Theory of constraints - Knowledge (XXG)

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his own framework of profiting on his ideas. According to Gupta and Snyder (2009), despite being recognized as a genuine management philosophy nowadays, TOC has yet failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in the academic literature and as such, cannot be considered academically worthy to be called a widely recognized theory. TOC needs more case studies that prove a connection between implementation and improved financial performance. Nave (2002) argues that TOC does not take employees into account and fails to empower them in the production process. He also states that TOC fails to address unsuccessful policies as constraints. In contrast, Mukherjee and Chatterjee (2007) state that much of the criticism of Goldratt's work has been focused on the lack of rigour in his work, but not of the bottleneck approach, which are two different aspects of the issue.

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and nearly all tools can be used independently (Cox & Spencer, 1998). Since these thinking tools are designed to address successive "layers of resistance" and enable communication, it expedites securing "buy in" of groups. While CRT (current reality tree) represents the undesirable effects of the current situation, the FRT (the future reality tree), NBR (negative branch) help people plan and understand the possible results of their actions. The PRT (prerequisite tree) and TRT (transition tree) are designed to build collective buy in and aid in the Implementation phase. The logical constructs of these tools or diagrams are the necessary condition logic, the sufficient cause logic and the strict logic rules that are used to validate cause-effect relationships which are modelled with these tools (Dettmer W., 2006).

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distribution link simply extends its buffer sizing and management techniques to its customers' inventories. Doing so has the effect of smoothing the demand from the customer and reducing order sizes per SKU. VMI results in better availability and inventory turns for both supplier and customer. The benefits to the non-TOC customers are sufficient to meet the purpose of capitalizing on the competitive edge by giving the customer a reason to be more loyal and give more business to the upstream link. When the end consumers buy more, the whole supply chain sells more.

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internal or external to the system. An internal constraint is in evidence when the market demands more from the system than it can deliver. If this is the case, then the focus of the organization should be on discovering that constraint and following the five focusing steps to open it up (and potentially remove it). An external constraint exists when the system can produce more than the market will bear. If this is the case, then the organization should focus on mechanisms to create more demand for its products or services.

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priority system operate strictly based on the time an order is expected to be at the drum. Each work order will have a remaining buffer status that can be calculated. Based on this buffer status, work orders can be color coded into Red, Yellow and Green. The red orders have the highest priority and must be worked on first, since they have penetrated most into their buffers followed by yellow and green. As time evolves, this buffer status might change and the color assigned to the particular work order change with it.

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rule 3). Alternatively, when the on hand inventory is in the bottom one third of the buffer for too long, the buffer is increased by one third (and don't forget rule 4). The definition of "too long" may be changed depending on required service levels, however, a rule of thumb is 20% of the RT. Moving buffers up more readily than down is supported by the usually greater damage caused by shortages as compared to the damage caused by surpluses.

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In a balanced line, as espoused by kanban, when one work center goes down for a period longer than the buffer allows, then the entire system must wait until that work center is restored. In a TOC system, the only situation where work is in danger is if the constraint is unable to process (either due to malfunction, sickness or a "hole" in the buffer – if something goes wrong that the time buffer can not protect).

808:. For effective sales management one can apply Drum Buffer Rope to the sales process similar to the way it is applied to operations (see Reengineering the Sales Process book reference below). This technique is appropriate when your constraint is in the sales process itself, or if you just want an effective sales management technique which includes the topics of funnel management and conversion rates. 53: 351:. However, for many organizations and non-profit businesses, making money is a necessary condition for pursuing the goal. Whether it is the goal or a necessary condition, understanding how to make sound financial decisions based on throughput, inventory, and operating expense is a critical requirement. 788:(CCPM) are utilized in this area. CCPM is based on the idea that all projects look like A-plants: all activities converge to a final deliverable. As such, to protect the project, there must be internal buffers to protect synchronization points and a final project buffer to protect the overall project. 1056:

Goldratt has been criticized on lack of openness in his theories, an example being him not releasing the algorithm he used for the Optimum Performance Training system. Some view him as unscientific with many of his theories, tools and techniques not being a part of the public domain, rather a part of

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which dates back to World War II. And Noreen Smith and Mackey, in their independent report on TOC, point out that several key concepts in TOC "have been topics in management accounting textbooks for decades." It is also claimed that Goldratt's books fail to acknowledge that TOC borrows from more than

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To ensure buffers remain correctly sized even with changes in the rates of demand and replenishment, a simple recursive algorithm called Buffer Management is used. When the on hand inventory level is in the upper third of the buffer for a full RT, the buffer is reduced by one third (and don't forget

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is the work release mechanism for the plant. Orders are released to the shop floor at one "buffer time" before they are due to be processed by the constraint. In other words, if the buffer is 5 days, the order is released 5 days before it is due at the constraint. Putting work into the system earlier

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Drum-buffer-rope is a manufacturing execution methodology based on the fact the output of a system can only be the same as the output at the constraint of the system. Any attempt to produce more than what the constraint can process just leads to excess inventory piling up. The method is named for its

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and How Should it be Implemented?", and in his audio program, "Beyond The Goal". In these, Goldratt discusses the history of disciplinary sciences, compares the strengths and weaknesses of the various disciplines, and acknowledges the sources of information and inspiration for the thinking processes

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The process of change requires the identification and acceptance of core issues; the goal and the means to the goal. This comprehensive set of logical tools can be used for exploration, solution development and solution implementation for individuals, groups or organizations. Each tool has a purpose

