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funded in the EU from 2000 to the present (2020). The basic concept is to store solar thermal energy as chemical latent energy in the zeolite. Typically, hot dry air from flat plate solar collectors is made to flow through a bed of zeolite such that any water adsorbate present is driven off. Storage can be diurnal, weekly, monthly, or even seasonal depending on the volume of the zeolite and the area of the solar thermal panels. When heat is called for during the night, or sunless hours, or winter, humidified air flows through the zeolite. As the humidity is adsorbed by the zeolite, heat is released to the air and subsequently to the building space. This form of TES, with specific use of zeolites, was first taught by Guerra in 1978. Advantages over molten salts and other high temperature TES include that (1) the temperature required is only the stagnation temperature typical of a solar flat plate thermal collector, and (2) as long as the zeolite is kept dry, the energy is stored indefinitely. Because of the low temperature, and because the energy is stored as latent heat of adsorption, thus eliminating the insulation requirements of a molten salt storage system, costs are significantly lower.
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oils, synthetic oils are more recently, vegetable oils are gaining interest because they are renewable and biodegradable. Numerious criteria are used to select an oil for a particular application: high energy storage capacity and specific heat capacity, high thermal conductivity, high chemical and physical stability, low coefficient of expansion, low cost, availability, low corrosion and compatibility with compounds materials, limited environmental issues, etc . Regarding the selection of a low-cost or cost-effective thermal oil, it is important to consider not only the acquisition or purchase cost, but also the operating and replacement costs or even final disposal costs. An oil that is initially more expensive may prove to be more cost-effective in the long run if it offers higher thermal stability, thereby reducing the frequency of replacement .
1488:(MOST). With this approach a molecule is converted by photoisomerization into a higher-energy isomer. Photoisomerization is a process in which one (cis trans) isomer is converted into another by light (solar energy). This isomer is capable of storing the solar energy until the energy is released by a heat trigger or catalyst (then, the isomer is converted into its original isomer). A promising candidate for such a MOST is Norbornadiene (NBD). This is because there is a high energy difference between the NBD and the quadricyclane (QC) photoisomer. This energy difference is approximately 96 kJ/mol. It is also known that for such systems, the donor-acceptor substitutions provide an effective means for red shifting the longest-wavelength absorption. This improves the solar spectrum match.
1472:. The molecule is called a chromophore-catalyst assembly which absorbs sunlight and kick starts the catalyst. This catalyst separates the electrons and the water molecules. The nanoparticles are assembled into a thin layer and a single nanoparticle has many chromophore-catalyst on it. The function of this thin layer of nanoparticles is to transfer away the electrons which are separated from the water. This thin layer of nanoparticles is coated by a layer of titanium dioxide. With this coating, the electrons that come free can be transferred more quickly so that hydrogen could be made. This coating is, again, coated with a protective coating that strengthens the connection between the chromophore-catalyst and the nanoparticle.
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used to adjust this absorption maxima. However, this positive effect on the solar absorption is compensated by a higher molecular weight. This implies a lower energy density. This positive effect on the solar absorption has another downside. Namely, that the energy storage time is lowered when the absorption is redshifted. A possible solution to overcome this anti-correlation between the energy density and the red shifting is to couple one chromophore unit to several photo switches. In this case, it is advantageous to form so called dimers or trimers. The NBD share a common donor and/or acceptor.
1855:, to a pressure of, for example, 12 bar, heating it to around 500 °C (900 °F). The compressed gas is transferred to the top of the hot vessel where it percolates down through the gravel, transferring heat to the rock and cooling to ambient temperature. The cooled, but still pressurized, gas emerging at the bottom of the vessel is then adiabatically expanded to 1 bar, which lowers its temperature to â150 °C. The cold gas is then passed up through the cold vessel where it cools the rock while warming to its initial condition.
1424:(NaOH) solution. Heat (e.g. from using a solar collector) is stored by evaporating the water in an endothermic reaction. When water is added again, heat is released in an exothermic reaction at 50 °C (120 °F). Current systems operate at 60% efficiency. The system is especially advantageous for seasonal thermal energy storage, because the dried salt can be stored at room temperature for prolonged times, without energy loss. The containers with the dehydrated salt can even be transported to a different location. The system has a higher
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energy losses. A container with a few cubic meters of salt could store enough of this thermochemical energy to heat a house throughout the winter. In a temperate climate like that of the
Netherlands, an average low-energy household requires about 6.7 GJ/winter. To store this energy in water (at a temperature difference of 70 °C), 23 m insulated water storage would be needed, exceeding the storage abilities of most households. Using salt hydrate technology with a storage density of about 1 GJ/m, 4â8 m could be sufficient.
49:
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1554:. Early examples of thermal batteries include stone and mud cook stoves, rocks placed in fires, and kilns. While stoves and kilns are ovens, they are also thermal storage systems that depend on heat being retained for an extended period of time. Thermal energy storage systems can also be installed in domestic situations with heat batteries and thermal stores being amongst the most common types of energy storage systems installed at homes in the UK.
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1994:
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an underground tank or in some kind of heat-transfer fluid (HTF) flowing through a system of pipes, either placed vertically in U-shapes (boreholes) or horizontally in trenches. Yet another system is known as a packed-bed (or pebble-bed) storage unit, in which some fluid, usually air, flows through a bed of loosely packed material (usually rock, pebbles or ceramic brick) to add or extract heat.
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renewable energy is transformed into high temperature high grade heat in highly insulated heat stores, for release later when needed. An emerging technology is the use of vacuum super insulated (VSI) heat stores. The use of electricity to generate heat, and not say direct heat from solar thermal collectors, means that very high temperatures can be realised, potentially allowing for inter
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seasonally extracted from the ground in winter and rejected to the ground in summer, creating a ground "thermal charge" in one season that is not uncharged and driven the other direction from neutral until a later season. Other more advanced examples of Ground-based
Thermal Batteries utilizing intentional well-bore thermal patterns are currently in research and early use.
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applications and a wide range of materials that change phase at different temperatures. These materials include salts and waxes that are specifically engineered for the applications they serve. In addition to manufactured materials, water is a phase change material. The latent heat of water is 334 joules/gram. The phase change of water occurs at 0 °C (32 °F).
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A ground heat exchanger (GHEX) is an area of the earth that is utilized as a seasonal/annual cycle thermal battery. These thermal batteries are areas of the earth into which pipes have been placed in order to transfer thermal energy. Energy is added to the GHEX by running a higher temperature fluid
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Eventually, this system could reach a quantum yield of photoconversion up 94% per NBD unit. A quantum yield is a measure of the efficiency of photon emission. With this system the measured energy densities reached up to 559 kJ/kg (exceeding the target of 300 kJ/kg). So, the potential of the
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The DSPEC generates hydrogen fuel by making use of the acquired solar energy to split water molecules into its elements. As the result of this split, the hydrogen is isolated and the oxygen is released into the air. This sounds easier than it actually is. Four electrons of the water molecules need to
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have been achieved. This has been done by a DSPEC (dys-sensitized photoelectrosythesis cell). This is a cell that can store energy that has been acquired by solar panels during the day for night-time (or even later) use. It is designed by taking an indication from, well known, natural photosynthesis.
