, Robert B.; Kessler, Fritz C.; Howard, Hugh H. (2009).
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Slocum, Terry A.; McMaster, Robert B.; Kessler, Fritz C.; Howard, Hugh H. (2009).
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1259:(1st Quarter 2020 Edition), John P. Wilson (ed.). DOI: 10.22224/gistbok/2020.1.5
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is commonly used for qualitative variables, such as predominant land use, while
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Dot density map showing the incidence of malaria in Africa Source: WHO (2017)
297:'s cholera map about the cholera deaths in London in the 1840s, published 1854.
203:
An early contributor to thematic mapping in
England was the English astronomer
1884:
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such as size (width) or color to represent the properties of each connection.
643:
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212:
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66:
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1354:
Adams, Aaron M.; Chen, Xiang; Li, Weidong; Chuanrong, Zhang (27 July 2023).
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of the constellations of the
Southern Hemisphere, made during his stay on
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188:(1607). This was soon followed by a thematic globe (in the form of a six-
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buildings. Alternative names have been suggested for this class, such as
34:
661:
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filling each region are used to represent each aggregate summary value:
1063:
1039:
984:"Novus typus orbis ipsus globus, ex Analemmate Ptolomaei diductus 1614"
454:
318:
114:
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Another example of early thematic mapping comes from London physician
1257:
The
Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge
651:
365:
310:
98:
1055:
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has been hailed as perhaps the first master of thematic mapping and
1710:
Muehrcke, Phillip; Muehrcke, Juliana O.; Kimerling, A. Jon (2001).
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second half of the century, due to several influences: first, the
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26:
25:
1702:
First X, Then Y, Now Z: An
Introduction to Landmark Thematic Maps
1514:
Adams, Aaron; Chen, Xiang; Li, Weidong; Zhang, Chuanrong (2020).
1269:
Dent, Borden D.; Torguson, Jeffrey S.; Hodler, Thomas W. (2009).
897:
Dent, Borden D.; Torguson, Jeffrey S.; Hodler, Thomas W. (2009).
1603:
Atlas of Organics: Four Maps of the World of Organic Agriculture
198:
Novus typus orbis ipsus globus, ex Analemmate Ptolomaei diductus
1821:
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A chorochromatic or area-class map represents a categorical or
1874:
513:
Proportional symbol map of the 2016 U.S. presidential election
490:
306:
62:
20:
1387:
Piantados, Steven; Byar, David P.; Green, Sylvan B. (1988).
498:
information can result in interpretation issues such as the
321:
deaths. The emerging pattern centered around one particular
1799:
Maps & Civilization: Cartography in Culture and Society
146:
New and Correct Chart Showing the Variations of the Compass
1096:
Atlas to Accompany 2nd Report of the Railway Commissioners
714:
Flow map depicting US aid to Africa in 2016. Source: USAID
626:
variable distributed over space (also known as a discrete
192:
map) showing the same subject, using Hondius' symbols, by
1007:
Maps and Civilization: Cartography in Culture and Society
845:
Maps and Civilization: Cartography in Culture and Society
1817:
1187:
How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and Design
41:. A very innovative thematic map from the 19th century.
1093:
Griffith, Richard John; Harness, Henry Drury (1838).
1010:(3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p.
848:(3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p.
447:, as they can be combined with each other (forming a
1735:
Early Thematic Mapping in the History of Cartography
947:
Early Thematic Mapping in the History of Cartography
49:
Isarithmic map of minimum temperature used as plant
172:One of the earliest thematic maps was one entitled
1732:
180:, showing the dispersion of major religions using
1326:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
585:or isoline maps, depict continuous quantitative
1033:
1031:
148:(1701), the first chart to show lines of equal
1713:Map Use: Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation
1212:The visual display of quantitative information
940:
938:
936:
817:Cartography and Geographic Information Science
439:, but it is more proper to call them types of
1833:
1802:(3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
960:Van der Dussen, Jan and Kevin Wilson (1995).
777:, but not so faded that they cannot be used.
8:
1565:ESRI ArcGIS Resources. Accessed 19 Dec 2018
920:
918:
317:locations, Snow mapped out the incidence of
1669:Kraak, Menno Jan; Ormeling, Ferjan (2003).
309:). Starting with an accurate base map of a
1840:
1826:
1818:
1671:Cartography: Visualization of spatial data
1601:Paull, John & Hennig, Benjamin (2016)
1286:"Choropleth Maps Without Class Intervals?"
1778:Thematic cartography and geovisualization
1645:
1635:
1613:
1611:
1539:
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1371:
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313:neighborhood which included streets and
19:For broader coverage of this topic, see
1781:(3rd ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
807:
1174:(3rd ed.). Pearson/Prentice Hall.
1172:Thematic Cartography and Visualization
1040:"The 1837 Maps of Henry Drury Harness"
607:, an example of a chorochromatic map.