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One caveat should be considered. Initially and only temporarily, the supply chain or a specific link may sell less as the surplus inventory in the system is sold. However, the sales lift due to improved availability is a countervailing factor. The current levels of surpluses and shortages make each

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A typical line setup is such that in normal operation the upstream conveyors from the constraint machine are always run full to prevent starvation at the constraint and the downstream conveyors are run empty to prevent a back up at the constraint. The overall aim is to prevent minor stoppages at the

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V-plant: The general flow of material is one-to-many, such as a plant that takes one raw material and can make many final products. Classic examples are meat rendering plants or a steel manufacturer. The primary problem in V-plants is "robbing," where one operation (A) immediately after a diverging

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Buffers can be a bank of physical objects before a work center, waiting to be processed by that work center. Buffers ultimately buy you time, as in the time before work reaches the constraint and are often verbalized as time buffers. There should always be enough (but not excessive) work in the time

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The TOC distribution solution is effective when used to address a single link in the supply chain and more so across the entire system, even if that system comprises many different companies. The purpose of the TOC distribution solution is to establish a competitive advantage based on extraordinary

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is the rate at which the physical constraint of the plant can work: the work center or machine or operation that limits the ability of the entire system to produce more. The rest of the plant follows the beat of the drum. Schedule at the drum decides what the system should produce, in what sequence

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system although it is similar if you regard the assembly line as the governing constraint. A prerequisite in the theory is that with one constraint in the system, all other parts of the system must have sufficient capacity to keep up with the work at the constraint and to catch up if time was lost.

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TOC was initiated by Goldratt, who until his death was still the main driving force behind the development and practice of TOC. There is a network of individuals and small companies loosely coupled as practitioners around the world. TOC is sometimes referred to as "constraint management". TOC is a

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Buffers are used throughout the theory of constraints. They often result as part of the exploit and subordinate steps of the five focusing steps. Buffers are placed before the governing constraint, thus ensuring that the constraint is never starved. Buffers are also placed behind the constraint to

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If a constraint's throughput capacity is elevated to the point where it is no longer the system's limiting factor, this is said to "break" the constraint. The limiting factor is now some other part of the system, or may be external to the system (an external constraint). This is not to be confused

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In all stocking locations, initial inventory buffers are set which effectively create an upper limit of the inventory at that location. The buffer size is equal to the maximum expected consumption within the average Replenishment Time ("RT"), plus additional stock to protect in case a delivery is

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Inventory is held at an aggregation point(s) as close as possible to the source. This approach ensures smoothed demand at the aggregation point, requiring proportionally less inventory. The distribution centers holding the aggregated stock are able to ship goods downstream to the next link in the

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A constraint is anything that prevents the system from achieving its goal. There are many ways that constraints can show up, but a core principle within TOC is that there are not tens or hundreds of constraints. There is at least one, but at most only a few in any given system. Constraints can be

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to identify the constraint and restructure the rest of the organization around it. TOC adopts the common idiom "a chain is no stronger than its weakest link". That means that organizations and processes are vulnerable because the weakest person or part can always damage or break them, or at least

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To be able to maximize the throughput, the production line usually has a designed constraint. This constraint is typically the slowest and often the most expensive machine on the line. The overall throughput of the line is determined by this machine. All other machines can operate faster and are

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From the above list, one can deduce that for non-material systems one could draw the flow of work or the flow of processes, instead of physical flows, and arrive at similar basic V, A, T, or I structures. A project, for example, is an A-shaped sequence of work, culminating in a delivered product

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T-plant: The general flow is that of an I-plant (or has multiple lines), which then splits into many assemblies (many-to-many). Most manufactured parts are used in multiple assemblies and nearly all assemblies use multiple parts. Customized devices, such as computers, are good examples. T-plants

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The primary measures for a TOC view of finance and accounting are: throughput, operating expense and investment. Throughput is calculated from sales minus "totally variable cost", where totally variable cost is usually calculated as the cost of raw materials that go into creating the item sold.

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A stocking location that manages inventory according to the TOC should help a non-TOC customer (downstream link in a supply chain, whether internal or external) manage their inventory according to the TOC process. This type of help can take the form of a vendor managed inventory (VMI). The TOC

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protects the drum, so that it always has work flowing to it. Buffers in DBR provide the additional lead time beyond the required set up and process times, for materials in the product flow. Since these buffers have time as their unit of measure, rather than quantity of material, this makes the

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There are four primary types of plants in the TOC lexicon. Draw the flow of material from the bottom of a page to the top, and you get the four types. They specify the general flow of materials through a system, and also provide some hints about where to look for typical problems. This type of

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Buffer management, therefore, represents a crucial attribute of the theory of constraints. There are many ways to apply buffers, but the most often used is a visual system of designating the buffer in three colors: green (okay), yellow (caution) and red (action required). Creating this kind of

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The Theory of Constraints International Certification Organization (TOCICO) is an independent not-for-profit incorporated society that sets exams to ensure a consistent standard of competence. It is overseen by a board of academic and industrial experts. It also hosts an annual international

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referenced foundational materials. Goldratt published an article and gave talks with the title "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants" in which he gives credit for many of the core ideas of Theory of Constraints. Goldratt has sought many times to show the correlation between various improvement

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Despite its origins as a manufacturing approach (Goldratt & Cox, The Goal: A process of Ongoing Improvement, 1992), Goldratt's Theory of Constraints (TOC) methodology is now regarded as a systems methodology with strong foundations in the hard sciences (Mabin, 1999). Through its tools for

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Use of these tools are based on the fundamental beliefs of TOC that organizations a) are inherently simple (interdependencies exist in organizations) b) desire inherent harmony (win – win solutions are possible) c) are inherently good (people are good) and have inherent potential (people and

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Automated production lines achieve high throughput rates and output quantities by deploying automation solutions that are highly task-specific. Depending on their design and construction, these machines operate at different speeds and capacities and therefore have varying efficiency levels.