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PCMs are further subdivided into organic, inorganic and eutectic materials. Compared to organic PCMs, inorganic materials are less flammable, cheaper and more widely available. They also have higher storage capacity and thermal conductivity. Organic PCMs, on the other hand, are less corrosive and not
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Solar energy is an application of thermal energy storage. Most practical solar thermal storage systems provide storage from a few hours to a day's worth of energy. However, a growing number of facilities use seasonal thermal energy storage (STES), enabling solar energy to be stored in summer to heat
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With the rise of wind and solar power (and other renewable energies) providing an ever increasing share of energy input into the electricity grids in some countries, the use of larger scale electric energy storage is being explored by several commercial companies. Ideally, the utilisation of surplus
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would appear to provide sufficient storage for a single house to meet 50% of heating demand. This could, in principle, be used to store surplus wind or solar heat due to the ability of electrical heating to reach high temperatures. At the neighborhood level, the
Wiggenhausen-SĂźd solar development at
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operating on an annual cycle where energy is extracted from a building during the summer season to cool a building and added to the GHEX. Then that same energy is later extracted from the GHEX in the winter season to heat the building. This annual cycle of energy addition and subtraction is highly
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An example of an encapsulated thermal battery is a residential water heater with a storage tank. This thermal battery is usually slowly charged over a period of about 30â60 minutes for rapid use when needed (e.g., 10â15 minutes). Many utilities, understanding the "thermal battery" nature of water
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An encapsulated thermal battery is physically similar to a phase change thermal battery in that it is a confined amount of physical material which is thermally heated or cooled to store or extract energy. However, in a non-phase change encapsulated thermal battery, the temperature of the substance
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However, a recent meta-analysis on studies of thermochemical heat storage suggests that salt hydrates offer very low potential for thermochemical heat storage, that absorption processes have prohibitive performance for long-term heat storage, and that thermochemical storage may not be suitable for
176:
is also used for storing solar energy at a high temperature, termed molten-salt technology or molten salt energy storage (MSES). Molten salts can be employed as a thermal energy storage method to retain thermal energy. Presently, this is a commercially used technology to store the heat collected by
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The materials are generally inexpensive and safe. One of the cheapest, most commonly used options is a water tank, but materials such as molten salts or metals can be heated to higher temperatures and therefore offer a higher storage capacity. Energy can also be stored underground (UTES), either in
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Isentropic systems involve two insulated containers filled, for example, with crushed rock or gravel: a hot vessel storing thermal energy at high temperature/pressure, and a cold vessel storing thermal energy at low temperature/pressure. The vessels are connected at top and bottom by pipes and the
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GHEX are usually implemented in two forms. The picture above depicts what is known as a "horizontal" GHEX where trenching is used to place an amount of pipe in a closed loop in the ground. They are also formed by drilling boreholes into the ground, either vertically or horizontally, and then the
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A crucial challenge for a useful MOST system is to acquire a satisfactory high energy storage density (if possible, higher than 300 kJ/kg). Another challenge of a MOST system is that light can be harvested in the visible region. The functionalization of the NBD with the donor and acceptor units is
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The energy is recovered as electricity by reversing the cycle. The hot gas from the hot vessel is expanded to drive a generator and then supplied to the cold store. The cooled gas retrieved from the bottom of the cold store is compressed which heats the gas to ambient temperature. The gas is then
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Some applications use the thermal capacity of water or ice as cold storage; others use it as heat storage. It can serve either application; ice can be melted to store heat then refrozen to warm an environment. The advantage of using a phase change in this way is that a given mass of material can
1431:
In 2013 the Dutch technology developer TNO presented the results of the MERITS project to store heat in a salt container. The heat, which can be derived from a solar collector on a rooftop, expels the water contained in the salt. When the water is added again, the heat is released, with almost no
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The low cost ($ 200/ton) and high cycle rate (2,000Ă) of synthetic zeolites such as Linde 13X with water adsorbate has garnered much academic and commercial interest recently for use for thermal energy storage (TES), specifically of low-grade solar and waste heat. Several pilot projects have been
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at 4.2 kJ/(kgâ
K) whereas concrete has about one third of that. On the other hand, concrete can be heated to much higher temperatures (1200 °C) by for example electrical heating and therefore has a much higher overall volumetric capacity. Thus in the example below, an insulated cube of about
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A steam accumulator consists of an insulated steel pressure tank containing hot water and steam under pressure. As a heat storage device, it is used to mediate heat production by a variable or steady source from a variable demand for heat. Steam accumulators may take on a significance for energy
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The salt melts at 131 °C (268 °F). It is kept liquid at 288 °C (550 °F) in an insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar collector where the focused sun heats it to 566 °C (1,051 °F). It is then sent to a hot storage tank. With
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source as the energy extracted in the winter will be restored to the GHEX the next summer in a continually repeating cycle. This type is solar powered because it is the heat from the sun in the summer that is removed from a building and stored in the ground for use in the next winter season for
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Using oils as sensible heat storage materials is an effective approach for storing thermal energy, particularly in medium- to high-temperature applications. Different types of oils are used based on the temperature range and the specific requirements of the thermal energy storage system: mineral
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Kasper Moth-Poulsen and his team tried to engineer the stability of the high energy photo isomer by having two electronically coupled photo switches with separate barriers for thermal conversion. By doing so, a blue shift occurred after the first isomerization (NBD-NBD to QC-NBD). This led to a
87:
for later reuse. Employing widely different technologies, it allows surplus thermal energy to be stored for hours, days, or months. Scale both of storage and use vary from small to large – from individual processes to district, town, or region. Usage examples are the balancing of energy
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blocks heated to a high temperature with electricity and may or may not have good insulation and controls to release heat over a number of hours. Some advice not to use them in areas with young children or where there is an increased risk of fires due to poor housekeeping, both due to the high
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A good example of the Annual Cycle nature of a GHEX Thermal
Battery can be seen in the ASHRAE Building study. As seen there in the 'Ground Loop and Ambient Air temperatures by date' graphic (Figure 2â7), one can easily see the annual cycle sinusoidal shape of the ground temperature as heat is
1318:
In addition to using ice in direct cooling applications, it is also being used in heat pump-based heating systems. In these applications, the phase change energy provides a very significant layer of thermal capacity that is near the bottom range of temperature that water source heat pumps can
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Phase change materials used for thermal storage are capable of storing and releasing significant thermal capacity at the temperature that they change phase. These materials are chosen based on specific applications because there is a wide range of temperatures that may be useful in different
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offers much higher storage temperatures than salts with consequent greater capacity and efficiency. It is being researched as a possible more energy efficient storage technology. Silicon is able to store more than 1 MWh of energy per cubic meter at 1400 °C. An additional advantage is the
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heaters, have begun using them to absorb excess renewable energy power when available for later use by the homeowner. According to the above-cited article, "net savings to the electricity system as a whole could be $ 200 per year per heater â some of which may be passed on to its owner".
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A single tank with a divider plate to separate cold and hot molten salt is under development. It is more economical by achieving 100% more heat storage per unit volume over the dual tanks system as the molten-salt storage tank is costly due to its complicated construction.
3883:"Performance of the HVAC Systems at the ASHRAE Headquarters Building, Jeffrey D. Spitler, Laura E. Southard, Xiaobing Liu, GeoExchange Organization, September 30, 2014, see Figure 2-7 (pdf pg 32): Ambient air and ground loop water supply temperatures during occupied hours"
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at the PCM's melting point, the material can be picked to have the desired temperature range. Desirable qualities include high latent heat and thermal conductivity. Furthermore, the storage unit can be more compact if volume changes during the phase transition are small.
1123:, the general term for the associated media is Phase-Change Material (PCM). During these transitions, heat can be added or extracted without affecting the material's temperature, giving it an advantage over SHS-technologies. Storage capacities are often higher as well.
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mixture of ionic metal salts (sodium, potassium and lithium chlorides, bromides, etc.) as the electrolyte, manufactured with the salts in solid form. As long as the salts remain solid, the battery has a long shelf life of up to 50 years. Once activated (usually by a
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Several applications are being developed where ice is produced during off-peak periods and used for cooling at a later time. For example, air conditioning can be provided more economically by using low-cost electricity at night to freeze water into ice, then using the
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Sensible heat storage (SHS) is the most straightforward method. It simply means the temperature of some medium is either increased or decreased. This type of storage is the most commercially available out of the three; other techniques are less developed.
72:, which provide thermal energy storage to allow generation during night or peak demand. The 280 MW plant is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38 percent of its rated capacity over the course of a year.
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for driving a conventional turbine/generator set as used in any coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100-megawatt turbine would need a tank of about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in diameter to drive it for four hours by this
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As of 2016, researchers in several countries are conducting experiments to determine the best type of salt, or salt mixture. Low pressure within the container seems favorable for the energy transport. Especially promising are organic salts, so called
1419:
One example of an experimental storage system based on chemical reaction energy is the salt hydrate technology . The system uses the reaction energy created when salts are hydrated or dehydrated. It works by storing heat in a container containing 50%
1496:
higher energy of isomerization of the second switching event (QC-NBD to QC-QC). Another advantage of this system, by sharing a donor, is that the molecular weight per norbornadiene unit is reduced. This leads to an increase of the energy density.
139:
The different kinds of thermal energy storage can be divided into three separate categories: sensible heat, latent heat, and thermo-chemical heat storage. Each of these has different advantages and disadvantages that determine their applications.
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Using this method, the solar energy acquired from the solar panels is converted into fuel (hydrogen) without releasing the so-called greenhouse gasses. This fuel can be stored into a fuel cell and, at a later time, used to generate electricity.
2190:
Mathiesen, B.V.; Lund, H.; Connolly, D.; Wenzel, H.; Ăstergaard, P.A.; MĂśller, B.; Nielsen, S.; Ridjan, I.; Karnøe, P.; Sperling, K.; Hvelplund, F.K. (2015). "Smart Energy
Systems for coherent 100% renewable energy and transport solutions".
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of miscibility gap alloys is often higher (up to 400 W/(mâ
K)) than competing technologies which means quicker "charge" and "discharge" of the thermal storage is possible. The technology has not yet been implemented on a large scale.
4255:
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There are a multitude of PCMs available, including but not limited to salts, polymers, gels, paraffin waxes and metal alloys, each with different properties. This allows for a more target-oriented system design. As the process is
1527:. Such a thermal battery (a.k.a. TBat) allows energy available at one time to be temporarily stored and then released at another time. The basic principles involved in a thermal battery occur at the atomic level of matter, with
193:
project from 1995 to 1999. Estimates in 2006 predicted an annual efficiency of 99%, a reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity, versus converting heat directly into electricity. Various
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absorb a large quantity of energy without its temperature changing. Hence a thermal battery that uses a phase change can be made lighter, or more energy can be put into it without raising the internal temperature unacceptably.
