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2144:, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation: PV=constant. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later. Therefore, Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring. Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave
2222:, an associate of Boyle's, built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated. Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs,
2744:
2445:
2399:"(..) movement should not be denied based on the fact it is not seen. Who would deny that the leaves of trees move when rustled by a wind, despite it being unobservable from large distances? Just as in this case motion remains hidden due to perspective, it remains hidden in warm bodies due to the extremely small sizes of the moving particles. In both cases, the viewing angle is so small that neither the object nor their movement can be seen."
2494:
1948:
60:
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2411:(1738), in which he derived an equation for the pressure of a gas considering the collisions of its atoms with the walls of a container. He proved that this pressure is two thirds the average kinetic energy of the gas in a unit volume. Bernoulli's ideas, however, made little impact on the dominant caloric culture. Bernoulli made a connection with
3337:, the fundamental constant of modern physics. Looking at the radiation as coming from a cavity oscillator in thermal equilibrium, the formula suggested that energy in a cavity occurs only in multiples of frequency times the constant. That is, it is quantized. This avoided a divergence to which the theory would lead without the quantization.
2632:
2521:. In time, these early engines would eventually be utilized in place of horses. Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of "horse power" depending upon how many horses it had replaced. The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input
1875:
2905:. In 1845, Joule reported his best-known experiment, involving the use of a falling weight to spin a paddle-wheel in a barrel of water, which allowed him to estimate a mechanical equivalent of heat of 819 ft·lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal). This led to the theory of
2717:
2695:
2675:
2761:, a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency. Most cite this book as the starting point for thermodynamics as a modern science. (The name "thermodynamics", however, did not arrive until 1854, when the British mathematician and physicist
30:
1349:
3549:
2298:
in the 18th century is one of the historical markers of the transition from alchemy to chemistry. Phlogiston was a hypothetical substance that was presumed to be liberated from combustible substances during
2230:'s earlier "fire engine" by incorporating a piston. This made it suitable for mechanical work in addition to pumping to heights beyond 30 feet, and is thus often considered the first true steam engine.
1871:. From antiquity to the Middle Ages various arguments were put forward to prove or disapprove the existence of a vacuum and several attempts were made to construct a vacuum but all proved unsuccessful.
2901:
Quantitative studies by Joule from 1843 onwards provided soundly reproducible phenomena, and helped to place the subject of thermodynamics on a solid footing. In 1843, Joule experimentally found the
2070:
wrote essentially the same thing: The same force is necessary to raise body A of 1 pound (libra) to a height of 4 yards (ulnae), as is necessary to raise body B of 4 pounds to a height of 1 yard.
2720:
in 1798, Thompson suggested that heat was a form of motion, though no attempt was made to reconcile theoretical and experimental approaches, and it is unlikely that he was thinking of the
2114:
He claimed that merely by letting things run their course, God preserves the same amount of motion as He created, and that thus the total quantity of motion in the universe is conserved.
3122:
for the distribution function of a gas in non-equilibrium states is still the most effective equation for studying transport phenomena in gases and metals. By introducing the concept of
3074:
subsequently generalized this distribution for the case of gases in external fields. In association with
Clausius, in 1871, Maxwell formulated a new branch of thermodynamics called
3965:"Ueber verschiedene fĂŒr die Anwendung bequeme Formen der Hauptgleichungen der mechanischen WĂ€rmetheorie (Vorgetragen in der naturforsch. Gesellschaft zu ZĂŒrich den 24. April 1865)"
4484:
2553:. Like phlogiston, caloric was presumed to be the "substance" of heat that would flow from a hotter body to a cooler body, thus warming it. The utility and explanatory power of
2525:
into useful work. In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield only a small fraction of work output. Hence the need for a new science of engine
2603:. The first quantitative research on the heat changes during chemical reactions was initiated by Lavoisier using an ice calorimeter following research by Joseph Black on the
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Even though he was working with the caloric theory, Carnot in 1824 suggested that some of the caloric available for generating useful work is lost in any real process.
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created matter, along with its motion ... merely by letting things run their course, he preserves the same amount of motion ... as he put there in the beginning.
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2509:, horses were used to power pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England. In the years to follow, more variations of
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Descartes, R. (2008) . "36. God is the primary cause of motion; and he always preserves the same quantity of motion in the universe". In
Bennett, J. (ed.).
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482:
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In the 17th century, it came to be believed that all materials had an identical conductivity and that differences in sensation arose from their different
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In the 19th century, scientists abandoned the idea of a physical caloric. The first substantial experimental challenges to the caloric theory arose in a
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Boltzmann is perhaps the most significant contributor to kinetic theory, as he introduced many of the fundamental concepts in the theory. Besides the
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Although early steam engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist was
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is immediately grasped in everyday life. The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by
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became famous as the "flux and fire" philosopher for his proverbial utterance: "All things are flowing." Heraclitus argued that the three
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was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.
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started to speculate that there was an inevitable loss of useful heat in all processes. The idea was framed even more dramatically by
2565:'s observations within a caloric framework as late as 1850. The caloric theory was largely obsolete by the end of the 19th century.
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in 1843 provided a largely accurate account, again independently, but his work received the same reception, failing peer review.
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as the number of microstates corresponding to the current macrostate, he showed that its logarithm is proportional to entropy.
2599:. The development of the steam engine focused attention on calorimetry and the amount of heat produced from different types of
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in which it was easily apparent that some materials were good electrical conductors while others were effective insulators.
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the relation of heat to the forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency
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observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of
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The following list is a rough disciplinary outline of the major branches of thermodynamics and their time of inception:
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is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as
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for the spectrum of black-body radiation. Fitting new data required the introduction of a new constant, known as the
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and others, brought these engine "concepts" into the thoroughfare of almost every modern-day branch of science.
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2101:) as the product of size and speed, and claimed that the total quantity of motion in the universe is conserved.
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2471:. Today heat is seen as the transfer of disordered thermal energy. Nevertheless, at least in English, the term
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The first written scientific reflection on the microscopic nature of heat is probably to be found in a work by
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1817:
2631:
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The mechanical theory of heat: With its applications to the steam engine and to physical properties of bodies
1987:). This may have been influenced by an earlier device which could expand and contract the air constructed by
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that a motor is capable of producing. Herein, Carnot introduced us to the first modern day definition of "
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If x is twice the size of y, and is moving half as fast, then there's the same amount of motion in each.
2003:
1501:
1078:
391:
237:
86:
3701:
3084:, i.e., systems where no changes are occurring, such that only their average properties as temperature
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The theory of phlogiston arose in the 17th century, late in the period of alchemy. Its replacement by
2211:
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3913:. Vol. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232.
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Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of
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Howard, Irmgard (2002). "H Is for
Enthalpy, Thanks to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Alfred W. Porter".
3052:, Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules.
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equation, which suggested a measure of the amount of "useful work" attainable in reacting systems.
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in 1785-9 made some of the earliest measurements, as did
Benjamin Thompson during the same period.
