Proto-Indo-European phonology

2980:. The conventional notations *þ *ð *ðʰ for the second elements of these metathesised clusters are still found, and some, including Fortson, continue to hold to the view that interdental fricatives were involved at some stage of PIE. An alternative interpretation (e.g. Vennemann 1989, Schindler 1991 (informally and unpublished)) identifies these segments as alveolar affricates . In this view, thorn clusters developed as TK > TsK > KTs and then variously in daughter languages; this has the advantage that the first change can be identified with the dental assibilation rule above, which is then broadened in application to affrication of dental stops before any stops. Melchert has interpreted the Cuneiform 3110:

desiderative suffixes *-h₁s- and *-h₁sy- appears to delete after an obstruent but not a resonant. In any case, it is difficult to determine when a particular laryngeal loss is due to a protolanguage rule versus an instance of later analogy. In addition, as synchronic phonological rules the set of above rules is more complicated than what is expected from a cross-linguistic standpoint, suggesting that some of the rules may have already been "morphologized" (incorporated into the morphology of certain constructions, such as the o-grade noun-forming rule or the rule forming y-presents); the above-mentioned laryngeal deletion in the desiderative suffixes may be an example of such morphologization.

36: 2298:, which (depending on the particular noun or verb) could be either on the root or the ending. These words also had no ablaut variations within their paradigms. (However, accent and ablaut were still associated; for example, thematic verbs with root accent tended to have e-grade ablaut in the root, while those ending accent tended to have zero-grade ablaut in the root.) On the other hand, athematic nouns and verbs usually had 3012:). With a better understanding of the role of ablaut, however, and a clearer understanding of which roots did and did not have laryngeals in them, it became apparent that this suggestion cannot be correct. In particular, there are some cases where syllabic laryngeals in medial syllables delete in most or all daughter languages, and other cases where they do not delete even in Germanic and/or Balto-Slavic. 96: 2965:'carpenter'. As was the case with the laryngeal theory, these cognate sets were first noted prior to the connection of Anatolian and Tocharian to PIE, and early reconstructions posited a new series of consonants to explain these correspondences. Brugmann 1897's systematic explanation augmented the PIE consonant system with a series of 2310:, with ending accent and zero grade in the root (e.g. the plural active and all forms of the middle of verbs, and the oblique cases of nouns). Some nouns and verbs, on the other hand, had a different pattern, with ablaut variation between lengthened and full grade and mostly fixed accent on the root; these are termed 3297:(i.e. variations in the vowels of related words, or different inflections of the same word) in the Proto-Indo-European language. This was used in numerous morphological processes, usually being secondary to a word's inflectional ending. It is the most common source of apophony in Indo-European languages today. 3357:, it is termed "lengthened o-grade". When a syllable had no vowel at all, it is termed "zero-grade" (sometimes written "∅-grade"). The vowels *u and *i do not alternate in this way, and thus are often referred to as "non-ablauting" or "not ablauting", sometimes even not being referred to as vowels at all. 1559:

All of them are morphologically conditioned to varying extents. The long vowels are less common than the short vowels, and their morphological conditioning is especially strong, suggesting that at an earlier stage there may not have been a length opposition, and a system with as few as two vowels (or

3001:

Once the laryngeal theory was developed, and the rules for sound change of laryngeals worked out, it was clear that there were a number of exceptions to the rules, in particular with regard to "syllabic" laryngeals (former "schwa indogermanicum") that occurred in non-initial syllables. It was long

1148:

comes from the eventual development of post-vocalic laryngeals into a register distinction commonly described as "acute" (vs. "circumflex" register on long vocalics not originally closed by a laryngeal) and marked in some fashion on all long syllables, whether stressed or not; furthermore, in some

2287:, which could appear on any syllable and whose position often varied among different members of a paradigm (e.g. between singular and plural of a verbal paradigm, or between nominative/accusative and oblique cases of a nominal paradigm). The location of the pitch accent is closely associated with 1405:

Anatolian and Greek are the most important languages for reconstructing the laryngeals. Anatolian directly preserves many laryngeals, while Greek preserves traces of laryngeals in positions (e.g. at the beginning of a word) where they disappear in many other languages, and reflects each laryngeal