255:(1815–1901) developed the population
7:
1303:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1973.tb01012.x
927:Cartographic design and production
690:1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
393:map), occasionally including two (
14:
1605:Journal of Organics. 3(1): 25–32.
1421:The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem
964:The History of the Idea of Europe
1990:
1979:
1978:
1393:American Journal of Epidemiology
1271:Cartography: Thematic Map Design
1038:Robinson, Arthur H. (Dec 1955).
899:Cartography: Thematic Map Design
160:, thematic maps were largely an
16:Type of map that visualizes data
1739:. University of Chicago Press.
1705:. Princeton University Library.
1673:(2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.
1493:. University of Chicago Press.
1189:. Guilford Press. p. 355.
581:Isarithmic maps, also known as
184:, in the French edition of his
39:invasion of Russia in 1812–1813
949:. University of Chicago Press.
1:
1796:Thrower, Norman J.W. (2008).
1373:10.1080/17445647.2023.2235385
1004:Thrower, Norman J.W. (2008).
842:Thrower, Norman J.W. (2008).
504:Modifiable areal unit problem
449:bivariate or multivariate map
426:U.S. presidential elections?"
354:geographic information system
279:maps, and possibly the first
121:) and the human world (e.g.,
1754:Robinson, Arthur H. (1995).
1731:Robinson, Arthur H. (1982).
1273:(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
1185:MacEachren, Alan M. (1995).
945:Robinson, Arthur H. (1982).
763:latitude/longitude graticule
612:Chorochromatic or area-class
1562:Using Proportional Symbols
1239:10.3138/M226-1337-2387-3007
1152:. McGraw-Hill. p. 245.
630:), by using different area
481:, but usually represents a
445:thematic mapping techniques
174:Designatio orbis christiani
2040:
1637:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.09.005
1532:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.04.034
1467:10.1007/s44212-022-00021-1
901:. McGraw-Hill. p. 7.
829:10.1559/152304079784022763
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574:
547:
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469:
18:
1974:
1916:
1893:
1855:
1210:Tufte, Edward R. (1983).
874:"Fundamentals of Mapping"
518:Proportional point symbol
333:information visualization
281:proportional point symbol
1589:10.1179/caj.1973.10.2.85
1489:Monmonier, Mark (2018).
1389:"The Ecological Fallacy"
1133:Minard, Charles Joseph.
1044:The Geographical Journal
925:Keates, John S. (1973).
1757:Elements of cartography
1418:Openshaw, Stan (1983).
1338:10.1111/1467-8306.00310
524:Proportional symbol map
479:nominal or quantitative
377:patterns (as a form of
345:Quantitative revolution
337:1812 invasion of Europe
259:, a map that shows the
247:was created in 1826 by
223:and possibly the first
101:. These types, such as
1903:History of cartography
1760:(6e ed.). Wiley.
1699:Delaney, John (2012).
1284:Tobler, Waldo (1973).
1110:Tufte, Edward (2006).
929:. Longman. p. 59.
715:
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608:
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298:
164:innovation, with some
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54:
42:
1908:List of cartographers
1290:Geographical Analysis
1148:Raisz, Erwin (1948).
968:. Routledge. p.
759:reference information
746:ancillary information
713:
664:
599:
571:Isarithmic or isoline
561:
535:
512:
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329:Charles Joseph Minard
293:
251:. Based on this work
140:
48:
29:
1577:Cartographic Journal
1491:How to Lie With Maps
1253:Multivariate Mapping
682:dot distribution map
676:Dot distribution map
323:pump in Broad Street
263:of Paris in 1874 by
253:Louis-Léger Vauthier
217:meteorological chart
80:special-purpose maps
1716:. JP Publications.
1251:Nelson, J. (2020).
1150:General Cartography
1120:2006beev.book.....T
787:André-Michel Guerry
564:barometric pressure
441:thematic map layers
111:chorochromatic maps
1618:Zhang, T. (2020).
1114:. Graphics Press.
1112:Beautiful Evidence
716:
667:
618:Chorochromatic map
609:
603:geological map of
568:
562:Isarithmic map of
541:
515:
500:Ecological fallacy
463:
387:object recognition
299:
261:population density
221:magnetic variation
194:Franciscus Haraeus
154:
150:magnetic variation
55:
43:
2006:
2005:
1809:978-0-226-79974-2
1788:978-0-13-229834-6
1767:978-0-471-55579-7
1746:978-0-226-72285-6
1723:978-0-9602978-5-6
1680:978-0-13-088890-7
1454:Urban Informatics
1214:. Graphics Press.