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Hence Thermo-dynamics falls naturally into two
Divisions, of which the subjects are respectively,
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3648:. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p.
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3070:, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. The Austrian physicist
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independently formulated a kinetic theory in 1820, but mistakenly associated temperature with
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Lifting 100 lb one foot twice over is the same as lifting 200 lb one foot, or 100 lb two feet.
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2015:
is perhaps an ancient one and is certainly discussed by the
English philosopher and scientist
1968:
1956:
1874:
1820:. The Empedoclean element of fire is perhaps the principal ancestor of later concepts such as
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1713:
1705:
1610:
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1561:
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767:
759:
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261:
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3021:" translates literally as "heat-weight"; the corresponding English term stems from the Greek
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3805:
New
Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660).
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J.Gwyn
Griffiths (1955). "The Orders of Gods in Greece and Egypt (According to Herodotus)".
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2012:
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1888:(above), tends to cause its atoms to vibrate more, and the body itself to expandâor change
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3000:
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In the mid- to late 19th century, heat became understood as a manifestation of a system's
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from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and stated the
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2023:. Bacon surmised: "Heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else."
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An
Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction
2658:
showed that all bodies radiate heat, no matter how hot or cold they are. In 1804, Sir
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2016:
1921:
1855:, uses verbal reasoning to postulate that a void, essentially what is now known as a
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1605:
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in calculations. This has subsequently been shown to be identical to the concept of
2501:, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world
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3295:
2863:
2510:
2461:
2452:
Bodies were capable of holding a certain amount of this fluid, leading to the term
2331:
2268:
2141:
2137:
1960:
1737:
1556:
1541:
1491:
974:
38:
4752:
3817:
Hide, R.; Wolfendale, A.; Ronan, C.; Chapman, A.; Cook, A.; Hughes, D. W. (1993).
2591:
made important contributions in the precise measurement of heat changes using the
3849:
3664:
4152:
3507:
Concepts of thermodynamics have also been applied in other fields, for example:
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2922:
2859:
2644:
2604:
2592:
2574:
2335:
2239:
2219:
2160:
1984:
1980:
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1947:
1942:
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1717:
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mentioned above, he also associated the kinetic energy of particles with their
3025:, "I turn".) Clausius used the concept to develop his classic statement of the
3892:
3326:
3066:
Clausius' above statement interested the
Scottish mathematician and physicist
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17:
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From Watt to Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age
3980:
2425:, and the two theories became intimately entwined throughout their history.
2703:
2588:
1909:
1864:
1860:
1709:
198:
2643:. Suggestions that this might not be the case came from the new science of
29:
3806:
2739:
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot § Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
3243:
3237:
2847:
2710:
2457:
2417:
2079:
1972:
1859:, in nature could not occur. This view was supported by the arguments of
1314:
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431:
203:
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In March 1851, while grappling to come to terms with the work of Joule,
3550:
Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes
3006:
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in relation to "work" is at the core of all modern day thermodynamics.
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from around 1787. The relationship had been anticipated by the work of
2128:
1905:
1882:
1725:
1693:
420:
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3620:
3249:, calling it "a heat function for constant pressure". The modern word
2557:, however, soon started to displace the caloric theory. Nevertheless,
3574:
2706:
1856:
3964:
3949:
The edge of objectivity: An essay in the history of scientific ideas
3876:
2547:
was thought to be a measurement of an invisible fluid, known as the
1804:
proposed a four-element theory, in which all substances derive from
1796:
tradition, after much debate about the primal element among earlier
3720:
3666:
Novum organum: Or true suggestions for the interpretation of nature
3612:
3877:"On the Dynamical Theory of Heat Part V. Thermo-electric Currents"
2927:
The idea of absolute zero was generalised in 1848 by Lord Kelvin.
2630:
2492:
2382:
2309:
2210:
2148:
the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the
2127:
2041:
1946:
1925:
1776:
The ancients viewed heat as that related to fire. In 3000 BC, the
1756:. It also, albeit in a subtle manner, motivated new directions in
28:
2862:, even from someone as well-disposed to the kinetic principle as
1752:. The development of thermodynamics both drove and was driven by
2809:
Though it had come to be suspected from Scheele's work, in 1831
2713:. His work was among the first to undermine the caloric theory.
2600:
2544:
2522:
1971:
in the 16th and 17th centuries were able to gauge the relative "
396:
4756:
4156:
3282:'s 1862 insight that both light and radiant heat were forms of
2628:(radiant heat) from that by convection and conduction in 1777.
2366:
3080:, which functions to analyze large numbers of particles at
1920:, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later
2776:
Carnot defined "motive power" to be the expression of the
2702:(Count Rumford) from 1798, in which he showed that boring
2479:
is preferred, and it is also sometimes used in English.
3190:
being defined in terms of the number of possible states
2799:
Reflection, refraction, and polarisation of radiant heat
2755:, the "father of thermodynamics", who in 1824 published
2747:
Sadi Carnot (1796â1832): the "father" of thermodynamics
1892:, if heating is continued; an axiom of nature noted by
1851:, in his only known work, a poem conventionally titled
1700:, its history is finely woven with the developments of
3795:. Vol. Part 2: The principles of material things.
2682:
Benjamin Thompson § Mechanical equivalent of heat
3932:
The tragicomical history of thermodynamics, 1822â1854
3157:
2094:) from 1644, Descartes defined "quantity of motion" (
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produced great amounts of heat which he ascribed to
2421:
principle, an early formulation of the principle of
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4109:
Maxwell's Demon: Entropy, Information and Computing
3823:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
4106:
4015:
3179:
3044:Temperature is average kinetic energy of molecules
2788:. The desire to understand, via formulation, this
1780:viewed heat as related to origin mythologies. The
1178:
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3242:Gibbs also originated the concept we now know as
3224:, wherein he formulated one grand equality, the
3144:formulated a precise connection between entropy
2140:in 1656, in coordination with English scientist
2987:formulated by the famed mathematical physicist
2182:in 1802, but he referenced unpublished work by
2108:
2103:
2060:
3881:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
3525:Conservation of energy: Historical development
3423:Chemical engineering thermodynamics â c. 1940s
3222:On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
3017:) to denote heat lost or turned into waste. ("
1792:are the basis of all cosmic creations. In the
1790:five classical elements (or pancha mahÄ bhĆ«ta)
4768:
4168:
3580:Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
1653:
8:
3503:Pharmaceutical systems thermodynamics â 2002
3220:published an obscure 300-page paper titled:
2963:in 1854, giving birth to the spectre of the
2936:Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
2475:survives. In some other languages, the term
2338:. These experiments mark the foundation of
2240:Hadley cell § Formulation and discovery
2050:In 1637, in a letter to the Dutch scientist
2946:Second law of thermodynamics § History
2561:, for example, was still trying to explain
2326:, to determine the heat evolved in various
37:â the world's first commercially important
4972:
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4775:
4761:
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4175:
4161:
4153:
3952:. Princeton University Press. p. 399.