923:

fricatives or affricates of various types, depending on the individual language. In some phonological conditions, depalatalization occurred, yielding what appears to be a centum reflex in a satem language. For example, in Balto-Slavic and Albanian, palatovelars were depalatalized before resonants

3053:

This is a new area, and as a result, there is no consensus on the number and nature of the deletion rules. A wide variety of rules have been proposed; Ringe (2006) identifies the following three as the most likely candidates (where C=any consonant, V=any vowel, H=any laryngeal, R=any resonant):

612:

Proto-Indo-European was formerly reconstructed with four series of stops: voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated, voiced unaspirated, and voiced aspirated (such as *t, *tʰ, *d, *dʰ). More recent reconstructions analyze voiceless aspirated stops as sequences of stop and laryngeal, and so the

3109:

It seems unlikely that this is a correct and complete description of the actual phonological rules underlying laryngeal deletion. These rules do not account for all the potential cases of laryngeal deletion (hence the many other rules that have been proposed); for example, the laryngeal in the

1742:

It is generally accepted that PIE did not allow vowels word-initially. Vowel-initial words in earlier reconstructions are now usually reconstructed as beginning with one of the three laryngeals, which disappeared before a vowel (after coloring it, if possible) in all daughter languages except

2956:

Thorn clusters presented a problem in the reconstruction of some cognate sets in which Indo-Iranian sibilants in clusters with dorsals exceptionally correspond to coronal stops in certain other branches (particularly in Greek). 'Bear' and 'decaying' above are examples; another is Sanskrit

1790:

Lengthening of vowels may have been a phonologically-conditioned change in Early Proto-Indo-European, but at the period just before the end of Proto-Indo-European, which is usually reconstructed, it is no longer possible to predict the appearance of all long vowels phonologically, as the

924:

unless the latter were followed by a front vowel. The reflexes of the labiovelars are generally indistinguishable from those of the plain velars in satem languages, but there are some words where the lost labialization has left a trace, such as by u-coloring the following vowel.

1179:

In a phonological sense, sonorants in Proto-Indo-European were those segments that could appear both in the syllable nucleus (i.e. they could be syllabic) and out of it (i.e. they could be non-syllabic). PIE sonorants consist of liquids, nasals and glides: more specifically,

2447:. It was grammaticalised for the nominative singulars of nouns ending in a sonorant, as well as the nominoaccusative of neuter collectives. By analogy, several nouns ending in other consonants also acquired a long vowel in the nominative singular, but retained the 680:

is disputed: it seems not to appear as an initial consonant (except in a few dubious roots such as *bel-, noted below), while reconstructed roots with internal *b are usually restricted to Western branches, casting doubt on their validity for PIE.

1379:

Sanskrit, Greek, and Germanic, along with Latin to some extent, are the most important for reconstructing PIE consonants, as all of these languages keep the three series of stops (voiceless, voiced and voiced-aspirated) separate. In Germanic,

1418:

faithfully preserves numerous relics (e.g. laryngeal hiatus, laryngeal aspiration, laryngeal lengthening) triggered by ablaut alternations in laryngeal-stem nouns, but the paucity of the Old Avestan corpus prevents it from being more useful.

1670:. Until the mid-20th century, PIE was reconstructed with all of those vowels. Modern versions incorporating the laryngeal theory, however, tend to view these vowels as later developments of sequences involving the PIE laryngeal consonants 3092:

A laryngeal in the sequence *CH.CC was dropped, where a syllable boundary follows the laryngeal (i.e. the following two consonants are capable of occurring at the start of a word, as in *tr- but not *rt-). An example is the weak stem

2385:

A number of phonological rules can be reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European. Some of them are disputed to be valid for "PIE proper," and are claimed to be later innovations in some of the daughter branches. Some of these laws are:

2629:(pronounced as ). The cluster was often simplified to -ss- in the later descendants (Latin and Germanic among others). Sanskrit does not have the rule (Bartholomae's law takes precedence instead), but it does occur in Iranian. 2107:(with a corresponding merger in the long vowels) but reflect PIE length differences (especially from the ablaut) even more faithfully than Greek, and they do not have the same issues with consonant loss as Greek. Furthermore, 655:

in Balto-Slavic as well as the parallel development of voiceless consonants and voiced aspirated consonants in Germanic: both became fricatives and glottalized (plain voiced in the earlier theory) consonants remained stops.