908:978-0-07-294382-5
773:to be low in the
722:while others use
383:visual perception
358:graphics software
350:personal computer
166:Enlightenment-era
99:national censuses
88:distribution maps
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1994:
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1921:Animated mapping
1898:Early world maps
1870:Geovisualization
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487:Visual variables
483:geographic field
379:Geovisualization
92:Geovisualization
84:statistical maps
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1360:Journal of Maps
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867:
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840:
836:
814:
813:
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797:Topographic map
783:
755:
738:
732:
708:
702:
694:dot density map
678:
672:
636:surface geology
620:
614:
579:
573:
552:
546:
538:organic farming
526:
520:
474:
468:
433:
431:Mapping methods
374:
178:Jodocus Hondius
158:Arthur Robinson
135:
107:isarithmic maps
103:choropleth maps
76:special-subject
51:hardiness zones
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2037:
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2027:
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2011:
2010:
2004:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1988:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1946:Nautical chart
1943:
1941:Linguistic map
1938:
1933:
1931:Choropleth map
1928:
1923:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1894:
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1890:
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1882:
1880:Map projection
1877:
1872:
1867:
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1856:
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1844:
1837:
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1594:
1567:
1555:
1506:
1499:
1481:
1440:
1433:
1410:
1379:
1343:
1332:(4): 662–681.
1316:
1296:(3): 262–265.
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1261:
1244:
1217:
1202:
1195:
1177:
1155:
1140:
1125:
1102:
1085:
1069:
1050:(4): 440–450.
1027:
1020:
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932:
914:
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865:
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792:Nautical chart
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742:dasymetric map
736:Dasymetric map
734:Main article:
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575:Main article:
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472:Choropleth map
470:Main article:
467:
464:
459:Choropleth map
432:
429:
428:
427:
416:
413:
373:
370:
368:in the 1990s.
273:chorochromatic
245:choropleth map
229:chorochromatic
225:isarithmic map
162:Industrial Age
134:
131:
37:of Napoleon's
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
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3:
2:
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2019:Thematic maps
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1985:Category:Maps
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1951:Pictorial map
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1624:Public Health
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1227:Cartographica
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1196:0-89862-589-0
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461:of water use.
460:
456:
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450:
446:
442:
438:
437:thematic maps
430:
425:
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411:
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249:Charles Dupin
246:
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206:
205:Edmond Halley
201:
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187:
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159:
156:According to
151:
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142:Edmond Halley
139:
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127:public health
124:
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116:
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93:
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61:is a type of
60:
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28:
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1997:Portal:Atlas
1995:
1983:
1956:Thematic map
1955:
1936:Geologic map
1798:
1777:
1756:
1734:
1712:
1701:
1670:
1664:
1627:
1623:
1597:
1583:(2): 85–88.
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1576:
1570:
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1401:. Retrieved
1396:
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1307:. Retrieved
1293:
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877:
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745:
739:
717:
693:
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656:climate type
621:
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583:contour maps
580:
577:Contour line
553:
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444:
440:
436:
434:
407:
402:multivariate
400:
394:
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96:
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59:thematic map
58:
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1966:Weather map
1860:Cartography
1403:27 December
989:25 February
878:icsm.gov.au
823:(1): 5–12.
688:during the
652:city zoning
399:) or more (
257:contour map
196:, entitled
186:Atlas Minor
182:map symbols
67:map symbols
2013:Categories
1885:Topography
1500:022643592X
1366:(5): 1–9.
1099:. Ireland.
883:2015-05-03
803:References
771:symbolized
765:, or even
730:Dasymetric
644:vegetation
466:Choropleth
391:univariate
360:, and the
315:water pump
285:dasymetric
213:St. Helena
209:star chart
176:(1607) by
1926:Cartogram
1865:Geography
1526:: 36–37.
1476:255206315
719:Flow maps
550:Cartogram
544:Cartogram
495:lightness
396:bivariate
303:John Snow
295:John Snow
71:visualize
2024:Diagrams
1656:33074108
1550:32416476
1309:11 March
1079:(2008).
781:See also
706:Flow map
686:Dr. Snow
648:land use
502:and the
372:Purposes
366:censuses
362:Internet
265:isolines
237:language
227:. Early
35:flow map
31:Minard's
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1541:7203028
1116:Bibcode
1064:1791753
767:terrain
632:symbols
624:nominal
605:Georgia
591:isoline
356:(GIS),
319:cholera
233:geology
200:(1614)
133:History
115:climate
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311:London
287:maps.
109:, and
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1685:p.129
1472:S2CID
1425:(PDF)
1060:JSTOR
628:field
119:soils
86:, or
33:1869
1804:ISBN
1783:ISBN
1762:ISBN
1741:ISBN
1718:ISBN
1675:ISBN
1652:PMID
1546:PMID
1495:ISBN
1429:ISBN
1405:2022
1311:2022
1191:ISBN
1016:ISBN
991:2013
903:ISBN
854:ISBN
700:Flow
640:soil
601:USGS
424:2012
422:and
420:2008
283:and
277:flow
275:and
235:and
190:gore
1875:Map
1642:PMC
1632:doi
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1462:doi
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