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late. In other words, there is no advantage in holding more inventory in a location than the amount that might be consumed before more could be ordered and received. Typically, the sum of the on hand value of such buffers are 25–75% less than currently observed average inventory levels

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Once buffers have been established, no replenishment orders are placed as long as the quantity inbound (already ordered but not yet received) plus the quantity on hand are equal to or greater than the buffer size. Following this rule causes surplus inventory to be bled off as it is

344:. Inventory is all the money that the system has invested in purchasing things which it intends to sell. Operational expense is all the money the system spends in order to turn inventory into throughput. Throughput is the rate at which the system generates money through sales. 570:

A-plant: The general flow of material is many-to-one, such as in a plant where many sub-assemblies converge for a final assembly. The primary problem in A-plants is in synchronizing the converging lines so that each supplies the final assembly point at the right

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A prominent example is the use of automated production lines in the beverage industry. Filling systems usually have several machines executing parts of the complete bottling process, from filling primary containers to secondary packaging and palletisation.

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Traditional DBR usually calls for buffers at several points in the system: the constraint, synchronization points and at shipping. S-DBR has a buffer at shipping and manages the flow of work across the drum through a load planning mechanism.

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prevent downstream failure from blocking the constraint's output. Buffers used in this way protect the constraint from variations in the rest of the system and should allow for normal variation of processing time and the occasional upset (

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analysis is known as VATI analysis as it uses the bottom-up shapes of the letters V, A, T, and I to describe the types of plants. The four types can be combined in many ways in larger facilities, e.g. "an A plant feeding a V plant".

503:. In TOC, the constraint is used as a focusing mechanism for management of the system. In optimization, the constraint is written into the mathematical expressions to limit the scope of the solution (X can be no greater than 5). 867:

convergent thinking and synthesis, the "Thinking processes", which underpin the entire TOC methodology, help identify and manage constraints and guide continuous improvement and change in organizations (Dettmer H., 1998).

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D. Trietsch, From the Flawed "Theory of Constraints" to Hierarchically Balancing Criticalities (HBC), Department of Information Systems and Operations Management, University of Auckland, Working Paper No. 281, May

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Replenishment Time (RT) is the sum of the delay, after the first consumption following a delivery, before an order is placed plus the delay after the order is placed until the ordered goods arrive at the ordering

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The conveyors usually have the ability to buffer product. In the event of a stoppage at a machine other than the constraint, the conveyor can buffer the product enabling the constraint machine to keep on running.

631:, the solution seeks to pull materials through the system, rather than push them into the system. The primary methodology used is drum-buffer-rope (DBR) and a variation called simplified drum-buffer-rope (S-DBR). 553:

visibility enables the system as a whole to align and thus subordinate to the need of the constraint in a holistic manner. This can also be done daily in a central operations room that is accessible to everybody.

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Please note: organizations have many problems with equipment, people, policies, etc. (A breakdown is just that – a breakdown – and is not a constraint in the true sense of the TOC concept). The constraint is the

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is as follows: If there was nothing preventing a system from achieving higher throughput (i.e., more goal units in a unit of time), its throughput would be infinite – which is impossible in a real-life system.

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For any reason, when on hand plus inbound inventory is less than the buffer, orders are placed as soon as practical to increase the inbound inventory so that the relationship on Hand + Inbound = Buffer is

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organizations have potential to do better) (Goldratt E., 2009). In the book "Through the clouds to solutions" Jelena Fedurko (Fedurko, 2013) states that the major areas for application of TP tools as:

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suffer from both synchronization problems of A-plants (parts aren't all available for an assembly) and the robbing problems of V-plants (one assembly steals parts that could have been used in another).

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Following this rule may result in a make-to-order manufacturer converting to make-to-stock. The inventory added at the aggregation point is significantly less than the inventory reduction downstream.

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While TOC has been compared favorably to linear programming techniques, D. Trietsch from University of Auckland argues that DBR methodology is inferior to competing methodologies. Linhares, from the

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and per order) and customer order batching. Any improvements in these areas will automatically improve both availability and inventory turns, thanks to the adaptive nature of Buffer Management.

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Before the goal itself can be reached, necessary conditions must first be met. These typically include safety, quality, legal obligations, etc. For most businesses, the goal itself is to make

769:. Throughput accounting suggests that one examine the impact of investments and operational changes in terms of the impact on the throughput of the business. It is an alternative to 1075: 578:

I-plant: Material flows in a sequence, such as in an assembly line. The primary work is done in a straight sequence of events (one-to-one). The constraint is the slowest operation.

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The thinking processes are a set of tools to help managers walk through the steps of initiating and implementing a project. When used in a logical flow, they help walk through a

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Rahman, Shams-ur. "Theory of constraints: a review of the philosophy and its applications." International Journal of Operations & Production Management 18.4 (1998): 336-355.

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point "steals" materials meant for the other operation (B). Once the material has been processed by A, it cannot come back and be run through B without significant rework.

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The five focusing steps aim to ensure ongoing improvement efforts are centered on the organization's constraint(s). In the TOC literature, this is referred to as the

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Once inventory is managed as described above, continuous efforts should be undertaken to reduce RT, late deliveries, supplier minimum order quantities (both per

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Gupta, Mahesh, and Doug Snyder. "Comparing TOC with MRP and JIT: a literature review." International Journal of Production Research 47.13 (2009): 3705-3739

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For this reason as the machines get further from the constraint, they have the ability to run faster than the previous machine and this creates a V curve.