2269:. Additionally, accentual differences in some Balto-Slavic languages indicate whether the post-PIE long vowel originated from a genuine PIE lengthened grade or is a result of compensatory lengthening before a laryngeal. 770: 1067:

The phonetic values of the laryngeal phonemes are disputable; various suggestions for their exact phonetic value have been made, ranging from cautious claims that all that can be said with certainty is that

3015:

This has led to the more recent idea that PIE had a number of synchronic "laryngeal deletion" rules, where syllabic laryngeals in particular contexts were deleted even in the protolanguage. In the case of

1546:

It is disputed how many vowels Proto-Indo-European has, or even what counts as a "vowel" in the language. It is generally agreed that at least four vowel segments existed, which are typically denoted as

4274: 890:

Another theory is that there may have been only two series (plain velar and labiovelar) in PIE, with the palatalized velars arising originally as a conditioned sound change in satem languages. See

633:

has a fourfold distinction, including a voiceless aspirated series), and it is typologically rare across attested languages. The absence or rarity of *b (see below) is also unusual. Additionally,

2772:

A thorn cluster is any sequence of a dental stop followed by a velar stop. In the IE branches other than Anatolian and Tocharian, thorn clusters undergo metathesis, and in many, the dental also

2976:

Once discovered, Anatolian and Tocharian evidence suggested that the original form of the thorn clusters was, in fact, *TK, so that the development outside Anatolian and Tocharian involved a

2731:: whenever it is added to a root that begins with a voiced or aspirated stop, that stop is devoiced. If the stop was aspirated, it might retain its aspiration in some branches. For example: 1392:, which affects both Greek and Sanskrit. Latin also keeps the three series separate, but mostly obscures the distinctions among voiced-aspirated consonants in initial position (all except 1402:) and collapses many distinctions in medial position. Greek is of particular importance for reconstructing labiovelars, as other languages tend to delabialize them in many positions. 3999: 2541:

appeared in sequence and were preceded by a vowel, one of the two was deleted. Additionally, if the sequence was word-final, the preceding vowel received compensatory lengthening.

637:

have a constraint that forbids roots from mixing voiceless and voiced aspirate stops or from containing two voiced stops. These considerations have led some scholars to propose a

4074: 1932: 2473:

Stang's law affects sequences of final consonants, much like Szemerényi's law, but the result is to delete the second-last consonant rather than the final one. Specifically,

2829: 1935:'beard,' is confined to the western and northern daughter families. That makes it possible to ascribe it to some late PIE dialectalism or of expressive character (like the 3008:"daughter", which appears in a number of branches (e.g. Germanic, Balto-Slavic) with no vowel in place of expected /a/ for "syllabic" /h₂/ (cf. English "daughter", Gothic 2214:

are the least useful, as they are attested relatively late, have borrowed heavily from other Indo-European languages and have complex and poorly understood vowel changes.

1724:

not an independent phoneme.) Some researchers, however, have argued that an independent phoneme *a must be reconstructed, and it cannot be traced back to any laryngeal.

1755:) and phonological conditions (like in the last syllable of nominative singular of a noun ending on sonorant, in root syllables in the sigmatic aorist, etc.; compare 4454: 883:

would still be possible in uvular theory, if the satem languages first shifted the "palatovelars" and then later merged the "plain velars" and "labiovelars". See

1414:

are sometimes valuable in reconstructing laryngeals since they are relatively directly represented in the distinction between "acute" and "circumflex" vowels.

945:

were in general kept distinct. Centum languages show delabialisation of labiovelars when adjacent to *w (or its allophone *u), according to a rule known as the

4258: 2760: 2192:

can be significant because of their conservatism, but are often difficult to interpret. Tocharian, especially, has complex and far-reaching vowel innovations.