1562:
Thermal batteries generally fall into 4 categories with different forms and applications, although fundamentally all are for the storage and retrieval of thermal energy. They also differ in method and density of heat storage.
1440:. Compared to lithium halide-based sorbents they are less problematic in terms of limited global resources and compared to most other halides and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) they are less corrosive and not negatively affected by CO
1585:
is changed without inducing a phase change. Since a phase change is not needed many more materials are available for use in an encapsulated thermal battery. One of the key properties of an encapsulated thermal battery is its
2226:
Henning, Hans-Martin; Palzer, Andreas (2014). "A comprehensive model for the German electricity and heat sector in a future energy system with a dominant contribution from renewable energy technologiesâPart I: Methodology".
1984:
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Another medium that can store thermal energy is molten (recycled) aluminum. This technology was developed by the
Swedish company Azelio. The material is heated to 600 °C. When needed, the energy is transported to a
1378:
In one type of TCS, heat is applied to decompose certain molecules. The reaction products are then separated, and mixed again when required, resulting in a release of energy. Some examples are the decomposition of
1143:
Another important factor in LHS is the encapsulation of the PCM. Some materials are more prone to erosion and leakage than others. The system must be carefully designed in order to avoid unnecessary loss of heat.
4275:"Prepared for the Thermal Energy-Storage Systems Collaborative of the California Energy Commission" Report titled "Source Energy and Environmental Impacts of Thermal Energy Storage." Tabors Caramanis & Assoc
2767:
1407:(microporous crystalline alumina-silicates) and silica gels are well suited for this purpose. In hot, humid environments, this technology is often used in combination with lithium chloride to cool water.
1718:) and the electrolyte melts, it is very reliable with a high energy and power density. They are extensively used for military applications such as small to large guided missiles, and nuclear weapons.
3619:
Wang, Zhihang; Wu, Zhenhua; Hu, Zhiyu; Orrego-HernĂĄndez, Jessica; Mu, Erzhen; Zhang, Zhao-Yang; Jevric, Martyn; Liu, Yang; Fu, Xuecheng; Wang, Fengdan; Li, Tao; Moth-Poulsen, Kasper (16 March 2022).
948:
Large stores, mostly hot water storage tanks, are widely used in Nordic countries to store heat for several days, to decouple heat and power production and to help meet peak demands. Some towns use
1095:âBrick toasterâ is a recently (August 2022) announced innovative heat reservoir operating at up to 1,500 °C (2,732 °F) that its maker, Titan Cement/Rondo claims should be able cut global
3055:
Sugo, Heber; Kisi, Erich; Cuskelly, Dylan (1 March 2013). "Miscibility gap alloys with inverse microstructures and high thermal conductivity for high energy density thermal storage applications".
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had commissioned an underground heat storage facility of over 1,100,000 cubic metres (39,000,000 cu ft) in size and 90GWh in capacity to be built, expected to be operational in 2028.
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operate in. This allows the system to ride out the heaviest heating load conditions and extends the timeframe by which the source energy elements can contribute heat back into the system.
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The one common principle of these other thermal batteries is that the reaction involved is not reversible. Thus, these batteries are not used for storing and retrieving heat energy.
2483:
4134:
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Storage heaters are commonplace in
European homes with time-of-use metering (traditionally using cheaper electricity at nighttime). They consist of high-density ceramic bricks or
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through the pipes and thus raising the temperature of the local earth. Energy can also be taken from the GHEX by running a lower-temperature fluid through those same pipes.
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1721:
There are other items that have historically been termed "thermal batteries", such as energy-storage heat packs that skiers use for keeping hands and feet warm (see
4389:
189:). The heat can later be converted into superheated steam to power conventional steam turbines and generate electricity at a later time. It was demonstrated in the
3982:
1166:
Rather than pumping the liquid metal between tanks as in a molten-salt system, the metal is encapsulated in another metallic material that it cannot alloy with (
1076:) of solar collectors, which will supply the 570 houses with around 50% of their heating and hot water. Siemens-Gamesa built a 130 MWh thermal storage near
2970:
1170:). Depending on the two materials selected (the phase changing material and the encapsulating material) storage densities can be between 0.2 and 2 MJ/L.
883:
4002:
3750:
4187:
2737:
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chemical reaction with thermo-chemical materials (TCM) . Depending on the reactants, this method can allow for an even higher storage capacity than LHS.
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3729:
2651:
1831:
In pumped-heat electricity storage (PHES), a reversible heat-pump system is used to store energy as a temperature difference between two heat stores.
123:
from industrial processes. Heat storage, both seasonal and short term, is considered an important means for cheaply balancing high shares of variable
3711:
2930:
1725:). These contain iron powder moist with oxygen-free salt water which rapidly corrodes over a period of hours, releasing heat, when exposed to air.
1299:
of ice in the afternoon to reduce the electricity needed to handle air conditioning demands. Thermal energy storage using ice makes use of the large
218:
of the tank the thermal energy can be usefully stored for up to a week. When electricity is needed, the hot molten salt is pumped to a conventional
1873:
The developer claimed that a round trip efficiency of 72â80% was achievable. This compares to >80% achievable with pumped hydro energy storage.
1979:
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and
Thermal Capacity/Diffusivity of GHEX Thermal BatteriesâLog-Time 1-Dimensional Curve Fit and newly released Advanced Thermal Response Testing.
1215:
4270:
4071:
Khare, Sameer; Dell'Amico, Mark; Knight, Chris; McGarry, Scott (2012). "Selection of materials for high temperature latent heat energy storage".
2379:
901:(PCMs) are also used in molten-salt energy storage, while research on obtaining shape-stabilized PCMs using high porosity matrices is ongoing.
378:
3091:
1823:) offer a high melting point suited to efficient steam generation, while high alumina cement-based materials offer good storage capabilities.
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3224:
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was built in 2022 to store renewable solar and wind power as heat, for later use as district heating, and possible later power generation.
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materials, as they are mixtures, are more easily adjusted to obtain specific properties, but have low latent and specific heat capacities.
4163:
4130:
3938:
3869:"Thermal Response Testing Takes a Step Forward, Geo Outlook 2017 Vol. 14 No. 3, Rick Clemenzi, Xiaobing Liu, Garen Ewbank and Judy Siglin"
3801:
2909:
3454:
Kolpak, Alexie M.; Grossman, Jeffrey C. (2011). "Azobenzene-Functionalized Carbon
Nanotubes As High-Energy Density Solar Thermal Fuels".
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solar power-tower/molten-salt plant in Spain achieved a first by continuously producing electricity 24 hours per day for 36 days. The
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2038:
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705:
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525:
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Mansø, Mads; Petersen, Anne
Ugleholdt; Wang, Zhihang; Erhart, Paul; Nielsen, Mogens Brøndsted; Moth-Poulsen, Kasper (16 May 2018).
2255:
2072:"Preparation and enhanced thermal performance of novel (solid to gel) form-stable eutectic PCM modified by nano-graphene platelets"
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Adsorption processes also fall into this category. It can be used to not only store thermal energy, but also control air humidity.
1234:
4098:
Khare, S.; Dell'Amico, M.; Knight, C.; McGarry, S. (2013). "Selection of materials for high temperature sensible energy storage".
2872:"Technico-economic comparison of heat transfer fluids or thermal energy storage materials: A case study using Jatropha curcas oil"
210:). Experience with such systems exists in non-solar applications in the chemical and metals industries as a heat-transport fluid.
119:; heat from combined heat and power (CHP) power plants; heat produced by renewable electrical energy that exceeds grid demand and
4265:
2133:"Low-cost solution to the grid reliability problem with 100% penetration of intermittent wind, water, and solar for all purposes"
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NâTsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Schmidt, Thomas; Rammelberg, Holger Urs; Watts, Beatriz Amanda; Ruck, Wolfgang K. L. (1 July 2014).
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be separated and transported elsewhere. Another difficult part is the process of merging the two separate hydrogen molecules.
1391:(above 450 °C, where the reaction rates can be increased by adding zinc or aluminum). The photochemical decomposition of
1241:
4529:
4375:
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975:(fully charged or discharged in 4 days at capacity), operating from 2021 to offset days of peak production/demand; while the
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of the storage material, and the system needs to be properly designed to ensure energy extraction at a constant temperature.
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959:
pumps. Intersessional storage in caverns has been investigated and appears to be economical and plays a significant role in
100:
contained between impermeable strata; shallow, lined pits filled with gravel and water and insulated at the top, as well as
2636:
1355:
as the energy store, and low-grade waste heat to drive the thermal re-expansion of the air, operated at a power station in
1092:, with 41â58% of the stored 18 MWh heat returned for the town's district heating, and 30â41% returned as electricity.
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in Alberta, Canada, achieved a year-round 97% solar heating fraction, a world record made possible by incorporating STES.