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The underlying premise of the theory of constraints is that organizations can be measured and controlled by variations on three measures:

285:, that is geared to help organizations continually achieve their goals. Goldratt adapted the concept to project management with his book 3866: 2661: 2319: 1003:, has shown that the TOC approach to establishing an optimal product mix is unlikely to yield optimum results, as it would imply that 607:/distribution generated specific solutions. Other tools (mainly the "thinking process") also led to TOC applications in the fields of 874:

A summary of these tools, the questions they help answer and the associated logical constructs used is presented in the table below.

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to produce and how much to produce. They make sure the drum has work and that anything the drum has processed does not get wasted.

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that is preventing the organization from getting more throughput (typically, revenue through sales) even when nothing goes wrong.

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Equipment: The way equipment is currently used limits the ability of the system to produce more salable goods/services.

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Mukherjee, S. M. and Chatterjee, A. K. (2007). The concept of bottleneck. Working Paper No. 2006-05-01, IIM Ahmedabad

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The goal of a commercial organization is: "Make more money now and in the future", and its measurements are given by

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Linhares, Alexandre (2009). "Theory of constraints and the combinatorial complexity of the product-mix decision".

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This approach uses several new rules to protect availability with less inventory than is conventionally required.

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Nave, Dave. "How to compare six sigma, lean and the theory of constraints." Quality Progress 35.3 (2002): 73-80.

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availability by reducing the damages caused when the flow of goods is interrupted by shortages and surpluses.

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conference. The work presented at these conferences constitutes a core repository of the current knowledge.

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that views any manageable system as being limited in achieving more of its goals by a very small number of

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than this buffer time is likely to generate too-high work-in-process and slow down the entire system.

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Velocity: Combining Lean, Six Sigma and the Theory of Constraints to Achieve Breakthrough Performance

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Steyn, Herman (2000). "An Investigation into the Fundamentals of Critical Chain Project Scheduling".

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Assuming the goal of a system has been articulated and its measurements defined, the steps are:

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The concept of the constraint in Theory of Constraints is analogous to but differs from the

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To develop responsibility for one's own actions through understanding their consequences

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The Future of Scientific Simulations: from Artificial Life to Artificial Cosmogenesis

1433: 1356:"Simplified Drum-Buffer-Rope: A Whole System Approach to High Velocity Manufacturing" 1020: 700:

is to create flow of inventory so as to ensure greater availability and to eliminate

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Only by increasing flow through the constraint can overall throughput be increased.

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and critical chain methodologies. Articles published in the now-defunct Journal of

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40 years of previous management science research and practice, particularly from

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queue before the constraint and adequate offloading space behind the constraint.

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While originally focused on manufacturing and logistics, TOC has expanded into

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TOC practitioners sometimes refer to these in the negative as working through

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The focusing steps, this process of ongoing improvement, have been applied to

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Supply chain management at warp speed: integrating the system from end to end

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The Logical Thinking Process: A Systems Approach to Complex Problem Solving

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Policy: A written or unwritten policy prevents the system from making more.

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Manufacturing at warp speed: optimizing supply chain financial performance

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Schragenheim, Eli, Dettmer, H. William, and Patterson, J. Wayne. (2009).

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Eliyahu M. Goldratt. 2004. _The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement,

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Qui, Mabel; Fredendall, Lawrence; Zhu, Zhiwei (2002). "TOC or LP? ".

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A rebuttal to these criticisms is offered in Goldratt's "What is the

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Holistic thinking applied to the finance application has been termed

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supply chain much more quickly than a make-to-order manufacturer can.

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large body of knowledge with a strong guiding philosophy of growth.

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These focusing steps are the key steps to developing the specific

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The Haystack Syndrome:: Sifting Information out of the Data Ocean

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The haystack syndrome: sifting information out of the data ocean

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the small queue of work that sits before every work center in a

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Assist in evaluating conditions for achieving a desired outcome

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Constraint Theory A Logic-Based Approach to System Improvement

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Carol A. Ptak; Goldratt, Eliyahu M.; Eli Schragenheim (2000).

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Duncan (as cited by Steyn) says that TOC borrows heavily from

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Through Clouds to Solutions: Working with UDEs and UDE clouds

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Strategic Navigation: A Systems Approach to Business Strategy

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To handle conflicts with more confidence and win-win outcomes

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held by people can cause behaviour that becomes a constraint.

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Jacob, Dee; Bergland, Suzan; Cox, Jeff (29 December 2009).

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Order review/release and lot splitting in drum-buffer-rope

1406:. Croton-on Hudson, New York: North River Press. pp. 2378: 1490:

Schragenheim, e; Dettmer, H. W; Patterson, J. W. (2009).

973:

To assist in relationship between subordinates and bosses

258:. There is always at least one constraint, and TOC uses 991:

Criticisms that have been leveled against TOC include:

2257:. North River Press, Great Barrington, Massachusetts. 2059:

Beyond the Goal : Eliyahu Goldratt Speaks on the

1594:. Great Barrington, Massachusetts: North River Press. 1076:

Index of articles related to the theory of constraints

839:

Agree to overcome any potential negative ramifications

804:. Its role is explicitly acknowledged in the field of 2164:

Schragenheim, Eli & Dettmer, H. William. (2000).