3745:Descartes, R. (2008) . Bennett, J. (ed.).
3680:Descartes, R. (2013) . Bennett, J. (ed.).
3479:Biological evolution thermodynamics â 1978
3106:Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)
2839:John James Waterston § Kinetic theory
1660:
1646:
1209:
361:
180:
58:
47:
3473:theory in statistical physics â 1966-1974
3176:
3156:
1716:, to more distant applied fields such as
1141:
1086:
1031:
991:
865:
844:
818:
797:
769:
733:
712:
686:
665:
634:
598:
577:
551:
530:
502:
3642:Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.).
3290:analysis of thermal radiation. In 1879,
2813:demonstrated that radiant heat could be
2742:
2685:
2611:Thermal conduction and thermal radiation
2578:
2443:
2303:, and from metals during the process of
2247:
2159:
2002:
1873:
1839:in nature were fire, earth, and water.
3591:
3302:. The law was derived theoretically by
3050:On the nature of the motion called heat
2919:Absolute zero § Lord Kelvin's work
2758:Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
2505:Prior to 1698 and the invention of the
1406:
1383:
1337:
1297:
1247:
1212:
405:
380:
309:
236:
183:
50:
3702:"Leibniz and the vis viva controversy"
3560:Timeline of low-temperature technology
3491:Natural systems thermodynamics â 1990s
2979:started to make use of what he called
3975:(7): 353â400 (specifically, p. 390).
3740:
3738:
3494:Supramolecular thermodynamics â 1990s
3482:Geochemical thermodynamics â c. 1980s
3194:that such motion could occupy, where
1943:Thermometer § Early developments
1847:The 5th century BC Greek philosopher
7:
4627:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
4105:Leff, H.S.; Rex, A.F., eds. (1990).
3829:(2): 135â148 (specifically p. 143).
3683:Selected correspondence of Descartes
3476:Geological thermodynamics â c. 1970s
3432:Small systems thermodynamics â 1960s
3253:would be coined many years later by
2909:and explained why heat can do work.
2318:, used in the winter of 1782â83, by
1688:in general. Due to the relevance of
4022:. Oxford University Press. p.
3766:"Cartesian and Lagrangian Momentum"
3500:Drug-receptor thermodynamics â 2001
3367:Building on the foundations above,
3275:StefanâBoltzmann law § History
3005:In 1865, Clausius coined the term "
2829:Kinetic theory (early 19th century)
2330:; calculations which were based on
3555:Timeline of heat engine technology
3444:Relativistic thermodynamics â 1965
2913:Absolute zero and the Kelvin scale
2595:, a subject which became known as
2543:In the mid- to late 18th century,
2456:, named and first investigated by
2080:Momentum § Quantity of motion
1979:" of air, using a rudimentary air
867:
820:
735:
688:
600:
553:
373:Intensive and extensive properties
25:
3819:"Edmond Halley - a commemoration"
3715:(1): 21â35 (specifically p. 24).
3669:. William Pickering. p. 165.
3570:Timeline of thermodynamics theory
3257:, who based it on the Greek word
2923:Lord Kelvin § Thermodynamics
2429:Thermochemistry and steam engines
2234:Heat transfer (Halley and Newton)
5114:
5113:
4737:
4736:
3910:Mathematical and Physical Papers
3497:Earthquake thermodynamics â 2000
3140:In 1875, the Austrian physicist
2066:In 1686, the German philosopher
2011:The idea that heat is a form of
1999:"Heat is motion" (Francis Bacon)
1629:
1628:
948:Table of thermodynamic equations
4147:Brief History of Thermodynamics
4018:The World of Physical Chemistry
3935:. Springer-Verlag. p. 215.
3851:The World of Physical Chemistry
3601:The Journal of Hellenic Studies
3540:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
3441:Ecosystem thermodynamics â 1959
3136:Ludwig Boltzmann § Physics
2771:On the Dynamical Theory of Heat
2624:distinguished heat transfer by
2226:greatly improved upon engineer
1676:is a fundamental strand in the
1424:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
4948:Medieval Islamic World alchemy
3427:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
3112:MaxwellâBoltzmann distribution
3062:MaxwellâBoltzmann distribution
3056:MaxwellâBoltzmann distribution
3001:Rudolf Clausius § Entropy
2786:weight lifted through a height
2765:(Lord Kelvin) coined the term
2733:Modern thermodynamics (Carnot)
1924:. Until experimental proof of
1158:
1146:
1103:
1091:
1048:
1036:
1008:
996:
1:
4049:Journal of Chemical Education
3969:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2977:William John Macquorn Rankine
2903:mechanical equivalent of heat
2897:Mechanical equivalent of heat
2891:Mechanical equivalent of heat
2858:. His work ultimately failed
2805:Macedonio Melloni § Work
2373:Kinetic theory (18th century)
2347:Limit to the "degree of cold"
2038:Work (physics) § History
1881:a body, such as a segment of
1325:Mechanical equivalent of heat
3027:second law of thermodynamics
2353:Absolute zero § History
2136:Irish physicist and chemist
937:Onsager reciprocal relations
4549:Cosmic microwave background
4141:Thermodynamic History Notes
3854:. Oxford University Press.
3357:third law of thermodynamics
3347:Third law of thermodynamics
3341:Third law of thermodynamics
3216:In 1876, chemical engineer
3180:{\displaystyle S=k\log W\,}
2670:Heat and friction (Rumford)
2489:History of the steam engine
1429:Entropy as energy dispersal
1240:"Perpetual motion" machines
1179:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1124:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1069:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
5166:
3565:Timeline of thermodynamics
3486:Atmospheric thermodynamics
3420:Engineering thermodynamics
3416:Equilibrium thermodynamics
3383:Branches of thermodynamics
3344:
3318:
3272:
3235:
3209:
3133:
3103:
3077:statistical thermodynamics
3059:
3039:Statistical thermodynamics
3036:
3033:Statistical thermodynamics
2998:
2965:heat death of the universe
2939:
2916:
2894:
2832:
2825:in the same way as light.
2802:
2736:
2679:
2673:
2614:
2572:
2536:
2486:
2432:
2376:
2361:introduced the concept of
2350:
2287:
2237:
2204:
2124:Boyle's law § History
2121:
2077:
2035:
1940:
1766:timeline of thermodynamics
1742:internal combustion engine
876:{\displaystyle \partial T}
829:{\displaystyle \partial V}
744:{\displaystyle \partial p}
697:{\displaystyle \partial V}
609:{\displaystyle \partial T}
562:{\displaystyle \partial S}
5140:History of thermodynamics
5109:
4732:
4135:History of Thermodynamics
4086:Cardwell, D.S.L. (1971).
3946:Gillispie, C. C. (1960).
3907:Thomson, William (1882).
3893:10.1017/s0080456800032014
3848:Laider, Keith J. (1993).
3764:Alexander Afriat (2004).