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1613:
398:
3769:
3368:"Calorimetric Studies and Structural Aspects of Ionic Liquids in Designing Sorption Materials for Thermal Energy Storage"
2791:"Review of vegetable oils behaviour at high temperature for solar plants: Stability, properties and current applications"
2099:"Preparation and thermal performance of methyl palmitate and lauric acid eutectic mixture as phase change material (PCM)"
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1929:
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are possible with high temperature solar thermal input. Various eutectic metal mixtures, such as aluminum and silicon (
972:
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A disadvantage of SHS is its dependence on the properties of the storage medium. Storage capacities are limited by the
1507:
to generate electricity from it. The system can reportedly store solar energy for up to 18 years and may be an option
913:
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2960:
1428:
than heat stored in water and the capacity of the system can be designed to store energy from a few months to years.
1315:(93 kWh). A relatively small storage facility can hold enough ice to cool a large building for a day or a week.
2071:
2451:
1500:
molecular photo switches is enormousânot only for solar thermal energy storage but for other applications as well.
1230:
739:
2690:"The world's first seasonal energy storage facility of its kind is planned for the Kruunuvuorenranta rock caverns"
1208:
4669:
4431:
3999:
1866:
using sliding valves. Surplus heat generated by inefficiencies in the process is shed to the environment through
1676:
Heat energy can be added to or removed from a GHEX at any point in time. However, they are most often used as a
909:
842:
418:
88:
demand between daytime and nighttime, storing summer heat for winter heating, or winter cold for summer cooling (
69:
4334:
Renewable Energy Systems: A Smart Energy Systems Approach to the Choice and Modeling of 100% Renewable Solutions
4180:
2729:
2540:
Mitran, Raul-Augustin; Lincu, Daniel; BuhÇlĹŁeanu, Lucian; Berger, Daniela; Matei, Cristian (15 September 2020).
4580:
4575:
4446:
3907:
3242:"A systematic multi-step screening of numerous salt hydrates for low temperature thermochemical energy storage"
3195:
U.S. Pat. No. 4,269,170, "Adsorption solar heating and storage"; Inventor: John M. Guerra; Granted May 26, 1981
2429:
1863:
1586:
1504:
1333:
1328:
905:
791:
729:
403:
358:
348:
278:
219:
178:
4549:
4524:
3594:
3528:"Molecular solar thermal energy storage in photoswitch oligomers increases energy densities and storage times"
3303:
1593:. Several substances are used for these thermal batteries, for example water, concrete, and wet or dry sand.
4644:
4595:
4585:
4514:
4486:
3010:
2992:
2025:
1998:
1974:
1954:
1939:
1851:. One prototype used argon at ambient temperature and pressure from the top of the cold store is compressed
1715:
1395:
can also be used and, since it needs photons to occur, works especially well when paired with solar energy.
856:
734:
724:
428:
363:
2542:"Shape-stabilized phase change materials using molten NaNO3 â KNO3 eutectic and mesoporous silica matrices"
4659:
4329:
1934:
943:
820:
629:
614:
562:
343:
157:
128:
3937:(MSc). Sustainable Engineering: Renewable Energy Systems and the Environment, University of Strathclyde.
2789:
Gomna, Aboubakar; NâTsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Coulibaly, YĂŠzouma (15 September 2019).
2405:
Jones, B. G.; Roy, R. P.; Bohl, R. W. (1977). "Molten-salt energy-storage system â A feasibility study".
1600:
Research into using sand as a heat storage medium has been performed in Finland, where a prototype 8 MWh
912:
in the U.S. can store 6 hours worth of generating capacity in molten salt. During the summer of 2013 the
4664:
4481:
4426:
4398:
2870:
NâTsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Seshie, Yao Manu; Coulibaly, YĂŠzouma (23 February 2021).
1949:
1881:
1681:
predictable based on energy modelling of the building served. A thermal battery used in this mode is a
1457:
952:
898:
664:
609:
599:
438:
353:
105:
3106:
1535:
to change. Some thermal batteries also involve causing a substance to transition thermally through a
48:
3632:
3539:
3463:
3338:
3064:
2910:"World first: Siemens Gamesa begins operation of its innovative electrothermal energy storage system"
2871:
2829:
2828:
Gomna, Aboubakar; NâTsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Coulibaly, YĂŠzouma (15 April 2020).
2541:
2410:
2383:
2200:
2144:
1687:
1544:
1174:
1173:
A working fluid, typically water or steam, is used to transfer the heat into and out of the system.
936:
798:
693:
537:
443:
303:
3931:
An experimental investigation of an electrical storage heater in the context of storage technologies
1673:
pipes are inserted in the form of a closed-loop with a "u-bend" fitting on the far end of the loop.
1255:
4534:
4519:
4471:
4441:
3895:
3325:
De Jong, Ard-Jan; Van Vliet, Laurens; Hoegaerts, Christophe; Roelands, Mark; Cuypers, Ruud (2016).
1909:
1709:
are termed "thermal batteries". They are non-rechargeable electrical batteries using a low-melting
1706:
1686:
heating. There are two main methods of Thermal Response Testing that are used to characterize the
1372:
619:
485:
468:
413:
268:
256:
92:). Storage media include water or ice-slush tanks, masses of native earth or bedrock accessed with
2018:
991:) were designated in 2018 to store heat in summer from warm seawater and release it in winter for
3668:
3416:
3241:
3206:
2790:
2569:
2360:
1531:
being added to or taken from either a solid mass or a liquid volume which causes the substance's
1368:
500:
328:
238:
215:
37:
32:
4159:
3929:
1652:
Heat pumps, as used by the GHEX depicted above, were invented in the 1940s by Robert C. Webber.
1484:
Another promising way to store solar energy for electricity and heat production is a so-called
1303:
of water. Historically, ice was transported from mountains to cities for use as a coolant. One
4355:
4345:
4317:
4307:
3850:
3660:
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3126:
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1959:
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1726:
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223:
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3547:
3471:
3428:
3387:
3379:
3346:
3253:
3212:
3118:
3072:
3037:
2883:
2841:
2802:
2553:
2344:
2311:
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2152:
2113:
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1551:
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1508:
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992:
956:
681:
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510:
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408:
383:
323:
124:
64:
4045:
4289:
Competence Center Thermal Energy Storage at Lucerne School of Engineering and Architecture
4283:
4006:
3989:. Presentation at IDEA/CDEA District Energy/CHP 2011 Conference. Toronto, 26â29 June 2011.
3986:
3686:
3166:
2098:
2053:"Solana: 10 Facts You Didn't Know About the Concentrated Solar Power Plant Near Gila Bend"
1969:
1904:
1703:
1380:
1152:
1053:
1022:
433:
388:
318:
207:
195:
127:
production and integration of electricity and heating sectors in energy systems almost or
3076:
3787:
3636:
3543:
3467:
3342:
3068:
2414:
2204:
2148:
1456:
Storing energy in molecular bonds is being investigated. Energy densities equivalent to
4559:
4501:
4456:
3570:
3527:
3392:
3367:
3327:"Thermochemical Heat Storage â from Reaction Storage Density to System Storage Density"
2931:"Siemens project to test heated rocks for large-scale, low-cost thermal energy storage"
2167:
2132:
1964:
1894:
1877:
1867:
1751:
1642:
1540:
1425:
1300:
803:
776:
749:
717:
700:
579:
368:
338:
199:
93:
84:
3122:
4638:
4491:
4259:
4046:"Canadian Solar Community Sets New World Record for Energy Efficiency and Innovation"
3672:
3417:"A reality check on long-term thermochemical heat storage for household applications"
2965:
2573:
2364:
1924:
1808:
1774:
1770:
1590:
1437:
1337:
1043:
815:
781:
688:
671:
552:
542:
393:
169:
41:
4019:
2703:
2676:"Gigantic cavern heat storage facility to be implemented in Mustikkamaa in Helsinki"
1012:
relative abundance of silicon when compared to the salts used for the same purpose.
4451:
3257:
2212:
1469:
754:
639:
308:
273:
186:
116:
3712:""There is a great deal of experience with solid-media high-temperature storages""
3144:
2887:
2845:
4111:
4084:
3351:
3326:
3280:
2806:
2557:
2131:
Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Frew, Bethany A. (2015).
3868:
1993:
1804:
1733:
1722:
1532:
1383:(over a range of 300â800 °C, with a heat decomposition of 2.1 MJ/kg),
1197:
1167:
1160:
1116:
851:
759:
634:
584:
547:
530:
515:
333:
173:
57:
3645:
3620:
3552:
3432:
2588:"World's Largest Solar Thermal Plant With Storage Comes Online â CleanTechnica"
2240:
111:
Other sources of thermal energy for storage include heat or cold produced with
17:
4590:
3366:
BrĂźnig, Thorge; Krekic, Kristijan; Bruhn, Clemens; Pietschnig, Rudolf (2016).