1462:

DBR, Buffer Management, and VATI flow classification

4356: 4310: 3900: 3859: 3802: 3692: 2944: 2863: 2779: 2687: 2569: 2449: 836:

Gain agreement that the solution solves the problem

1954: 1893: 1558: 1557:Eric Noreen; Debra Smith; James T. Mackey (1995). 1432: 1354:Eli Schragenheim & H. William Dettmer (2000). 1160: 952:To create and enhance thinking and learning skills 2359:A Guide to Implementing the Theory of Constraints 1714:http://ac.aua.am/trietsch/web/WorkingPaper281.pdf 964:To correct behavior with undesirable consequences 842:Agree to overcome any obstacles to implementation 310:(Bottleneck-focused Strategy) as a more advanced 2220:Lepore & Cohen, Domenico & Oded (1999). 292:An earlier propagator of a similar concept was 2086:Strategic Approach to Rapid Sustainable Growth 1617:Sales Process Engineering: A Personal Workshop 1565:and its implications for Management Accounting 1282:. Chicago: APICS self-published. p. 186. 833:Gain agreement on the direction for a solution 4290: 2394: 1729:International Journal of Production Economics 359:TOC is based on the premise that the rate of 223: 8: 2211:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 259: 1756:International Journal of Project Management 4297: 4283: 4275: 3960: 3689: 3663: 3108: 2446: 2435: 2401: 2387: 2379: 2374:Theory of Constraints: A Research Database 2124:Fox, Robert; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 1896:The goal: a process of ongoing improvement 1479:. New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 175–210. 1163:The goal: a process of ongoing improvement 818:Thinking processes (theory of constraints) 422: 230: 216: 31: 1786: 1439:. New York: New York: North River Press. 995:Claimed suboptimality of drum-buffer-rope 585:i.e., the intended outcome of the project 3918:Good Design Award (Museum of Modern Art) 1892:Cox, Jeff; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 1552: 1550: 1278:Blackstone Jr., editor, John H. (2013). 1211: 1209: 1159:Cox, Jeff; Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 876: 685:machines from impacting the constraint. 271:The theory of constraints is an overall 2274:Re-Engineering The Manufacturing System 1323:Goldratt, Eliyahu; Fox, Robert (1986). 1148: 1030:program evaluation and review technique 185: 151: 95: 59: 43: 2204: 1382: 1371: 1305: 1295: 1154: 1152: 425:, go back to step 1, but do not allow 409:everything else to the above decision. 3923:Good Design Award (Chicago Athenaeum) 2291:Stein, Robert E. (14 February 1997). 2255:Production the TOC Way with Simulator 1492:Supply Chain Management at Warp Speed 664:High-speed automated production lines 7: 1938:. : ASQ Quality Press. p. 413. 1919:. : ASQ Quality Press. p. 302. 1494:. Boca Raton: Auerbach publications. 1475:J. F. Cox III & J. J. Schleier. 627:Within manufacturing operations and 533:) before and behind the constraint. 302:Energo-Kybernetic System (EKS, 1971) 2240:TOC Executive Challenge A Goal Game 1814:Standing on the Shoulders of Giants 3867:American Institute of Graphic Arts 2222:Deming and Goldratt: The Decalogue 2168:. : St. Lucie Press. p. 342. 2149:. : St. Lucie Press. p. 209. 1533:. North River Press. p. 160. 1505:Russell, G. R.; Fry, T. D (1997). 25: 3877:Design and Industries Association 1639:See the annex of: Vidal, C. 2008. 786:Critical Chain Project Management 458: 2369:Theory of Constraints Essentials 2272:Stein, Robert E. (3 June 2003). 1329:. : North River Press. pp. 1260:Theory of Constraints Handbook, 473:Types of (internal) constraints 372: 298:power-oriented management theory 296:in Germany with publications on 255: 51: 2082:Achieving a Viable Vision: The 1788:10.1590/S0104-530X2009000300002 429:to cause a system's constraint. 3872:Chartered Society of Designers 2088:. Throughput Publishing, Inc. 1477:Theory of Constraints Handbook 1280:APICS Dictionary, 13th Edition 499:that shows up in mathematical 451:process of ongoing improvement 317:Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 307:Engpasskonzentrierte Strategie 263:adversely affect the outcome. 1: 3943:Prince Philip Designers Prize 2586:Architectural lighting design 2253:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (2003). 2103:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1990). 2038:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1990). 2016:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1998). 1976:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1997). 1953:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1994). 1934:Dettmer, H. William. (2007). 1915:Dettmer, H. William. (2003). 1769:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (2009). 1590:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1997). 1400:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1986). 1216:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. (1998). 830:Gain agreement on the problem 696:In general, the solution for 371:) is limited by at least one 152:Information and communication 3749:Electronic design automation 3732:Virtual home design software 2704:Automotive suspension design 1998:Necessary But Not Sufficient 918:Negative Branch Reservations 324:was first used by Goldratt. 4422:Business process management 2608:Environmental impact design 2145:Schragenheim, Eli. (1999). 1138:Liebig's law of the minimum 1118:Constraint (disambiguation) 1061:Certification and education 1025:statistical process control 970:To assist in peer mediation 945:TOC Thinking Process Tools: 421:If in the previous steps a 415:the system's constraint(s). 403:the system's constraint(s). 