3460:Black hole thermodynamics
3436:Biological thermodynamics
3124:thermodynamic probability
2365:based on observations of
2054:, the French philosopher
1798:pre-Socratic philosophers
1782:ancient Indian philosophy
1736:developments such as the
1674:history of thermodynamics
1350:An Inquiry Concerning the
4137:â University of Waterloo
4113:. Bristol: Adam Hilger.
3981:10.1002/andp.18652010702
3789:Principles of philosophy
3748:Principles of philosophy
3398:Classical thermodynamics
3294:observed that the total
3286:led to the start of the
2513:were built, such as the
2087:Principles of Philosophy
1955:The European scientists
1863:, but was criticized by
1764:; see, for example, the
1363:Heterogeneous Substances
780:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
648:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
5017:On specific discoveries
4684:ChandrasekharâEddington
4610:Golden age of cosmology
4542:On specific discoveries
4490:Lorentz transformations
3448:Rational thermodynamics
3404:Chemical thermodynamics
2403:During the same years,
2379:Kinetic theory of gases
2244:Newton's law of cooling
2180:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
2178:was first published by
2164:Robert Boyle. 1627â1691
4615:Medieval Islamic world
4358:Computational physics
4300:Variational principles
4227:Electrical engineering
3929:Truesdell, C. (1980).
3645:India through the ages
3454:Quantum thermodynamics
3321:Quantum thermodynamics
3315:Quantum thermodynamics
3255:Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
3181:
3148:and molecular motion:
2981:thermodynamic function
2907:conservation of energy
2866:, and was neglected.
2748:
2691:
2636:
2584:
2502:
2449:
2423:conservation of energy
2388:
2343:
2334:'s prior discovery of
2253:
2216:
2165:
2133:
2112:
2107:
2092:Principia Philosophiae
2064:
2047:
2008:
1952:
1897:
1750:electricity generation
1180:
1125:
1070:
1015:
1014:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
877:
853:
830:
806:
781:
745:
721:
698:
674:
649:
610:
586:
563:
539:
514:
493:Specific heat capacity
97:Quantum thermodynamics
45:
4605:Golden age of physics
4600:Copernican Revolution
4090:. London: Heinemann.
3994:Clausius, R. (1867).
3963:Clausius, R. (1865).
3471:renormalization group
3410:Statistical mechanics
3182:
3130:Definition of entropy
2961:Hermann von Helmholtz
2746:
2689:
2634:
2582:
2496:
2447:
2395:, in which he wrote:
2386:
2313:
2251:
2214:
2163:
2131:
2045:
2006:
1950:
1877:
1828:. Around 500 BC, the
1794:Western philosophical
1361:On the Equilibrium of
1181:
1126:
1079:Helmholtz free energy
1071:
1016:
878:
854:
831:
807:
782:
746:
722:
699:
675:
650:
611:
587:
564:
540:
515:
32:
5150:Chemical engineering
4803:Physical chemistry (
4784:History of chemistry
4708:Relativity priority
4563:Subatomic particles
4523:Loop quantum gravity
4512:Quantum information
4461:Quantum field theory
4261:Gravitational theory
4143:â WolframScience.com
3875:Thomson, W. (1854).
3530:History of Chemistry
3300:StefanâBoltzmann law
3284:electromagnetic wave
3269:StefanâBoltzmann law
3155:
2870:John James Waterston
2664:black-body radiation
2622:Carl Wilhelm Scheele
2435:History of chemistry
2324:Pierre-Simon Laplace
1682:history of chemistry
1374:Motive Power of Fire
1140:
1085:
1030:
990:
942:Bridgman's equations
919:Fundamental relation
864:
843:
817:
796:
768:
732:
711:
685:
664:
633:
597:
576:
550:
529:
501:
5068:Scientific disputes
4850:Organic chemistry (
4672:Scientific disputes
4658:Via Panisperna boys
4559:Gravitational waves
4506:Recent developments
4237:Maxwell's equations
4061:2002JChEd..79..697H
3835:1993QJRAS..34..135H
3663:Bacon, F. (1850) .
3280:James Clerk Maxwell
3068:James Clerk Maxwell
2881:James Clerk Maxwell
2700:Benjamin Thompson's
2407:published his book
2117:
1702:classical mechanics
1352:Source ... Friction
1284:Loschmidt's paradox
476:Material properties
354:Conjugate variables
5101:Women in chemistry
4717:General relativity
4712:Special relativity
4653:Oxford Calculators
4480:Special relativity
4399:General relativity
4184:History of physics
4000:. John van Voorst.
3772:2017-03-09 at the
3700:Iltis, C. (1971).
3535:History of Physics
3467:critical phenomena
3329:found an accurate
3200:Boltzmann constant
3177:
3120:Boltzmann equation
3116:degrees of freedom
3100:Degrees of freedom
3096:become important.
2942:History of entropy
2749:
2728:Early 19th century
2692:
2637:
2617:Thermal conduction
2585:
2503:
2450:
2389:
2359:Guillaume Amontons
2344:
2314:The world's first
2256:The phenomenon of
2254:
2217:
2188:Guillaume Amontons
2166:
2134:
2074:Quantity of motion
2052:Christiaan Huygens
2048:
2009:
1993:Hero of Alexandria
1989:Philo of Byzantium
1953:
1937:Early thermometers
1898:
1869:Hero of Alexandria
1837:principal elements
1722:information theory
1686:history of science
1678:history of physics
1616:Order and disorder
1372:Reflections on the
1279:Heat death paradox
1176:
1121:
1066:
1011:
873:
849:
826:
802:
777:
741:
717:
694:
670:
645:
606:
582:
559:
535:
513:{\displaystyle c=}
510:
483:Property databases
459:Reduced properties
443:Chemical potential
407:Functions of state
330:Thermal efficiency
66:Carnot heat engine
46:
5127:
5126:
5085:Transfermium Wars
5028:Carbon nanotubes
5012:
5011:
4953:Indian metallurgy
4931:
4930:
4901:Applied chemistry
4870:Nuclear chemistry
4750:
4749:
4724:Transfermium Wars
4643:Harvard Computers
4468:Subatomic physics
4441:Quantum mechanics
4377:Superconductivity
4368:Condensed matter
4197:Classical physics
4120:978-0-7503-0057-5
4097:978-0-435-54150-7
4069:10.1021/ed079p697
4033:978-0-19-855597-1
3861:978-0-19-855919-1
3373:Erwin Schrödinger
3363:Erwin Schrödinger
3226:Gibbs free energy
3212:Gibbs free energy
3206:Gibbs free energy
3048:In his 1857 work
2931:Late 19th century
2811:Macedonio Melloni
2690:Benjamin Thompson
2626:thermal radiation
2589:Antoine Lavoisier
2587:Joseph Black and
2583:Antoine Lavoisier
2499:Watt steam engine
2413:Gottfried Leibniz
2393:Mikhail Lomonosov
2387:Mikhail Lomonosov
2320:Antoine Lavoisier
2290:Phlogiston theory
2284:Phlogiston theory
2156:Gas laws in brief
2099:: quantitas motus
2068:Gottfried Leibniz
2032:Precursor to work
1969:Santorio Santorio
1957:Cornelius Drebbel
1951:Santorio Santorio
1843:Vacuum-abhorrence
1830:Greek philosopher
1778:ancient Egyptians
1714:chemical kinetics
1706:quantum mechanics
1670:
1669:
1611:Self-organization
1436:
1435:
1134:Gibbs free energy
932:Maxwell relations
890:
889:
886:
885:
852:{\displaystyle V}
805:{\displaystyle 1}
760:Thermal expansion
754:
753:
720:{\displaystyle V}
673:{\displaystyle 1}
619:
618:
585:{\displaystyle N}
538:{\displaystyle T}
466:
465:
382:Process functions
368:Property diagrams
347:System properties
337:
336:
302:Endoreversibility
194:Equation of state
16:(Redirected from
5157:
5117:
5116:
4973:
4913:Material science
4824:Electrochemistry
4819:Molecular theory
4800:
4777:
4770:
4763:
4754:
4740:
4739:
4663:Women in physics
4415:Nuclear physics
4339:Perpetual motion
4273:Material science
4217:Electromagnetism
4177:
4170:
4163:
4154:
4124:
4112:
4101:
4073:
4072:
4044:
4038:
4037:
4021:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3943:
3937:
3936:
3926:
3920:
3914:
3904:
3872:
3866:
3865:
3845:
3839:
3838:
3814:
3808:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3794:
3783:
3777:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3754:. Part II, § 36.