3216:
2830:"Thermal stability of a vegetable oil-based thermal fluid at high temperature"
2407:
Heat Transfer in Energy Conservation; Proceedings of the Winter Annual Meeting
2117:
2090:
1384:
1352:
1304:
1128:
769:
594:
589:
557:
520:
505:
288:
120:
4359:
4321:
3730:"Overview of high-temperature storage solution providers â status March 2024"
3664:
3561:
3440:
3265:
3130:
3024:
Rawson, Anthony; Kisi, Erich; Sugo, Heber; Fiedler, Thomas (1 October 2014).
2895:
2853:
2814:
2565:
2356:
2279:
2019:"Australian Sustainable Energy: Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan"
1862:
The compression and expansion processes are provided by a specially designed
1773:
generation into heat stored for the following winter with relatively minimal
4341:
2254:
Bauer, Thomas; Steinmann, Wolf-Dieter; Laing, Doerte; Tamme, Rainer (2012).
2157:
1348:
988:
624:
604:
373:
283:
190:
112:
3819:
3579:
3483:
3401:
3383:
2348:
2176:
2509:"Using encapsulated phase change salts for concentrated solar power plant"
2097:
Saeed, R.M.; Schlegel, J.P.; Castano, C.; Sawafta, R.; Kuturu, V. (2017).
1710:
1539:
which causes even more energy to be stored and released due to the delta
1404:
1341:
1137:
964:
764:
649:
644:
298:
293:
263:
101:
4367:
3655:
1550:
Thermal batteries are very common, and include such familiar items as a
4436:
3788:"Climate change: 'Sand battery' could solve green energy's big problem"
2316:
2299:
1757:
1089:
1085:
1077:
1057:
1008:
786:
744:
480:
463:
97:
3854:
3838:
3475:
1523:
is a physical structure used for the purpose of storing and releasing
4304:
Sustainable Thermal Storage Systems: Planning, Design, and Operations
4246:
3802:"Sand Batteries provide heat to district heating networks in Finland"
2614:"Cerro Dominador concentrated solar power plant inaugurated in Chile"
1847:
While charging, the system can use off-peak electricity to work as a
1627:
1528:
1356:
1081:
996:
475:
3846:
1367:
Thermo-chemical heat storage (TCS) involves some kind of reversible
3299:
3025:
1503:
In 2022, researchers reported combining the MOST with a chip-sized
1084:
and 1.5 MW electric output. A similar system is scheduled for
3026:"Effective conductivity of CuâFe and SnâAl miscibility gap alloys"
2876:
African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development
2834:
African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development
2331:
Bauer, Thomas; Odenthal, Christian; Bonk, Alexander (April 2021).
1841:
1308:
995:. In 2024, it was announced that the municipal energy supplier of
710:
63:
53:
47:
31:
3006:
2480:"Solar heads for the hills as tower technology turns upside down"
967:
estimates an 11.6 GWh capacity and 120 MW thermal output for its
4160:"ENERGY STORAGE:THE MISSING LINK IN THE UK'S ENERGY COMMITMENTS"
1880:
and is capable of operating at much higher power levels. Use of
1524:
808:
4371:
2704:"Vantaan Ikean lähelle aletaan pian louhia valtavaa luolastoa"
2070:
Saeed, R.M.; Schlegel, J.P.; Castano, C.; Sawafta, R. (2018).
2017:
Wright, Matthew; Hearps, Patrick; et al. (October 2010).
1312:
1191:
4288:
4131:"Isentropic's Pumped Heat System Stores Energy at Grid Scale"
3770:"The hidden battery: Opportunities in electric water heating"
1732:
heat by a non-chemical phase-change such as by absorbing the
4009:, which has an interseasonal pit storage, is being expanded.
3107:"Recent advances in research on cold thermal energy storage"
3092:"Thermal capacitors made from Miscibility Gap Alloys (MGAs)"
3090:
Fiedler, T.; Rawson, Anthony; Sugo, H.; Kisi, Erich (2014).
1859:
transferred to the bottom of the hot vessel to be reheated.
920:, inaugurated in June 2021, has 17.5 hours of heat storage.
115:
from off-peak, lower cost electric power, a practice called
4048:(Press release). Natural Resources Canada. 5 October 2012.
3415:
NâTsoukpoe, Kokouvi Edem; Kuznik, FrĂŠdĂŠric (1 April 2021).
3775:. Prepared for NRECA, NRDC, and PLMA by the Brattle Group.
3839:"Advanced Testing Method for Ground Thermal Conductivity"
2637:"Seasonal pit heat storage: Cost benchmark of 30 EUR/mÂł"
3837:
Liu, Xiaobing; Clemenzi, Rick; Liu, Su (1 April 2017).
2961:"Nyt energilager skal opsamle grøn energi i varme sten"
1468:
The DSPEC consists of two components: a molecule and a
3621:"Chip-scale solar thermal electrical power generation"
1060:
has received international attention. This features a
3751:"Your home water heater may soon double as a battery"
3281:"Seasonal energy storage: Summer heat for the winter"
3205:
Le Pierrès, Nolwenn; Luo, Lingai (9 September 2024).
2039:
Innovation in Concentrating Thermal Solar Power (CSP)
36:
District heating accumulation tower from Theiss near
3595:"New liquid system could revolutionize solar energy"
2652:"Seasonal heat storages in district heating systems"
1884:
as heat storage material could enhance performance.
52:
Thermal energy storage tower inaugurated in 2017 in
4568:
4500:
4419:
4412:
4405:
1656:
1648:
1633:
1623:
1307:of water (= one cubic meter) can store 334 million
1222:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2760:"Energy-storage system based on silicon from sand"
2300:"A Comprehensive Review of Thermal Energy Storage"
2298:Sarbu, Ioan; Sebarchievici, Calin (January 2018).
1399:Adsorption (or Sorption) solar heating and storage
1840:whole system is filled with an inert gas such as
3820:"Test Information | Main | Site Title"
2730:"Molten silicon used for thermal energy storage"
1769:âstoring high grade heat in summer from surplus
3498:"Storing energy in chemical bonds of molecules"
3208:Heat and Cold Storage 2: Thermochemical Storage
3030:International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
3007:"Miscibility Gap Alloy Thermal Storage Website"
2137:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2382:. Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from
2256:"Thermal Energy Storage Materials and Systems"
1068:) reinforced concrete thermal store linked to
4383:
4212:
4210:
4208:
3521:
3519:
908:use this thermal energy storage concept. The
877:
8:
1985:US DOE International Energy Storage Database
1662:Heat pumps were first produced in the 1970s.
1618:
1448:long-term solar heat storage in buildings.
924:Heat storage in tanks, ponds or rock caverns
4256:MSN article on Ice Storage Air Conditioning
4125:
4123:
4121:
2657:. LinkĂśping, Sweden: LinkĂśping University.
4650:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
4617:
4416:
4409:
4390:
4376:
4368:
3768:Hledik, R.; Chang, J.; Lueken, R. (2016).
2333:"Molten Salt Storage for Power Generation"
884:
870:
245:
229:
4266:ICE TES Thermal Energy Storage â IDE-Tech
4154:
4152:
3654:
3644:
3569:
3551:
3391:
3350:
3167:"Liquid air 'offers energy storage hope'"
2315:
2166:
2156:
1282:Learn how and when to remove this message
4020:"Thermal Energy Storage in ThermalBanks"
3974:
3972:
3421:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
3042:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.05.024
2272:10.1615/AnnualRevHeatTransfer.2012004651
2229:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
4175:
4173:
2009:
1980:Uniform Solar Energy and Hydronics Code
1387:(300â350 °C, 0.26 MJ/kg) and
237:
4100:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
4073:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
3744:
3742:
3111:International Journal of Refrigeration
2795:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
2650:Gebremedhin, Alemayehu; Zinko, Heimo.
2546:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
2503:
2501:
1617:
379:List of low-energy building techniques
68:Construction of the salt tanks at the
4026:from the original on 14 November 2011
3998:SunStor-4 Project, Marstal, Denmark.
3297:MERITS project Compact Heat Storage.
3287:from the original on 18 January 2017.
2973:from the original on 26 November 2016
2865:
2863:
2664:from the original on 13 January 2017.
2440:from the original on 13 January 2017.
1480:Molecular Solar Thermal System (MOST)
1038:Heat storage in hot rocks or concrete
7:
4224:from the original on 12 October 2017
4193:from the original on 22 January 2017
4052:from the original on 3 November 2016
3077:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.11.029
2941:from the original on 13 October 2016
2770:from the original on 4 November 2016
2740:from the original on 4 November 2016
2486:from the original on 7 November 2017
2293:
2291:
2289:
1608:Ground heat exchange thermal battery
1220:adding citations to reliable sources
27:Technologies to store thermal energy
3928:Romero, I.B.; Strachan, P. (2013).
3306:from the original on 15 August 2017
3177:from the original on 2 October 2012
3013:from the original on 12 March 2018.
2041:, RenewableEnergyFocus.com website.
1589:(VHC), also termed volume-specific
1119:storage (LHS) is associated with a
918:Cerro Dominador Solar Thermal Plant
198:of different salts are used (e.g.,
4166:from the original on 12 July 2014.
3749:Mooney, Chris (24 February 2016).