396:the system's constraint(s). 367:system (i.e., the system's 4448: 3887:International Forum Design 3257:Engineering design process 2080:Lisa Lang (January 2006). 1741:10.1016/j.ijpe.2009.04.023 1460:Shri Shrikanth, M (2010). 1431:Goldratt, Eliyahu (1990). 815: 692:Supply chain and logistics 484:people limits the system. 423:constraint has been broken 4222: 3970: 3959: 3688: 3662: 3118: 3107: 3009:Integrated circuit design 2931:Stage/set lighting design 2820:Hardware interface design 2736:Hardware interface design 2445: 2434: 2416: 2347:. Estonia: Ou Vali Press. 2314:. Free Pre. p. 320. 2293:The Theory of Constraints 1189:"Beratergruppe Strategie" 1100:Critical systems thinking 1001:Getulio Vargas Foundation 806:sales process engineering 3844:Industrial design rights 3832:Fashion design copyright 3744:Design quality indicator 3193:Creative problem-solving 2984:Electrical system design 2840:Sonic interaction design 2751:Photographic lens design 2625:Healthy community design 1689:Human Systems Management 1529:Corbett, Thomas (1998). 978:Development and practice 955:To make better decisions 677:connected by conveyors. 320:. However, the paradigm 279:in his 1984 book titled 4040:New product development 4005:Enterprise architecture 3933:IF Product Design Award 3892:Design Research Society 3444:Reliability engineering 2130:. : North River Press. 2109:. : North River Press. 2042:. : North River Press. 2023:. : North River Press. 2001:. : North River Press. 1980:. : North River Press. 1961:. : North River Press. 1900:. : North River Press. 1615:Paul H. Selden (1997). 1223:. : North River Press. 1167:. : North River Press. 355:The five focusing steps 96:Industrial technologies 4432:Engineering management 4305:Engineering approaches 3496:Top-down and bottom-up 2845:User experience design 2746:Packaging and labeling 2719:Electric guitar design 2657:Landscape architecture 1701:10.3233/HSM-2005-24109 1655:Manufacturing Engineer 1509:. pp. 35:827–845. 1381:Cite journal requires 1109:Twelve leverage points 1086:Industrial engineering 1023:in the 1950s and from 890:"In order to…we must" 761:Finance and accounting 635:three components. The 4417:Theory of constraints 4386:Theory of constraints 4333:Keep It Simple Stupid 4025:Innovation management 3908:European Design Award 3674:Intellectual property 3491:Theory of constraints 3454:Responsibility-driven 3294:For manufacturability 3198:Creativity techniques 3036:Nuclear weapon design 2850:User interface design 2714:Corrugated box design 2635:Interior architecture 2084:Theory of Constraints 2063:(Your Coach in a Box) 2061:Theory of Constraints 2057:Goldratt, Eliyahu M. 2040:Theory of Constraints 2020:Theory of Constraints 1775:Gestão & Produção 1680:Trietsch, D. (2005). 1569:. North River Press. 1563:Theory of Constraints 1531:Throughput Accounting 1220:Theory of Constraints 1133:Rate-determining step 1050:Theory of Constraints 1045:Theory of Constraints 767:throughput accounting 629:operations management 515:Breaking a constraint 435:throughput accounting 322:Theory of constraints 312:theory of bottlenecks 289:, published in 1997. 273:management philosophy 244:theory of constraints 60:Manufacturing methods 18:Theory of Constraints 4376:Planned obsolescence 4348:User-centered design 4070:Unintelligent design 4050:Philosophy of design 3764:Design specification 3717:Comprehensive layout 3289:For behaviour change 3262:Probabilistic design 3024:Power network design 2561:Visual merchandising 2518:Instructional design 2496:Postage stamp design 1193:www.wolfgangmewes.de 1104:Joint decision traps 1034:critical path method 915:Future Reality Tree 902:Current reality tree 882:Sufficient thinking 856:current reality tree 848:layers of resistance 380:reductio ad absurdum 4343:Use-centered design 3990:Creative industries 3913:German Design Award 3822:Design infringement 3707:Architectural model 3046:Organization design 3041:Nucleic acid design 2989:Experimental design 2542:Traffic sign design 2364:Five focusing Steps 2329:Dettmer, H (1998). 2147:Management dilemmas 1667:10.1049/me:20020411 1036:(PERT/CPM) and the 1011:Unacknowledged debt 888:Necessary Thinking 861:future reality tree 792:Marketing and sales 338:operational expense 277:Eliyahu M. Goldratt 252:management paradigm 88:Agile manufacturing 27:Management paradigm 4365:Ornament and Crime 4328:Kansei engineering 4055:Process simulation 4030:Intelligent design 3354:Intelligence-based 3349:Integrated topside 3279:Framework-oriented 2964:Behavioural design 2835:Information design 2513:Information design 1811:Eliyahu Goldratt. 1308:has generic name ( 1081:Linear programming 938:Prerequisite Tree 911:What to change to? 812:Thinking processes 781:Project management 601:project management 520:with a breakdown. 443:operating expenses 260:a focusing process 83:Lean manufacturing 4404: 4403: 4396:Value engineering 4323:Frugal innovation 4272: 4271: 4218: 4217: 3985:Conceptual design 3955: 3954: 3951: 3950: 3938:James Dyson Award 3794:Website wireframe 3784:Technical drawing 3658: 3657: 3506:Transgenerational 3247:Ecological design 3123:Activity-centered 3103: 3102: 3099: 3098: 3081:Spacecraft design 2875:Public art design 2813:Video game design 2791:Experience design 2761:Production design 2741:Motorcycle design 2699:Automotive design 2603:Ecological design 2481:Film title design 2295:. Marcel Dekker. 2276:. Marcel Dekker. 2198:978-1-42007-335-5 1945:978-0-87389-723-5 1540:978-0-88427-158-1 1340:978-0-88427-062-1 1289:978-0-9882146-1-3 1266:978-0-07-166554-4 1249:978-0-88427-178-9 942: 941: 924:Evaporating cloud 461:mentioned below. 