3753:
3742:
3733:
3732:
3706:
3697:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3596:
3304:Ludwig Boltzmann
3186:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3142:Ludwig Boltzmann
3072:Ludwig Boltzmann
3011:das WĂ€rmegewicht
2885:Ludwig Boltzmann
2517:, and later the
2477:thermal capacity
2405:Daniel Bernoulli
2328:chemical changes
2194:Gay-Lussac's law
1916:, and later the
1894:Herman Boerhaave
1786:Vedic philosophy
1662:
1655:
1648:
1632:
1631:
1339:Key publications
1320:
1319:("living force")
1269:Brownian ratchet
1264:Entropy and life
1259:Entropy and time
1210:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1020:
1018:
1017:
1012:
914:Clausius theorem
909:Carnot's theorem
882:
880:
879:
874:
858:
856:
855:
850:
835:
833:
832:
827:
811:
809:
808:
803:
790:
789:
786:
784:
783:
778:
750:
748:
747:
742:
726:
724:
723:
718:
703:
701:
700:
695:
679:
677:
676:
671:
658:
657:
654:
652:
651:
646:
615:
613:
612:
607:
591:
589:
588:
583:
568:
566:
565:
560:
544:
542:
541:
536:
523:
522:
519:
517:
516:
511:
489:
488:
362:
181:
62:
48:
21:
5165:
5164:
5160:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5130:
5129:
5128:
5123:
5105:
5089:
5080:Jouleâvon Mayer
5063:
5039:Electrophoresis
5008:
4992:
4957:
4943:Chinese alchemy
4936:Ancient history
4927:
4896:
4865:
4845:
4791:
4781:
4751:
4746:
4728:
4699:Jouleâvon Mayer
4667:
4631:
4588:
4537:
4501:
4392:Big Bang theory
4345:
4244:Fluid mechanics
4191:
4181:
4131:
4121:
4104:
4098:
4085:
4082:
4080:Further reading
4077:
4076:
4046:
4045:
4041:
4034:
4010:
4009:
4005:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3945:
3944:
3940:
3928:
3927:
3923:
3906:
3887:(part I): 123.
3874:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3816:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3800:
3792:
3785:
3784:
3780:
3774:Wayback Machine
3763:
3759:
3751:
3744:
3743:
3736:
3704:
3699:
3698:
3694:
3686:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3662:
3661:
3657:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3588:
3521:
3512:Thermoeconomics
3392:Thermochemistry
3385:
3365:
3349:
3343:
3335:Planck constant
3323:
3317:
3312:
3277:
3271:
3240:
3234:
3214:
3208:
3153:
3152:
3138:
3132:
3108:
3102:
3064:
3058:
3046:
3041:
3035:
3029:the same year.
3003:
2997:
2995:Rudolf Clausius
2989:Rudolf Clausius
2973:
2971:William Rankine
2953:
2948:
2940:Main articles:
2938:
2933:
2925:
2917:Main articles:
2915:
2899:
2893:
2877:Rudolf Clausius
2841:
2833:Main articles:
2831:
2807:
2801:
2767:thermo-dynamics
2763:William Thomson
2741:
2735:
2730:
2718:his experiments
2716:As a result of
2684:
2678:
2672:
2649:Jan Ingen-Housz
2641:heat capacities
2619:
2613:
2597:thermochemistry
2577:
2571:
2559:William Thomson
2541:
2535:
2515:Newcomen engine
2491:
2485:
2469:internal energy
2464:in the 1750s.