3165:Harrabin, Roger (2 October 2012).
3145:"How Thermal Energy Storage Works"
2430:"How to Use Solar Energy at Night"
2428:Biello, David (18 February 2009).
25:
4545:Research in lithium-ion batteries
4252:on the economies of load shifting
4137:from the original on 22 July 2015
4000:The solar district heating system
3944:from the original on 14 May 2016.
3593:Hawkins, Joshua (15 April 2022).
3171:BBC News, Science and Environment
2993:"Makers claim:Rondo Heat Battery"
2521:from the original on 10 July 2016
2380:"Advantages of Using Molten Salt"
4616:
2456:Renewable Energy: A First Course
2378:Mancini, Tom (10 January 2006).
1992:
1196:
1148:Miscibility gap alloy technology
850:
837:
836:
314:Energy efficiency implementation
44:with a thermal capacity of 2 GWh
4262: (archived 19 January 2013)
3956:"Solarthermal world.og website"
1945:List of energy storage projects
1827:Pumped-heat electricity storage
1791:Seasonal thermal energy storage
1678:Seasonal thermal energy storage
1207:needs additional citations for
570:Ocean thermal energy conversion
90:Seasonal thermal energy storage
4530:Lithium iron phosphate battery
4218:"Isentropic's PHES Technology"
3258:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.053
2260:Annual Review of Heat Transfer
2213:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.075
2051:Stern, Ray (10 October 2013).
1870:during the discharging cycle.
1486:molecular solar thermal system
1136:as prone to phase-separation.
1:
4510:Compressed-air energy storage
3980:Drake Landing Solar Community
3786:McGrath, Matt (5 July 2022).
3625:Cell Reports Physical Science
3372:Chemistry: A European Journal
3283:. Zurich, Switzerland: Empa.
3123:10.1016/S0140-7007(01)00078-0
2888:10.1080/20421338.2020.1838082
2846:10.1080/20421338.2020.1732080
2024:. Energy Research Institute,
1876:Another proposed system uses
1798:Drake Landing Solar Community
1796:space during winter. In 2017
1614:Ground-coupled heat exchanger
1159:of a metallic material (see:
1107:output by 15% over 15 years.
1042:Water has one of the highest
1025:using a heat-transfer fluid.
399:Passive solar building design
4181:"Pumped Heat Energy Storage"
4112:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.03.009
4085:10.1016/j.solmat.2012.07.020
3502:Off Grid Energy Independence
3352:10.1016/j.egypro.2016.06.187
3105:Saito, Akio (1 March 2002).
2807:10.1016/j.solmat.2019.109956
2635:Epp, Baerbel (17 May 2019).
2558:10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110644
1930:Ice storage air conditioning
1787:Solar hot water storage tank
1580:Encapsulated thermal battery
1567:Phase change thermal battery
1509:for renewable energy storage
1363:Thermo-chemical heat storage
1188:Ice storage air conditioning
96:by means of boreholes, deep
3057:Applied Thermal Engineering
2764:www.powerengineeringint.com
2454:(2013). "Thermal storage".
1999:Renewable energy portal
1163:) to store thermal energy.
857:Renewable energy portal
575:Renewable energy transition
4686:
3646:10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100789
3553:10.1038/s41467-018-04230-8
3433:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110683
2710:(in Finnish). 5 April 2024
2458:. CRC Press. p. 375.
2241:10.1016/j.rser.2013.09.012
1784:
1749:
1611:
1558:Types of thermal batteries
1326:
1185:
941:
927:
906:solar thermal power plants
4612:
4432:Artificial photosynthesis
3857:– via www.osti.gov.
3217:10.1002/9781394312559.ch1
2118:10.1016/j.est.2017.08.005
2106:Journal of Energy Storage
2091:10.1016/j.est.2017.11.003
2079:Journal of Energy Storage
910:Solana Generating Station
419:Sustainable refurbishment
70:Solana Generating Station
4581:Battery electric vehicle
4576:Alternative fuel vehicle
4447:Concentrated solar power
4302:Hyman, Lucas B. (2011).
3896:Molten-salt battery#Uses
2337:Chemie Ingenieur Technik
1746:Electric thermal storage
1702:In the defense industry
1587:volumetric heat capacity
1545:enthalpy of vaporization
1505:thermoelectric generator
1351:energy system that uses
1334:Cryogenic energy storage
1329:Cryogenic energy storage
1323:Cryogenic energy storage
1231:"Thermal energy storage"
404:Sustainable architecture
359:Glass in green buildings
349:Environmental technology
279:Compact fluorescent lamp
179:concentrated solar power
4586:Hybrid electric vehicle
4515:Flywheel energy storage
4487:Space-based solar power
4342:10.1016/C2012-0-07273-0
2158:10.1073/pnas.1510028112
2026:University of Melbourne
1975:Uniform Mechanical Code
1955:Pumpable ice technology
1940:Liquid nitrogen economy
1761:temperatures involved.
1716:pyrotechnic heat source
1698:Other thermal batteries
1415:Salt hydrate technology
1066:420,000 cu ft
1029:Heat storage using oils
725:Human-powered transport
429:Tropical green building
364:Green building and wood
4555:Thermal energy storage
4282:23 August 2014 at the
4162:. IMechE. p. 27.
3384:10.1002/chem.201602723
2349:10.1002/cite.202000137
1935:Lamm-Honigmann process
1767:seasonal heat transfer
1739:of certain compounds.
1658:First production
1521:thermal energy battery
1074:46,000 sq ft
1003:Hot silicon technology
944:Hot water storage tank
821:Personal rapid transit
563:Tidal stream generator
424:Thermal energy storage
344:Environmental planning
164:Molten salt technology
158:specific heat capacity
106:phase-change materials
77:Thermal energy storage
73:
61:
45:
4482:Photovoltaic pavement
4427:Airborne wind turbine
4399:Emerging technologies
4005:24 March 2021 at the
3532:Nature Communications
3211:(1 ed.). Wiley.
1950:Phase change material
1882:phase change material
1864:reciprocating machine
1707:molten-salt batteries
1458:lithium-ion batteries
1311:(MJ) or 317,000
955:as a heat source for
953:heated by solar power
914:Gemasolar Thermosolar
899:Phase Change Material
665:Sustainable transport
610:Floating wind turbine
439:Zero heating building
354:Fossil fuel phase-out
144:Sensible heat storage
131:by renewable energy.
125:renewable electricity
67:
51:
35:
4022:. ICAX Ltd, London.
3985:4 March 2016 at the
2969:. 25 November 2016.
1803:The combined use of
1781:Solar energy storage
1688:thermal conductivity
1344:as an energy store.
1338:liquification of air
1216:improve this article
1182:Ice-based technology
1175:Thermal conductivity
1155:alloys rely on the
1080:with 750 °C in
971:water cistern under
937:solar thermal energy
799:Personal transporter
694:Wind-powered vehicle
538:Marine current power
444:Zero-energy building
304:Efficient energy use
83:) is the storage of
4655:Energy conservation
4550:Siliconâair battery
4535:Molten-salt battery
4525:Lithiumâair battery
4520:Grid energy storage
4472:Molten salt reactor
4442:Carbon-neutral fuel
4220:. 20 October 2014.
3691:Energy Saving Trust
3637:2022CRPS....300789W
3544:2018NatCo...9.1945M
3468:2011NanoL..11.3156K
3343:2016EnPro..91..128D
3069:2013AppTE..51.1345S
2937:. 12 October 2016.
2482:. 30 January 2012.
2434:Scientific American
2415:1977htec.proc...39J
2205:2015ApEn..145..139M
2149:2015PNAS..11215060J
1910:Fireless locomotive
1620:
1111:Latent heat storage
983:under sea level in
486:Carbon-neutral fuel
414:Sustainable habitat
269:Building insulation
257:Energy conservation
233:Part of a series on
4336:. Academic Press.
2692:. 30 January 2018.
2317:10.3390/su10010191
1727:Instant cold packs
1541:enthalpy of fusion
1044:thermal capacities
963:. Energy producer
961:heating in Finland
501:Geothermal heating
329:Energy saving lamp
239:Sustainable energy
74:
62:
46:
38:Krems an der Donau
4632:
4631:
4608:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4351:978-0-124-10423-5
4313:978-0-07-175297-8
3978:Wong B. (2011).