363:achievement by a 240: 239: 16:(Redirected from 4439: 4299: 4292: 4285: 4276: 4264: 4257: 4250: 4243: 4236: 4229: 3961: 3838:Geschmacksmuster 3812:Community design 3690: 3664: 3424:Process-centered 3220:Design–bid–build 3188:Cradle-to-cradle 3168:Concept-oriented 3109: 3086:Strategic design 3056:Processor design 3031:Mechanism design 2999:Geometric design 2959:Algorithm design 2899:Jewellery design 2830:Immersive design 2724:Furniture design 2669:Landscape design 2447: 2436: 2403: 2396: 2389: 2380: 2348: 2339: 2337: 2325: 2306: 2287: 2268: 2241: 2235: 2216: 2210: 2202: 2179: 2160: 2141: 2120: 2099: 2076: 2065:. 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146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 98: 97: 93: 92: 91: 90: 85: 80: 75: 73:Job production 70: 62: 61: 57: 56: 48: 47: 41: 40: 39:of articles on 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4444: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4412: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4366: 4362: 4361: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4309: 4300: 4295: 4293: 4288: 4286: 4281: 4280: 4277: 4265: 4260: 4258: 4253: 4251: 4246: 4244: 4239: 4237: 4232: 4230: 4225: 4224: 4221: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4195:specification 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4108:architectural 4106: 4105: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4085: 4084: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4075:Visualization 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3995:Cultural icon 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3972: 3969: 3962: 3958: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3899: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3864: 3862: 3860:Organizations 3858: 3850: 3847: 3846: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3839: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3827:Design patent 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3817:Design around 3815: 3813: 3810: 3809: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3724: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3677:Organizations 3676: 3673: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3563: 3562: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3544: 3541: 3540: 3539: 3538:User-centered 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3519: 3518: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3486:Tableless web 3484: 3480: 3477: 3476: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3409:Participatory 3407: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3299:For Six Sigma 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3242:Domain-driven 3240: 3238: 3235: 3231: 3230:architect-led 3228: 3227: 3226: 3223: 3221: 3218: 3216: 3213: 3209: 3206: 3205: 3204: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3173:Configuration 3171: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3138:Brainstorming 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3120: 3117: 3110: 3106: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3071:Social design 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3010: 3007: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2994:Filter design 2992: 2990: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2969:Boiler design 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2943: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2921:Scenic design 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2906:Floral design 2904: 2900: 2897: 2895: 2892: 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2487: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2459: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2451:Communication 2448: 2444: 2437: 2433: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2418: 2415: 2411: 2404: 2399: 2397: 2392: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2356: 2352: 2346: 2341: 2334: 2333: 2327: 2323: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2302:0-8247-0064-3 2298: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2283:0-8247-4265-6 2279: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2264:0-88427-175-7 2260: 2256: 2251: 2249: 2248:0-88427-186-2 2245: 2237: 2233: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2208: 2200: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2175:1-57444-293-7 2171: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2156:1-57444-222-8 2152: 2148: 2143: 2139: 2137:0-88427-062-9 2133: 2129: 2128: 2122: 2118: 2116:0-88427-089-0 2112: 2108: 2107: 2101: 2097: 2095:0-9777604-1-3 2091: 2087: 2083: 2078: 2074: 2072:1-59659-023-8 2068: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2051: 2049:0-88427-166-8 2045: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2030:0-88427-159-5 2026: 2022: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2008:0-88427-170-6 2004: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1989: 1987:0-88427-153-6 1983: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1968:0-88427-115-3 1964: 1959: 1958: 1957:It's not luck 1951: 1947: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1926:0-87389-603-3 1922: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1907:0-88427-061-0 1903: 1898: 1897: 1890: 1889: 1885: 1870: 1866: 1860: 1857: 1851: 1848: 1842: 1839: 1833: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1816: 1815: 1808: 1804: 1798: 1795: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1765: 1762: 1757: 1750: 