2442:
2437:
2431:
2381:
2375:
2355:
2349:
2340:thermochemistry
2316:ice-calorimeter
2292:
2286:
2281:
2258:heat conduction
2246:
2238:Main articles:
2236:
2224:Thomas Newcomen
2209:
2203:
2184:Jacques Charles
2158:
2126:
2120:
2082:
2076:
2040:
2034:
2029:
2019:in 1620 in his
2001:
1965:Galileo Galilei
1945:
1939:
1934:
1903:
1845:
1774:
1666:
1621:
1620:
1596:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1446:
1438:
1437:
1416:
1402:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1351:
1318:
1311:
1293:
1274:Maxwell's demon
1236:
1207:
1206:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1083:
1082:
1081:
1028:
1027:
1026:
988:
987:
986:
984:Internal energy
979:
964:
954:
953:
928:
903:
893:
892:
891:
862:
861:
841:
840:
815:
814:
794:
793:
766:
765:
730:
729:
709:
708:
683:
682:
662:
661:
631:
630:
625:Compressibility
595:
594:
574:
573:
548:
547:
527:
526:
499:
498:
478:
468:
467:
448:Particle number
401:
360:
349:
339:
338:
297:Irreversibility
209:State of matter
176:Isolated system
161:
151:
150:
149:
124:
114:
113:
109:Non-equilibrium
101:
76:
68:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5163:
5161:
5153:
5152:
5147:
5145:Thermodynamics
5142:
5132:
5131:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5121:
5110:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5103:
5097:
5095:
5091:
5090:
5088:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5075:Element naming
5071:
5069:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5026:
5020:
5018:
5014:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5006:
5000:
4998:
4994:
4993:
4991:
4990:
4985:
4979:
4977:
4970:
4963:Periodic table
4959:
4958:
4956:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4939:
4937:
4933:
4932:
4929:
4928:
4926:
4925:
4920:
4918:Nanotechnology
4915:
4910:
4904:
4902:
4898:
4897:
4895:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4863:
4857:
4855:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4834:Thermodynamics
4831:
4826:
4821:
4816:
4810:
4808:
4797:
4793:
4792:
4782:
4780:
4779:
4772:
4765:
4757:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4744:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4726:
4721:
4720:
4719:
4714:
4706:
4704:ShapleyâCurtis
4701:
4696:
4694:LeibnizâNewton
4691:
4689:Galileo affair
4686:
4681:
4675:
4673:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4639:
4637:
4633:
4632:
4630:
4629:
4624:
4623:
4622:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4596:
4594:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4586:
4584:Speed of light
4581:
4580:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4545:
4543:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4535:
4530:
4528:Nanotechnology
4525:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4502:
4500:
4499:
4498:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4477:
4476:
4475:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4438:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4413:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4396:
4395:
4394:
4389:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4374:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4355:
4353:
4351:Modern physics
4347:
4346:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4319:Thermodynamics
4316:
4315:
4314:
4304:
4303:
4302:
4297:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4270:
4269:
4268:
4258:
4257:
4256:
4251:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4201:
4199:
4193:
4192:
4182:
4180:
4179:
4172:
4165:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4144:
4138:
4130:
4129:External links
4127:
4126:
4125:
4119:
4102:
4096:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4039:
4032:
4012:Laidler, Keith
4003:
3986:
3955:
3938:
3921:
3867:
3860:
3840:
3809:
3798:
3778:
3757:
3734:
3721:10.1086/350705
3692:
3672:
3655:
3634:
3613:10.2307/629164
3590:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3545:Thermodynamics
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3515:
3505:
3504:
3501:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3463:
3457:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3413:
3407:
3401:
3395:
3384:
3381:
3377:Ilya Prigogine
3364:
3361:
3353:Walther Nernst
3345:Main article:
3342:
3339:
3319:Main article:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3273:Main article:
3270:
3267:
3236:Main article:
3233:
3230:
3210:Main article:
3207:
3204:
3188:
3187:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3134:Main article:
3131:
3128:
3104:Main article:
3101:
3098:
3060:Main article:
3057:
3054:
3045:
3042:
3037:Main article:
3034:
3031:
2999:Main article:
2996:
2993:
2972:
2969:
2952:
2949:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2914:
2911:
2895:Main article:
2892:
2889:
2856:kinetic energy
2830:
2827:
2803:Main article:
2800:
2797:
2737:Main article:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2674:Main article:
2671:
2668:
2656:Pierre Prévost
2635:Pierre Prévost
2615:Main article:
2612:
2609:
2573:Main article:
2570:
2567:
2555:kinetic theory
2539:Caloric theory
2537:Main article:
2534:
2533:Caloric theory
2531:
2487:Main article:
2484:
2481:
2441:
2438:
2430:
2427:
2401:
2400:
2377:Main article:
2374:
2371:
2351:Main article:
2348:
2345:
2296:caloric theory
2288:Main article:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2273:law of cooling
2271:published his
2235:
2232:
2207:Steam digester
2205:Main article:
2202:
2201:Steam digester
2199:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2173:
2157:
2154:
2122:Main article:
2119:
2116:
2078:Main article:
2075:
2072:
2056:René Descartes
2046:René Descartes
2036:Main article:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2027:René Descartes
2025:
2000:
1997:
1941:Main article:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1902:
1899:
1844:
1841:
1788:believed that
1773:
1770:
1690:thermodynamics
1668:
1667:
1665:
1664:
1657:
1650:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1623:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1448:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1393:Thermodynamics
1389:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1369:
1367:
1358:
1356:
1347:
1342:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1310:
1309:
1307:Caloric theory
1303:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1186:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1131:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1076:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1021:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
980:
978:
977:
972:
966:
965:
960:
959:
956:
955:
952:
951:
944:
939:
934:
927:
926:
921:
916:
911:
905:
904:
899:
898:
895:
894:
888:
887:
884:
883:
872:
869:
859:
848:
837:
836:
825:
822:
812:
801:
787:
776:
773:
763:
756:
755:
752:
751:
740:
737:
727:
716:
705:
704:
693:
690:
680:
669:
655:
644:
641:
638:
628:
621:
620:
617:
616:
605:
602:
592:
581:
570:
569:
558:
555:
545:
534:
520:
509:
506:
496:
487:
486:
485:
479:
474:
473:
470:
469:
464:
463:
462:
461:
456:
451:
440:
429:
410:
409:
403:
402:
400:
399:
394:
388:
385:
384:
378:
377:
376:
375:
370:
351:
350:
345:
344:
341:
340:
335:
334:
333:
332:
327:
322:
314:
313:
307:
306:
305:
304:
299:
294:
289:
287:Free expansion
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
241:
240:
234:
233:
232:
231:
226:
224:Control volume
221:
216:
214:Phase (matter)
211:
206:
201:
196:
188:
187:
179:
178:
173:
168:
162:
157:
156:
153:
152:
148:
147:
142:
137:
132:
126:
125:
120:
119:
116:
115:
112:
111:
100:
99:
94:
89:
84:
78:
77:
74:
73:
70:
69:
64:The classical
63:
55:
54:
52:Thermodynamics
24:
18:Theory of heat
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5162:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5137:
5135:
5120:
5112:
5111:
5108:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5096:
5092:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5072:
5070:
5066:
5060:
5059:Haber process
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5033:
5030:
5029:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5019:
5015:
5005:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4995:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4978:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4940:
4938:
4934:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4905:
4903:
4899:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4872:
4868:
4862:
4859:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4848:
4840:
4837:
4836:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4814:Atomic theory
4812:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4801:
4798:
4794:
4789:
4785:
4778:
4773:
4771:
4766:
4764:
4759:
4758:
4755:
4743:
4735:
4734:
4731:
4725:
4722:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4709:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4679:BohrâEinstein
4677:
4676:
4674:
4670:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4640:
4638:
4634:
4628:
4625:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4591:
4585:
4582:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4540:
4534:
4533:String theory
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4504:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4482:
4481:
4478:
4474:
4471:
4470:
4469:
4466:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4442:
4439:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4405:
4402:
4401:
4400:
4397:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4352:
4348:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4308:
4305:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4288:
4284:
4283:Metamaterials
4281:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4274:
4271:
4267:
4264:
4263:
4262:
4259:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4242:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4198:
4194:
4189:
4185:
4178:
4173:
4171:
4166:
4164:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4148:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4122:
4116:
4111:
4110:
4103:
4099:
4093:
4089:
4084:
4083:
4079:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4043:
4040:
4035:
4029:
4025:
4020:
4019:
4013:
4007:
4004:
3999:
3998:
3990:
3987:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3959:
3956:
3951:
3950:
3942:
3939:
3934:
3933:
3925:
3922:
3918:
3912:
3911:
3905:reprinted in
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3871:
3868:
3863:
3857:
3853:
3852:
3844:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3813:
3810:
3807:
3802:
3799:
3791:
3790:
3782:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3761:
3758:
3750:
3749:
3741:
3739:
3735:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3703:
3696:
3693:
3689:. p. 50.