3806:Solarthermalworld
3716:Solarthermalworld
3504:. 21 January 2014
3476:10.1021/nl201357n
3226:978-1-78945-134-4
2708:Helsingin Sanomat
2594:. 14 October 2013
2592:cleantechnica.com
2465:978-1-4398-6115-8
2057:Phoenix New Times
1960:Steam accumulator
1915:Geothermal energy
1666:
1665:
1635:Working principle
1393:nitrosyl chloride
1389:calcium hydroxide
1292:
1291:
1284:
1266:
985:Kruunuvuorenranta
930:Steam accumulator
894:
893:
491:Geothermal energy
224:superheated steam
204:potassium nitrate
196:eutectic mixtures
16:(Redirected from
4677:
4670:Renewable energy
4620:
4619:
4540:Nanowire battery
4467:Methanol economy
4462:Hydrogen economy
4417:
4410:
4392:
4385:
4378:
4369:
4363:
4325:
4271:Laramie, Wyoming
4234:
4233:
4231:
4229:
4214:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4198:
4192:
4185:
4177:
4168:
4167:
4156:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4127:
4116:
4115:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4057:
4042:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4031:
4016:
4010:
3996:
3990:
3976:
3967:
3966:
3964:
3962:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3943:
3936:
3925:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3904:
3898:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3765:
3759:
3758:
3746:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3687:"Storing energy"
3683:
3677:
3676:
3658:
3648:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3605:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3573:
3555:
3523:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3451:
3445:
3444:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3395:
3378:(45): 16200â12.
3363:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3202:
3196:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3151:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3102:
3096:
3095:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3063:(1â2): 1345â50.
3052:
3046:
3045:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2946:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2678:. 22 March 2018.
2672:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2656:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2632:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2610:
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2599:
2584:
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2531:
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2513:
2505:
2496:
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2375:
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2328:
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2319:
2295:
2284:
2283:
2251:
2245:
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2223:
2217:
2216:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2170:
2160:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2103:
2094:
2076:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2023:
2014:
1997:
1996:
1920:Geothermal power
1900:District heating
1822:
1821:
1820:
1737:heat of solution
1683:renewable energy
1659:
1639:
1638:
1621:
1552:hot water bottle
1537:phase transition
1444:contaminations.
1422:sodium hydroxide
1297:cooling capacity
1287:
1280:
1276:
1273:
1267:
1265:
1224:
1200:
1192:
1121:phase transition
1106:
1105:
1104:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1050:
1007:Solid or molten
993:district heating
982:
978:
970:
957:district heating
886:
879:
872:
859:
855:
854:
845:
840:
839:
677:Electric vehicle
526:Run-of-the-river
511:Hydroelectricity
496:Geothermal power
457:Renewable energy
409:Sustainable city
384:Low-energy house
324:Energy recycling
249:
230:
21:
4685:
4684:
4680:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4628:
4600:
4564:
4496:
4401:
4396:
4366:
4352:
4328:
4314:
4306:. McGraw-Hill.
4301:
4297:
4295:Further reading
4284:Wayback Machine
4243:
4238:
4237:
4227:
4225:
4216:
4215:
4206:
4196:
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4055:
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4044:
4043:
4039:
4029:
4027:
4018:
4017:
4013:
4007:Wayback Machine
3997:
3993:
3987:Wayback Machine
3977:
3970:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3953:
3949:
3941:
3934:
3927:
3926:
3922:
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3910:
3906:
3905:
3901:
3894:
3890:
3881:
3880:
3876:
3867:
3866:
3862:
3847:10.2172/1354667
3836:
3835:
3831:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3808:. 6 March 2024.
3800:
3799:
3795:
3785:
3784:
3780:
3772:
3767:
3766:
3762:
3755:Washington Post
3748:
3747:
3740:
3732:
3728:
3727:
3723:
3718:. 6 March 2024.
3710:
3709:
3705:
3695:
3693:
3685:
3684:
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3613:
3603:
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3592:
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3525:
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3507:
3505:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3414:
3413:
3409:
3365:
3364:
3360:
3331:Energy Procedia
3324:
3323:
3319:
3309:
3307:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3279:Rainer, Klose.
3278:
3277:
3273:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3194:
3190:
3180:
3178:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3147:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3089:
3088:
3084:
3054:
3053:
3049:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2991:
2990:
2986:
2976:
2974:
2959:
2958:
2954:
2944:
2942:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2869:
2868:
2861:
2827:
2826:
2822:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2773:
2771:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2743:
2741:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2713:
2711:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2661:
2654:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2619:
2617:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2597:
2595:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2539:
2538:
2534:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2499:
2489:
2487:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2452:Ehrlich, Robert
2450:
2449:
2445:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2389:
2387:
2377:
2376:
2372:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2297:
2296:
2287:
2266:(15): 131â177.
2253:
2252:
2248:
2225:
2224:
2220:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2143:(49): 15060â5.
2130:
2129:
2125:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2021:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2006:
1991:
1989:
1970:Thermal battery
1905:Eutectic system
1890:
1868:heat exchangers
1837:
1829:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1793:
1785:Main articles:
1783:
1775:standing losses
1754:
1748:
1700:
1657:
1636:
1634:
1619:Thermal battery
1616:
1610:
1582:
1569:
1560:
1517:
1515:Thermal Battery
1482:
1454:
1452:Molecular bonds
1443:
1417:
1401:
1381:potassium oxide
1365:
1331:
1325:
1288:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1225:
1223:
1213:
1201:
1190:
1184:
1153:Miscibility gap
1150:
1113:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:Friedrichshafen
1048:
1040:
1031:
1023:Stirling engine
1018:
1016:Molten aluminum
1005:
980:
976:
968:
950:insulated ponds
946:
932:
926:
890:
849:
848:
835:
828:
827:
667:
657:
656:
459:
449:
448:
434:Waste-to-energy
389:Microgeneration
319:Energy recovery
259:
220:steam-generator
208:calcium nitrate
166:
146:
137:
94:heat exchangers
28:
23:
22:
18:Thermal battery
15:
12:
11:
5:
4683:
4681:
4673:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4645:Energy storage
4637:
4636:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4626:
4613:
4610:
4609:
4606:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4598:
4596:Wireless power
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4572:
4570:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4560:Ultracapacitor
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4506:
4504:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4457:Home fuel cell
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4423:
4421:
4414:
4407:
4403:
4402:
4397:
4395:
4394:
4387:
4380:
4372:
4365:
4364:
4350:
4326:
4312:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4286:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4253:
4242:
4241:External links
4239:
4236:
4235:
4204:
4169:
4148:
4117:
4090:
4063:
4037:
4011:
3991:
3968:
3947:
3920:
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3888:
3874:
3860:
3829:
3811:
3793:
3778:
3760:
3738:
3721:
3703:
3678:
3611:
3585:
3515:
3489:
3462:(8): 3156â62.
3446:
3407:
3358:
3317:
3290:
3271:
3246:Applied Energy
3232:
3225:
3197:
3188:
3157:
3136:
3117:(2): 177â189.
3097:
3082:
3047:
3016:
2998:
2984:
2952:
2922:
2901:
2882:(2): 193â211.
2859:
2840:(3): 317â326.
2820:
2781:
2751:
2721:
2695:
2681:
2667:
2642:
2627:
2605:
2579:
2532:
2497:
2471:
2464:
2443:
2420:
2397:
2386:on 5 June 2011
2370:
2343:(4): 534â546.
2323:
2304:Sustainability
2285:
2246:
2218:
2193:Applied Energy
2182:
2123:
2062:
2043:
2031:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2002:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1965:Storage heater
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1895:Carnot battery
1891:
1889:
1886:
1878:turbomachinery
1836:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1817:
1782:
1779:
1752:Storage heater
1750:Main article:
1747:
1744:
1699:
1696:
1664:
1663:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1643:Thermodynamics
1640:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1612:Main article:
1609:
1606:
1581:
1578:
1568:
1565:
1559:
1556:
1525:thermal energy
1516:
1513:
1481:
1478:
1453:
1450:
1441:
1426:energy density
1416:
1413:
1400:
1397:
1364:
1361:
1359:, UK in 2010.
1327:Main article:
1324:
1321:
1301:heat of fusion
1290:
1289:
1204:
1202:
1195:
1186:Main article:
1183:
1180:
1149:
1146:
1112:
1109:
1101:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1017:
1014:
1004:
1001:
977:300,000 m
969:260,000 m
925:
922:
892:
891:
889:
888:
881:
874:
866:
863:
862:
861:
860:
846:
830:
829:
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823:
813:
812:
811:
804:Rail transport
801:
796:
795:
794:
789:
784:
779:
777:Roller skating
774:
773:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
750:Cycle rickshaw
747:
737:
732:
722:
721:
720:
715:
714:
713:
706:Human-electric
701:Hybrid vehicle
698:
697:
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691:
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684:
668:
663:
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652:
647:
642:
637:
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627:
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617:
612:
607:
602:
592:
587:
582:
580:Renewable heat
577:
572:
567:
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565:
560:
555:
545:
540:
535:
534:
533:
528:
523:
518:
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460:
455:
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451:
450:
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441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
369:Green building
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
339:Energy storage
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
260:
255:
254:
251:
250:
242:
241:
235:
234:
200:sodium nitrate
181:(e.g., from a
165:
162:
145:
142:
136:
133:
129:completely fed
104:solutions and
85:thermal energy
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4682:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4660:Heat transfer
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4625:
4624:
4615:
4614:
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4492:Vortex engine
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4277:energy.ca.gov
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4260:archive.today
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3824:geotctest.com
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3756:
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3743:
3739:
3735:. March 2024.
3731:
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3682:
3679:
3674:
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3631:(3): 100789.
