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Experiments utilizing continuous-wave lasers continued to be performed throughout the latter half of the twentieth century, highlighting the many advantages of continuous-wave laser evaporation including low power densities, which can reduce surface damage to sensitive films. It proved challenging to
183:
laser in 1968. Further work demonstrated that laser-induced evaporation is an effective way to deposit dielectric and semiconductor films. However, issues occurred with regard to stoichiometry and the uniformity of the deposited films, thus diminishing their quality compared to films deposited by
90:
TLE uses continuous-wave lasers (typically with a wavelength of around 1000 nm) located outside the vacuum chamber to heat sources of material in order to generate a flux of vapor via evaporation or sublimation. Owing to the localized nature of the heat induced by the laser, a portion of the
49:
Diagram of a TLE chamber. Continuous-wave lasers are focused on sources inside a vacuum chamber. The localized heating induced by these lasers creates a flux of vapor from each source, which is then deposited onto a heated substrate. A gaseous atmosphere can be introduced via a gas inlet to grow
178:
in 1960, it was quickly recognized that a laser could act as a point source to evaporate source material in a vacuum chamber for fabricating thin films. In 1965, Smith and Turner succeeded in depositing thin films using a ruby laser, after which Groh deposited thin films using a continuous-wave
112:
region close to the irradiated surface of the source. The localized character of the heating enables many materials to be grown by TLE from freestanding sources without a crucible. Owing to the direct transfer of energy from the laser to the source, TLE is more efficient than other evaporation
95:
state while the rest remains solid, such that the source acts as its own crucible. The strong absorption of light causes the laser-induced heat to be highly localized via the small diameter of the laser beam, which can also have the effect of confining the heat to the axis of the source. The
199:
and dubbed "thermal laser epitaxy". This new technique uses elemental sources illuminated by high-power continuous-wave lasers (typically with peak powers around 1 kW at a wavelength of 1000 nm), thus allowing the deposition of low-vapor-pressure materials such as
162:
The deposition rate of the vapor impinging upon the substrate is controlled by adjusting the power of the incident source laser. The deposition rate frequently increases exponentially with source temperature, which in turn increases linearly with incident laser power.
192:
achieve congruent evaporation from compound sources using continuous-wave lasers, and film deposition was typically limited to sources with high vapor pressures due to the low continuous wave power densities available.
62:
of the source material, with no plasma or high-energy particle species being produced. Despite operating at comparatively low power densities, TLE is capable of depositing many materials with low
166:
The gas in the chamber can be incorporated in the deposition film. With the addition of an oxygen or ozone atmosphere, oxide films can readily be grown with TLE at pressures up to 10 hPa.
523:
Smart, Thomas J.; Hensling, Felix V. E.; Kim, Dong Yeong; Majer, Lena N.; Suyolcu, Y. Eren; Dereh, Dominik; Schlom, Darrell G.; Jena, Dubdeep; Mannhart, Jochen; Braun, Wolfgang (2023-05-08).
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relation to temperature. The vapor is then deposited onto a laser-heated substrate. The very high substrate temperatures achievable by laser heating allow the use of
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other techniques. Experiments to investigate the deposition of thin films using a pulsed laser at high power densities laid the foundation for
144:
and temperature of the deposited film. This precise control is valuable for growing thin-film heterostructures of complex materials, such as
910:
Trujillo, O.; Moss, R.; Vuong, K.D.; Lee, D. H.; Noble, R.; Finnigan, D.; Orloff, S.; Tenpas, E.; Park, C.; Fagan, J.; Wang, X.W. (1996).
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Braun, Wolfgang; JΓ€ger, Maren; Laskin, Gennadii; Ngabonziza, Prosper; Voesch, Wolfgang; Wittlich, Pascal; Mannhart, Jochen (2020-07-16).
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resulting absorption corresponds to a typical photon penetration depth on the order of 2 nm due to the high
20:
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155:. By positioning all lasers outside of the evaporation chamber, contamination can be reduced compared to using
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By heating the source, a flux of vapor is produced, the pressure of which frequently has an approximately
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Photograph of a freestanding silicon disc being heated locally by a laser in a TLE chamber.