3685:
3684:
3676:
3673:
3668:
3667:
3659:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3638:
3635:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3595:
3592:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3502:
3499:
3496:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3475:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3348:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3322:
3314:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3245:
3239:
3231:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3218:Willard Gibbs
3213:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3143:
3137:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3092:, and volume
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3063:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3043:
3040:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3013:, symbolized
3012:
3008:
3002:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2950:
2947:
2943:
2935:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2844:John Herapath
2840:
2836:
2835:John Herapath
2828:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:useful effect
2787:
2783:
2779:
2778:useful effect
2774:
2772:
2769:in his paper
2768:
2764:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2745:
2740:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2688:
2683:
2677:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2633:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2581:
2576:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2511:steam engines
2508:
2507:Savery engine
2500:
2495:
2490:
2483:Steam engines
2482:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2473:heat capacity
2470:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2454:heat capacity
2446:
2440:Heat capacity
2439:
2436:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2409:Hydrodynamics
2406:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2385:
2380:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2363:absolute zero
2360:
2354:
2346:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2291:
2283:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2267:In 1701, Sir
2265:
2263:
2262:Edmond Halley
2259:
2252:Edmond Halley
2250:
2245:
2241:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2228:Thomas Savery
2225:
2221:
2213:
2208:
2200:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2176:Charles's law
2174:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2150:ideal gas law
2147:
2143:
2139:
2130:
2125:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2081:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2063:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2044:
2039:
2031:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2021:Novum Organum
2018:
2017:Francis Bacon
2014:
2007:Francis Bacon
2005:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1949:
1944:
1936:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1922:atomic theory
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1896:in the 1700s.
1895:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1754:atomic theory
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1734:technological
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1651:
1649:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1635:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1624:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1606:Self-assembly
1604:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1577:van der Waals
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1502:von Helmholtz
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1442:
1441:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1253:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1143:
1135:
1132:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1080:
1077:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1025:
1022:
1005:
1002:
999:
993:
985:
982:
981:
976:
973:
971:
968:
967:
963:
958:
957:
950:
949:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
929:
925:
924:Ideal gas law
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
906:
902:
897:
896:
870:
860:
846:
839:
838:
823:
813:
799:
792:
791:
788:
774:
771:
764:
761:
758:
757:
738:
728:
714:
707:
706:
691:
681:
667:
660:
659:
656:
642:
639:
636:
629:
626:
623:
622:
603:
593:
579:
572:
571:
556:
546:
532:
525:
524:
521:
507:
504:
497:
494:
491:
490:
484:
481:
480:
477:
472:
471:
460:
457:
455:
454:Vapor quality
452:
450:
449:
444:
441:
439:
438:
433:
430:
427:
423:
422:
417:
414:
413:
412:
411:
408:
404:
398:
395:
393:
390:
389:
387:
386:
383:
379:
374:
371:
369:
366:
365:
364:
363:
359:
355:
348:
343:
342:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
317:
316:
315:
312:
308:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
292:Reversibility
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
244:
243:
242:
239:
235:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
191:
190:
189:
186:
182:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
166:Closed system
164:
163:
160:
155:
154:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
127:
123:
118:
117:
110:
106:
103:
102:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
79:
72:
71:
67:
61:
57:
56:
53:
49:
44:
43:Thomas Savery
40:
36:
35:Savery Engine
31:
27:
19:
5044:Gaseous fuel
4861:Biochemistry
4833:
4829:Spectroscopy
4648:The Martians
4318:
4312:Spectroscopy
4254:Aerodynamics
4232:Field theory
4108:
4087:
4052:
4048:
4042:
4017:
4006:
3996:
3989:
3972:
3968:
3958:
3948:
3941:
3931:
3924:
3916:
3909:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3850:
3843:
3826:
3822:
3812:
3801:
3788:
3781:
3760:
3747:
3712:
3708:
3695:
3682:
3675:
3665:
3658:
3644:
3637:
3604:
3600:
3594:
3506:
3386:
3369:Lars Onsager
3366:
3350:
3324:
3310:20th century
3296:radiant flux
3292:JoĆŸef Stefan
3288:quantitative
3278:
3262:
3258:
3250:
3246:
3241:
3221:
3215:
3195:
3191:
3189:
3145:
3139:
3109:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3075:
3065:
3049:
3047:
3022:
3019:WĂ€rmegewicht
3018:
3014:
3010:
3004:
2980:
2974:
2954:
2926:
2900:
2874:
2868:
2864:Humphry Davy
2851:
2850:rather than
2842:
2808:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2777:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2750:
2721:
2715:
2693:
2653:
2638:
2620:
2586:
2548:
2542:
2504:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2462:Joseph Black
2453:
2451:
2448:Joseph Black
2416:
2408:
2402:
2390:
2356:
2332:Joseph Black
2315:
2293:
2279:18th century
2269:Isaac Newton
2266:
2255:
2218:
2142:Robert Hooke
2138:Robert Boyle
2135:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2083:
2065:
2061:
2049:
2020:
2010:
1961:Robert Fludd
1954:
1932:17th century
1904:
1878:
1852:
1846:
1785:
1775:
1738:steam engine
1673:
1671:
1467:Carathéodory
1398:Heat engines
1370:
1359:
1348:
1330:Motive power
1315:
1221:
975:Free entropy
946:
446:
445: /
435:
434: /
426:introduction
419:
418: /
357:
320:Heat engines
107: /
39:steam engine
34:
26:
4976:By elements
4572:Higgs boson
4149:â Berkeley
3469:and use of
3355:stated the
3088:, pressure
3082:equilibrium
2957:Lord Kelvin
2951:Lord Kelvin
2860:peer review
2753:Sadi Carnot
2724:principle.
2660:John Leslie
2645:electricity
2607:of water.
2605:latent heat
2593:calorimeter
2575:Calorimetry
2569:Calorimetry
2563:James Joule
2519:Watt engine
2336:latent heat
2220:Denis Papin
2215:Denis Papin
2170:Boyle's law
2132:Boyle's law
2118:Boyle's law
1985:thermoscope
1981:thermometer
1886:alpha helix
1758:probability
1718:meteorology
1692:in much of
1289:Synergetics
970:Free energy
416:Temperature
277:Quasistatic
272:Isenthalpic
229:Instruments
219:Equilibrium
171:Open system
105:Equilibrium
87:Statistical
41:: built by
5134:Categories
4593:By periods
4411:Geophysics
4383:Cosmology
4055:(6): 697.
3586:References
3514:â c. 1970s
3488:â c. 1980s
3465:Theory of
3462:â c. 1970s
3412:â c. 1880s
3327:Max Planck
3259:enthalpein
2680:See also:
2529:was born.