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3294:
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3286:
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3272:
3267:
3263:
3259:
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3251:
3247:
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3236:
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3218:
3214:
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3209:
3201:
3198:
3192:
3189:
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3116:
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3108:
3101:
3098:
3093:
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3031:
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3020:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3002:
2999:
2994:
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2968:
2967:
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2755:
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2739:
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2725:
2722:
2709:
2705:
2699:
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2691:
2685:
2682:
2677:
2671:
2668:
2660:
2653:
2646:
2643:
2638:
2631:
2628:
2616:. 9 June 2021
2615:
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2593:
2589:
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2398:
2385:
2381:
2374:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2339:(in German).
2338:
2334:
2327:
2324:
2318:
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2294:
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2250:
2247:
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2238:
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2222:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2186:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2066:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2032:
2028:. p. 33.
2027:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1925:Heat capacity
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1854:
1853:adiabatically
1850:
1845:
1843:
1834:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1810:
1809:sensible heat
1806:
1801:
1799:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1771:photovoltaics
1768:
1762:
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1753:
1745:
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1647:
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1641:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1592:
1591:heat capacity
1588:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1564:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
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1510:
1506:
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1487:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1438:ionic liquids
1433:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1406:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1386:
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1261:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1233: â
1232:
1228:
1227:Find sources:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1205:This article
1203:
1199:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1162:
1158:
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1133:
1130:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1110:
1108:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1062:12,000 m
1059:
1055:
1045:
1037:
1035:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1002:
1000:
998:
994:
990:
986:
979:rock caverns
974:
966:
962:
958:
954:
951:
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931:
923:
921:
919:
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900:
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880:
875:
873:
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864:
858:
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847:
844:
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833:
832:
831:
822:
819:
818:
817:
816:Rapid transit
814:
810:
807:
806:
805:
802:
800:
797:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
782:Skateboarding
780:
778:
775:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
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753:
751:
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726:
723:
719:
716:
712:
709:
708:
707:
704:
703:
702:
699:
695:
692:
690:
689:Solar vehicle
687:
683:
680:
679:
678:
675:
674:
673:
672:Green vehicle
670:
669:
666:
661:
660:
651:
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633:
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628:
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588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
553:Tidal barrage
551:
550:
549:
546:
544:
543:Marine energy
541:
539:
536:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
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453:
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427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
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400:
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394:Passive house
392:
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387:
385:
382:
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370:
367:
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362:
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357:
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228:
225:
221:
217:
211:
209:
205:
201:
197:
192:
188:
184:
180:
175:
171:
170:sensible heat
163:
161:
159:
154:
150:
143:
141:
134:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
82:
78:
71:
66:
59:
55:
54:Bozen-Bolzano
50:
43:
42:Lower Austria
39:
34:
30:
19:
4665:Solar design
4621:
4554:
4452:Fusion power
4333:
4330:Lund, Henrik
4303:
4226:. Retrieved
4195:. Retrieved
4139:. Retrieved
4103:
4099:
4093:
4076:
4072:
4066:
4054:. Retrieved
4040:
4028:. Retrieved
4014:
3994:
3959:. Retrieved
3950:
3930:
3923:
3911:. Retrieved
3902:
3891:
3877:
3863:
3832:
3823:
3814:
3805:
3796:
3781:
3763:
3754:
3724:
3715:
3706:
3694:. Retrieved
3690:
3681:
3656:10261/275653
3628:
3624:
3614:
3602:. Retrieved
3598:
3588:
3535:
3531:
3506:. Retrieved
3501:
3492:
3459:
3456:Nano Letters
3455:
3449:
3424:
3420:
3410:
3375:
3371:
3361:
3334:
3330:
3320:
3308:. Retrieved
3293:
3274:
3249:
3245:
3235:
3207:
3200:
3191:
3179:. Retrieved
3170:
3160:
3148:. Retrieved
3139:
3114:
3110:
3100:
3085:
3060:
3056:
3050:
3033:
3029:
3019:
3001:
2987:
2975:. Retrieved
2964:
2955:
2943:. Retrieved
2935:Utility Dive
2934:
2925:
2913:. Retrieved
2904:
2879:
2875:
2837:
2833:
2823:
2798:
2794:
2784:
2772:. Retrieved
2763:
2754:
2742:. Retrieved
2734:The Engineer
2733:
2724:
2712:. Retrieved
2707:
2698:
2684:
2670:
2645:
2630:
2618:. Retrieved
2608:
2596:. Retrieved
2591:
2582:
2549:
2545:
2535:
2523:. Retrieved
2488:. Retrieved
2474:
2455:
2446:
2433:
2423:
2406:
2400:
2388:. Retrieved
2384:the original
2373:
2340:
2336:
2326:
2307:
2303:
2263:
2259:
2249:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2196:
2192:
2185:
2140:
2136:
2126:
2109:
2105:
2082:
2078:
2065:
2056:
2046:
2034:
2012:
1990:
1875:
1872:
1861:
1857:
1846:
1838:
1830:
1802:
1794:
1763:
1755:
1741:
1729:
1720:
1701:
1692:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1602:sand battery
1601:
1599:
1595:
1583:
1574:
1570:
1561:
1549:
1520:
1518:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1474:
1470:nanoparticle
1467:
1463:
1455:
1446:
1434:
1430:
1418:
1409:
1402:
1377:
1366:
1346:
1332:
1317:
1293:
1278:
1269:
1259:
1252:
1245:
1238:
1226:
1214:Please help
1209:verification
1206:
1172:
1165:
1157:phase change
1151:
1142:
1134:
1125:
1114:
1094:
1070:4,300 m
1056:in southern
1041:
1032:
1019:
1006:
947:
933:
903:
895:
755:Kick scooter
740:Land vehicle
423:
309:Energy audit
274:Cogeneration
212:
187:solar trough
167:
155:
151:
147:
138:
117:peak shaving
110:
80:
76:
75:
29:
4250:white paper
4030:21 November
3913:20 February
3790:. BBC News.
3538:(1): 1945.
3036:: 395â405.
2977:26 November
2235:: 1003â18.
2112:: 418â424.
1805:latent heat
1734:endothermic
1723:hand warmer
1533:temperature
1161:latent heat
1117:latent heat
973:Mustikkamaa
935:storage in
760:Quadracycle
615:Forecasting
548:Tidal power
531:Small hydro
516:Micro hydro
469:Sustainable
334:Energy Star
222:to produce
183:solar tower
174:molten salt
58:South Tyrol
4639:Categories
4591:Smart grid
4420:Production
4106:: 114â22.
4056:11 January
3508:27 January
3427:: 110683.
3337:: 128â37.
2966:Ingeniøren
2945:15 October
2801:: 109956.
2774:2 November
2744:2 November
2552:: 110644.
2525:2 November
2310:(1): 191.
2199:: 139â54.
2085:: 91â102.
2004:References
1835:Isentropic
1385:lead oxide
1353:liquid air
1305:metric ton
1242:newspapers
1168:immiscible
1129:isothermal
1049:2.8 m
942:See also:
939:projects.
928:See also:
792:Watercraft
770:Velomobile
730:Helicopter
558:Tidal farm
521:Pico hydro
506:Hydropower
289:Eco-cities
216:insulation
135:Categories
121:waste heat
113:heat pumps
4360:874965782
4322:857076499
3673:247329224
3665:2666-3864
3562:2041-1723
3441:1364-0321
3266:0306-2619
3181:2 October
3131:0140-7007
2896:2042-1338
2854:2042-1338
2815:0927-0248
2574:224912345
2566:0927-0248
2490:21 August
2409:: 39â45.
2365:233913583
2357:0009-286X
2280:1049-0787
1849:heat pump
1543:or delta
1373:endotherm
1349:cryogenic
1272:July 2024
989:Laajasalo
981:50 m
735:Hydrofoil
600:Community
374:Heat pump
284:Eco hotel
191:Solar Two
4477:Nantenna
4437:Biofuels
4332:(2014).
4280:Archived
4222:Archived
4188:Archived
4164:Archived
4135:Archived
4079:: 20â7.
4050:Archived
4024:Archived
4003:Archived
3983:Archived
3939:Archived
3908:"report"
3604:18 April
3580:29769524
3484:21688811
3402:27645474
3304:Archived
3300:"MERITS"
3285:Archived
3252:: 1â16.
3175:Archived
3011:Archived
2971:Archived
2939:Archived
2768:Archived
2738:Archived
2659:Archived
2516:Archived
2484:Archived
2438:Archived
2177:26598655
1888:See also
1711:eutectic
1649:Invented
1405:Zeolites
1369:exotherm
1347:A pilot
1342:nitrogen
1138:Eutectic
1115:Because
965:Helen Oy
843:Category
765:Tricycle
650:Windpump
645:Windbelt
620:Industry
299:Ecolabel
294:Ecohouse
264:Arcology
102:eutectic
98:aquifers
60:, Italy.
4502:Storage
4228:16 July
4197:16 July
4141:19 June
3961:23 July
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