1775:

would lengthen, yielding respective lengthened-grade variants. The basic lexical forms of words contained therefore only short vowels; forms with long vowels,

1800: 1791:

phonologically-justified resulting long vowels have begun to spread analogically to other forms without being phonologically justified. The prosodically-long

3034:, where a deletion rule eliminated the laryngeal in the latter context but not the former one. Forms in daughter languages with the laryngeal (Ancient Greek 2435:

This rule was no longer productive in late PIE, and many potential examples were restored by analogy. For example, the genitive singular of neuter nouns in

3992: 704:, and *h₂ebl-/*h₂ebōl 'apple' with a hypothetical earlier form *h₂eml-, which is in unmetathesized form attested in another reconstructible PIE word for 1995: 1317:, changing voiceless stops into voiceless or voiced fricatives, devoicing unaspirated voiced stops, and fricativizing and deaspirating voiced aspirates. 2059:

reflects the original PIE vowel system most faithfully, with few changes to PIE vowels in any syllable, but its loss of certain consonants, especially

5120: 4721: 1144:. It is possible, however, that all three laryngeals ultimately fell together as a glottal stop in some languages. Evidence for this development in 2534:

PIE generally disallowed two of the same consonant to appear next to each other. Various rules were employed in order to eliminate such sequences.

2417: 1818: 3212:

could not. There are also restrictions that govern what consonants can occur in a root; a root cannot have two or more voiced consonants (e.g. *

2003: 2202:

do not unilaterally merge any vowels, but have such far-reaching vowel changes (especially in Celtic and the extreme vowel reduction of early

1944:'alas') and so is not suitable for comparative analysis, or they are argued to have been borrowed from some other language which had phonemic 684:

Some have attempted to explain away the few roots with *b as a result of later phonological developments. Suggested such developments include

5254: 4726: 4689: 4419: 4290: 3985: 3902: 3833: 3767: 3737: 3690: 3526: 2011: 855:

The actual pronunciation of these sounds in PIE is not certain. One current idea is that the "palatovelars" were in fact simple velars, i.e.

3066:'intestine'). This seems to have operated particularly in the thematic optative suffix *-oy-h₁-, which was reduced to *-oy- in most forms. 551: 57: 4266: 974: 1958: 1909:

as a phoneme of PIE: it does not participate in ablaut alternations (it does not alternate with other vowels, as the "real" PIE vowels

5259: 4447: 4282: 3892: 3002:

suggested that such syllabic laryngeals were simply deleted in particular of the daughters; this is based especially on the PIE word *

2322:

have zero-grade root with a mobile accent that varies between suffix and ending, with corresponding ablaut variations in the suffix.

1611: 3807: 3668: 3446: 79: 2661:

If a sonorant followed a dental sequence, one of the dentals was deleted. The evidence is conflicting on which dental was deleted.

2306:, with root accent and full grade in the root (e.g. the singular active of verbs, and the nominative and accusative of nouns), and 1591: 723:

In PIE *ph₃ the *p regularly gives *b; for example, the reduplicated present stem of *peh₃- 'to drink' > *pi-ph₃- > Sanskrit

1727:

Any sonorant consonant can comprise the second part of a complex syllable nucleus; all can form diphthongs with any of the vowels

1218:, which generally were used between consonants, word-initially before a consonant, or word-finally after a consonant. Even though 4556: 2868: 982: 4957: 4944: 4483: 3916: 1511: 1499: 585: 2408:

when preceded by a sonorant and a vowel, triggering compensatory lengthening of the vowel: -VRs, -VRh₂ > VːR. For example:

5155: 4508: 2318:, one of the oldest classes of noun) have fixed accent on the root, with ablaut variation between o-grade and e-grade, while 1915:

do), it makes no appearance in suffixes and endings, it appears in a very confined set of positions (usually after initial

216:. Note that the phonemes are marked with asterisks to show that they are from a reconstructed language. See the article on 5115: 4711: 4498: 4440: 4403: 4219: 3418:

Konsonantenwandel. Bausteine zu einer Typologie des Lautwandels und ihre Konsequenzen für die vergleichende Rekonstruktion

1954: 4701: 4654: 4493: 4313: 4224: 4214: 4208: 4008: 3956:, an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen 1517: 1505: 138: 103: 3069:

A laryngeal in the sequence *VCHy was dropped. Examples: *wérye- ('say' present tense) from *werh₁- (cf. Homeric Greek

2842: 4408: 2334: 2294:

Generally, thematic nouns and verbs (those with a "thematic vowel" between root and ending, usually /e/ or /o/) had a

2128: 1870:). The phonemic status of *a has been fiercely disputed; Beekes concludes: "There are thus no grounds for PIE phoneme 1474: 4162: 1388:) obscure some of the original distinctions; but on the other hand, Germanic is not subject to the dissimilations of 554:; variant transcriptions often seen elsewhere are provided for individual segments in the following sections. Raised 50: 44: 2862: 5093: 4629: 4579: 4513: 4488: 4029: 4024: 3371: 2278: 2124: 1537: 1530: 966: 891: 884: 826: 763: 591: 4802: 4731: 4589: 4569: 4385: 4229: 1064:

as a phonetic description is largely obsolete, retained only because its usage has become standard in the field.