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Smith, Howard M.; Turner, A. F. (1965). "Vacuum
Deposited Thin Films Using a Ruby laser".
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In 2019, the evaporation of sources using continuous-wave lasers was rediscovered at the
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TLE operates at power densities between 10 – 10 W/cm, which results in
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771:"Thin films of semiconductors and dielectrics produced by laser evaporation"
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728:"Vacuum Deposition of Dielectric and Semiconductor Films by Means of a CO
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Braun, Wolfgang (2018). "Adsorption-controlled epitaxy of perovskites".
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while avoiding issues with congruent evaporation from compound sources.
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188:, an extremely successful growth technique that is widely used today.
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368:"Thermal laser evaporation of elements from across the periodic table"
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Thermal Laser
Epitaxy - Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research
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Smart, Thomas J.; Mannhart, Jochen; Braun, Wolfgang (2021-03-09).
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Kim, Dong Yeong; Mannhart, Jochen; Braun, Wolfgang (2021-08-04).
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Kim, Dong Yeong; Mannhart, Jochen; Braun, Wolfgang (2021-08-13).
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pressure or in the presence of a background atmosphere, such as
689:"Vacuum Deposition of Thin Films by Means of a CO2 Laser"
310:"Thermal laser evaporation for the growth of oxide films"
34:
on a substrate. This technique can be performed under
630:
Nichols, K. G. (1965). "Lasers and microelectronics".
818:"Thin-film deposition by laser-assisted evaporation"
484:"Epitaxial film growth by thermal laser evaporation"
159:heaters, resulting in highly pure deposited films.
100:of Ξ± ~ 10 cm of many materials. Heat loss via
587:(1960). "Stimulated optical radiation in ruby".
232:Braun, Wolfgang; Mannhart, Jochen (2019-08-14).
70:, a process that is challenging to perform with
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234:"Film deposition by thermal laser evaporation"
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912:"CdS thin film deposition by CW Nd:YAG laser"
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488:Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A
174:Shortly after the invention of the laser by
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435:thermal preparation of oxide surfaces"
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136:-controlled growth modes, similar to
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30:to heat sources locally for growing
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962:Physical vapor deposition techniques
863:Sankur, H.; Cheung, J. T. (1988).
140:, ensuring precise control of the
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769:Ban, V.S.; Kramer, D. A. (1970).
91:source may be transformed into a
972:Semiconductor device fabrication
726:Hass, G.; Ramsey, J. B. (1969).
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932:10.1016/S0040-6090(96)09065-7
816:Sankur, H.; Hall, R. (1985).
569:: CS1 maint: date and year (
372:Journal of Laser Applications
775:Journal of Materials Science
125:to reach high temperatures.
108:further localizes the high-
17:Thermal laser epitaxy (TLE)
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693:Journal of Applied Physics
42:, to deposit oxide films.
982:Methods of crystal growth
50:compounds such as oxides.
21:physical vapor deposition
186:pulsed laser deposition
98:absorption coefficients
138:molecular beam epitaxy
119:molecular beam epitaxy
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72:molecular beam epitaxy
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967:Thin film deposition
842:10.1364/AO.24.003343
924:1996TSF...290...13T
881:1988ApPhA..47..271S
834:1985ApOpt..24.3343S
787:1970JMatS...5..978B
748:10.1364/AO.8.001115
705:1968JAP....39.5804G
674:10.1364/AO.4.000147
666:1965ApOpt...4..147S
601:1960Natur.187..493M
500:2021JVSTA..39e3406K
451:2020APLM....8g1112B
394:2021JLasA..33b2008S
326:2021APLM....9h1105K
250:2019AIPA....9h5310B
113:techniques such as
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781:(11): 1573β4803.
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687:Groh, G. (1968).
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509:10.1116/6.0001177
460:10.1063/5.0008324
402:10.2351/7.0000348
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259:10.1063/1.5111678
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415:2021-09-08
385:2103.12596
347:2021-09-08
291:2405.04075
212:References
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102:conduction
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