2433:See also:
2146:Gay-Lussac
1918:Epicureans
1914:Democritus
1849:Parmenides
1833:Heraclitus
1822:phlogiston
1802:Empedocles
1784:including
1762:statistics
1746:cryogenics
1732:), and to
1730:physiology
1698:technology
1684:, and the
1601:Nucleation
1445:Scientists
1249:Philosophy
962:Potentials
325:Heat pumps
282:Polytropic
267:Isentropic
257:Isothermal
5054:Gunpowder
5004:Nonmetals
4908:Cosmetics
4796:By branch
4636:By groups
4620:Astronomy
4456:Molecules
4290:Mechanics
4205:Astronomy
3901:120018011
3729:143652761
3629:163016846
3607:: 21â23.
3351:In 1906,
3306:in 1884.
3171:
2975:In 1854,
2823:polarised
2819:refracted
2815:reflected
2704:cast iron
2654:In 1791,
2264:in 1686.
1910:Leucippus
1865:Leucippus
1861:Aristotle
1853:On Nature
1772:Antiquity
1710:magnetism
1582:Waterston
1532:von Mayer
1487:de Donder
1477:Clapeyron
1457:Boltzmann
1452:Bernoulli
1413:Education
1384:Timelines
1168:−
1113:−
901:Equations
868:∂
821:∂
772:α
736:∂
689:∂
643:−
637:β
601:∂
554:∂
262:Adiabatic
252:Isochoric
238:Processes
199:Ideal gas
82:Classical
33:The 1698
5119:Category
5049:Graphene
5032:timeline
4997:By class
4967:timeline
4923:Pharmacy
4852:timeline
4839:timeline
4805:timeline
4788:timeline
4742:Category
4567:timeline
4554:Graphene
4516:timeline
4485:timeline
4473:timeline
4446:timeline
4387:timeline
4372:timeline
4362:timeline
4324:timeline
4295:timeline
4278:timeline
4266:timeline
4249:timeline
4222:timeline
4210:timeline
4188:timeline
4014:(1995).
3770:Archived
3519:See also
3325:In 1900
3261:meaning
3251:enthalpy
3244:enthalpy
3238:Enthalpy
3232:Enthalpy
2852:vis viva
2848:momentum
2722:vis viva
2711:friction
2527:dynamics
2460:chemist
2458:Scottish
2418:vis viva
2357:In 1702
2190:in 1702.
2058:wrote:
1973:coldness
1634:Category
1572:Thompson
1482:Clausius
1462:Bridgman
1316:Vis viva
1298:Theories
1232:Gas laws
1024:Enthalpy
432:Pressure
247:Isobaric
204:Real gas
92:Chemical
75:Branches
5024:Battery
4892:Weapons
4877:Fission
4577:Neutron
4434:Weapons
4419:Fission
4334:Entropy
4057:Bibcode
3831:Bibcode
3450:â 1960s
3394:â 1780s
3331:formula
3263:to warm
3198:is the
3007:entropy
2985:entropy
2707:cannons
2550:caloric
2305:rusting
2301:burning
1977:hotness
1906:Atomism
1901:Atomism
1883:protein
1879:Heating
1826:caloric
1726:biology
1694:science
1557:Smeaton
1552:Rankine
1542:Onsager
1527:Maxwell
1522:Massieu
1227:Entropy
1222:General
1213:History
1203:Culture
1200:History
424: (
421:Entropy
358:italics
159:Systems
4882:Fusion
4424:Fusion
4329:Energy
4307:Optics
4117:
4094:
4030:
3899:
3858:
3727:
3627:
3621:629164
3619:
3575:Vacuum
3456:â 1968
3438:â 1957
3429:â 1941
3406:â 1876
3400:â 1824
3118:. The
2921:, and
2883:, and
2242:, and
2196:(1802)
2172:(1662)
2013:motion
1975:" or "
1857:vacuum
1816:, and
1724:, and
1712:, and
1680:, the
1547:Planck
1537:Nernst
1512:Kelvin
1472:Carnot
762:
627:
495:
437:Volume
352:Note:
311:Cycles
140:Second
130:Zeroth
5094:Other
4887:Power
4495:tests
4451:Atoms
4429:Power
4404:tests
3897:S2CID
3793:(PDF)
3752:(PDF)
3725:S2CID
3705:(PDF)
3687:(PDF)
3625:S2CID
3617:JSTOR
3023:ÏÏÎÏÏ
2367:gases
2097:Latin
1926:atoms
1890:phase
1810:water
1806:earth
1595:Other
1562:Stahl
1517:Lewis
1507:Joule
1497:Gibbs
1492:Duhem
185:State
145:Third
135:First
4115:ISBN
4092:ISBN
4028:ISBN
3856:ISBN
3709:Isis
2944:and
2837:and
2821:and
2782:work
2696:work
2601:coal
2545:heat
2523:fuel
2322:and
1991:and
1983:(or
1967:and
1912:and
1867:and
1824:and
1818:fire
1760:and
1748:and
1696:and
1672:The
1567:Tait
397:Heat
392:Work
122:Laws
4065:doi
4024:110
3977:doi
3973:125
3889:doi
3717:doi
3609:doi
3168:log
3009:" (
2991:.
2854:or
2784:":
2773:.)
2698:by
2415:'s
2307:.
2084:In
1814:air
1410:Art
356:in
5136::
4988:Al
4063:.
4053:79
4051:.
4026:.
3971:.
3967:.
3895:.
3885:21
3883:.
3879:.
3827:34
3825:.
3821:.
3768:.
3737:^
3723:.
3713:62
3711:.
3707:.
3650:79
3623:.
3615:.
3605:75
3603:.
3375:,
3371:,
3359:.
3265:.
3202:.
2967:.
2887:.
2879:,
2817:,
2666:.
2497:A
2369:.
2275:.
2152:.
1995:.
1963:,
1959:,
1812:,
1808:,
1800:,
1768:.
1744:,
1740:,
1720:,
1708:,
1704:,
4983:F
4969:)
4965:(
4854:)
4807:)
4790:)
4786:(
4776:e
4769:t
4762:v
4190:)
4186:(
4176:e
4169:t
4162:v
4123:.
4100:.
4071:.
4067::
4059::
4036:.
3983:.
3979::
3919:.
3903:.
3891::
3864:.
3837:.
3833::
3776:.
3731:.
3719::
3652:.
3631:.
3611::
3247:H
3196:k
3192:W
3174:W
3165:k
3162:=
3159:S
3146:S
3094:V
3090:P
3086:T
3015:S
2342:.
2090:(
1728:(
1661:e
1654:t
1647:v
1174:S
1171:T
1165:H
1162:=
1159:)
1156:p
1153:,
1150:T
1147:(
1144:G
1119:S
1116:T
1110:U
1107:=
1104:)
1101:V
1098:,
1095:T
1092:(
1089:A
1064:V
1061:p
1058:+
1055:U
1052:=
1049:)
1046:p
1043:,
1040:S
1037:(
1034:H
1009:)
1006:V
1003:,
1000:S
997:(
994:U
871:T
847:V
824:V
800:1
775:=
739:p
715:V
692:V
668:1
640:=
604:T
580:N
557:S
533:T
508:=
505:c
428:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