1747: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1723: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1683: 1676: 1673: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1649: 1646: 1642: 1636: 1633: 1628: 1626:0-87389-418-9 1622: 1618: 1611: 1608: 1603: 1601:0-88427-153-6 1597: 1593: 1586: 1583: 1578: 1576:0-88427-116-1 1572: 1567: 1566: 1562: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1536: 1532: 1525: 1522: 1516: 1513: 1508: 1501: 1498: 1493: 1486: 1483: 1478: 1471: 1468: 1463: 1456: 1453: 1448: 1446:9780884270898 1442: 1437: 1436: 1427: 1424: 1419: 1417:9780884270621 1413: 1409: 1405: 1404: 1396: 1393: 1388: 1375: 1357: 1350: 1347: 1342: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1327: 1319: 1316: 1311: 1299: 1291: 1285: 1281: 1274: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1257: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1240: 1237: 1232: 1230:0-88427-159-5 1226: 1222: 1219: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1181: 1176: 1174:0-88427-061-0 1170: 1165: 1164: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1143: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1069: 1067: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1022: 1019:developed by 1018: 1010: 1008: 1006: 1002: 994: 992: 986: 984: 977: 972: 969: 966: 963: 960: 957: 954: 951: 950: 949: 946: 937: 934: 932: 929: 928: 925: 922: 920: 919: 914: 912: 909: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 894: 891: 887: 885: 884:"If……. then" 881: 879: 878: 875: 872: 868: 864: 862: 858: 857: 851: 850:to a change. 849: 841: 838: 835: 832: 829: 828: 827: 825: 819: 811: 809: 807: 803: 799: 791: 789: 787: 780: 778: 774: 772: 768: 760: 758: 754: 750: 748: 739: 735: 731: 725: 724: 721: 718: 714: 713: 712: 709: 705: 703: 699: 698:supply chains 691: 689: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 663: 661: 658: 653: 649: 646: 641: 638: 632: 630: 622: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 597:manufacturing 590: 588: 586: 577: 573: 569: 565: 564: 563: 556: 554: 550: 547: 543: 538: 534: 532: 523: 521: 514: 512: 510: 504: 502: 498: 490: 487: 486:Mental models 483: 479: 476: 475: 474: 471: 464: 462: 460: 455: 453: 452: 446: 444: 440: 436: 428: 424: 420: 417: 414: 411: 408: 405: 402: 398: 395: 392: 391: 390: 387: 384: 381: 376: 374: 370: 366: 365:goal-oriented 362: 354: 352: 350: 345: 343: 339: 335: 327: 325: 323: 319: 318: 313: 309: 308: 303: 299: 295: 290: 288: 284: 283: 278: 274: 266: 264: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 233: 228: 226: 221: 219: 214: 213: 211: 210: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 191: 190: 189: 184: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 157: 156: 155: 150: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 101: 100: 99: 94: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 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394:Identify 282:The Goal 37:a series 35:Part of 4228:Commons 4200:studies 4145:history 4113:student 4098:classic 4086:Design 4000:.design 3928:Graphex 3630:science 3620:pattern 3615:methods 3590:culture 3573:Design 3384:Modular 3237:Diffuse 3158:Closure 2880:Ceramic 2538:Signage 2421:Outline 617:finance 524:Buffers 482:skilled 427:inertia 413:Elevate 401:exploit 267:History 250:) is a 4311:School 4205:studio 4190:review 4170:museum 4093:change 3901:Awards 3774:Sketch 3759:Mockup 3739:CAutoD 3680:Awards 3645:theory 3635:sprint 3610:marker 3575:choice 2949:& 2947:design 2783:design 2691:design 2573:design 2491:Motion 2453:design 2410:Design 2318: 2299: 2280: 2261: 2246: 2228: 2195: 2172: 2153: 2134: 2113: 2092: 2069: 2046: 2027: 2005: 1984: 1965: 1942: 1923: 1904: 1623: 1598: 1573: 1537: 1443: 1414: 1337: 1286: 1268:, p. 8 1264: 1247: 1227: 1171: 824:buy-in 645:buffer 615:, and 546:kanban 531:Murphy 441:, and 349:profit 340:, and 165:ISA-95 160:ISA-88 4088:brief 3975:Agile 3694:Tools 3671:Tools 3309:For X 2945:Other 2864:Other 2336:(PDF) 1717:2004. 1685:(PDF) 1408:77–97 1359:(PDF) 613:sales 571:time. 204:SCADA 179:B2MML 4165:load 4160:life 4140:firm 3727:CAID 3595:flow 3511:TRIZ 3399:Open 2316:ISBN 2297:ISBN 2278:ISBN 2259:ISBN 2244:ISBN 2226:ISBN 2213:link 2193:ISBN 2187:. : 2170:ISBN 2151:ISBN 2132:ISBN 2111:ISBN 2090:ISBN 2067:ISBN 2044:ISBN 2025:ISBN 2003:ISBN 1982:ISBN 1963:ISBN 1940:ISBN 1921:ISBN 1902:ISBN 1876:2018 1621:ISBN 1596:ISBN 1571:ISBN 1561:The 1535:ISBN 1441:ISBN 1412:ISBN 1387:help 1366:2007 1335:ISBN 1310:help 1284:ISBN 1262:ISBN 1245:ISBN 1225:ISBN 1200:2018 1169:ISBN 1005:P=NP 800:and 657:rope 655:The 643:The 637:drum 611:and 361:goal 242:The 3722:CAD 3702:AAD 3479:SOD 3459:RWD 3329:HCD 2796:EED 2645:EID 1783:doi 1737:doi 1733:121 1697:doi 1663:doi 1331:179 1111:by 747:SKU 587:). 542:not 248:TOC 199:DCS 194:PLC 170:ERP 139:TQM 129:TOC 124:QRM 119:VDM 114:TPM 109:RCM 104:PLM 4413:: 2242:. 2209:}} 2205:{{ 1867:. 1809:: 1779:16 1777:. 1773:. 1731:. 1693:24 1691:. 1687:. 1659:81 1657:. 1549:^ 1410:. 1378:: 1376:}} 1372:{{ 1333:. 1302:: 1300:}} 1296:{{ 1208:^ 1191:. 1151:^ 1102:– 1098:– 1007:. 773:. 704:. 603:, 599:, 445:. 375:. 336:, 144:ZD 4298:e 4291:t 4284:v 2402:e 2395:t 2388:v 2338:. 2324:. 2305:. 2286:. 2267:. 2234:. 2215:) 2201:. 2178:. 2159:. 2140:. 2119:. 2098:. 2075:. 2052:. 2033:. 2011:. 1990:. 1971:. 1948:. 1929:. 1910:. 1878:. 1817:. 1791:. 1785:: 1743:. 1739:: 1703:. 1699:: 1669:. 1665:: 1629:. 1604:. 1579:. 1543:. 1464:. 1449:. 1420:. 1389:) 1385:( 1368:. 1343:. 1312:) 1292:. 1251:. 1233:. 1202:. 1177:. 1032:/ 583:( 246:( 231:e 224:t 217:v 20:)

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