599: 209: 142: 3960: 2969:(nowhere directly attested) appearing only in clusters with dorsals, *kþ *kʰþʰ *gð *gʰðʰ. The use of the letter 1590:

The syllabic and non-syllabic versions of these sounds alternate in the inflectional paradigms of words such as

61: 5125: 4807: 4741: 4706: 4308: 4241: 4182: 4049: 3366: 3119: 2977: 2291:

variations, especially between normal-grade vowels (/e/ and /o/) and zero-grade vowels (i.e. lack of a vowel).

2072: 2051: 1481: 1239: 634: 217: 117: 3434: 1879:

After the discovery of Hittite and the development of the laryngeal theory, almost every instance of previous

1089: 2848: 2423: 4969: 4852: 4822: 4787: 4574: 4518: 4503: 3825: 2350: 2150: 1306: 1001:('nest'), and which later became phonemicized in some daughter languages. Some PIE roots have variants with 150: 113: 3876:. Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs. Vol. 41. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 107–115. 3872:(1989). "Phonological and morphological consequences of the "glottalic theory"". In Vennemann, Theo (ed.). 5223: 5010: 4817: 4716: 4044: 2338: 1922: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1677: 1667: 1411: 1399: 1135: 1131: 864: 856: 561: 4129: 3058:

A laryngeal in the sequence *oRHC was dropped. Example: *tórmos ('borehole') from *terh₁- "bore" (cf. Gk

2395: 1806: 1756: 1149:

circumstances original acute register is reflected by a "broken tone" (i.e. glottalized vowel) in modern

4834: 4827: 4736: 4649: 4644: 4413: 2966: 4334: 4062: 3781: 1423:

preserves the same relics rather less faithfully, but in greater quantity, making it sometimes useful.

1020:

The "laryngeals" may have been fricatives, but there is no consensus as to their phonetic realization.

2035: 2027: 2019: 5213: 5075: 4985: 4964: 4874: 4601: 4367: 4340: 4234: 4152: 4084: 3288: 2288: 2076: 1752: 1348: 1158: 980: 972: 964: 597: 589: 3917:"Uvular Stops or a Glottal Fricative? Theory and Data in Recent Reconstructions of PIE "Laryngeals"" 5203: 5110: 5088: 5045: 5030: 4995: 4939: 4884: 4879: 4748: 4634: 4611: 4551: 4372: 4362: 4089: 3678: 3652: 2346: 2185: 1864: 1127: 462: 412: 248: 189: 5100: 4909: 4844: 4839: 4794: 4753: 4541: 4467: 3969: 3925: 3888: 3479: 3201: 3134: 2374: 2358: 2218: 2189: 2134: 1921:

which could be the result of that phoneme being a-coloring, particularly likely if it was uvular

1698:

has various origins, among which are a "syllabic" (any laryngeal not adjacent to a vowel) or an

1582: 1256: 787: 5000: 4432: 4094: 3777: 3747: 2245:

is, however, argued to have been retained in some environments as a lengthened vowel because of

1831:

It is possible that Proto-Indo-European had a few morphologically isolated words with the vowel

1389: 1320: 651:. Direct evidence for glottalization is limited, but there is some indirect evidence, including 5228: 5193: 5178: 5162: 5150: 5135: 5105: 5065: 5035: 5015: 5005: 4949: 4929: 4919: 4904: 4889: 4774: 4769: 4696: 4666: 4661: 4639: 4621: 4616: 4606: 4596: 4357: 4079: 3935: 3898: 3829: 3803: 3763: 3733: 3696: 3686: 3664: 3442: 2211: 2207: 2114: 2018:("away") where the absence of a laryngeal is suggested by the respective Hittite descendants; 1973: 1640:) have argued that there is substantial evidence for reconstructing a non-alternating phoneme 1375:) describe the behaviour of aspirates in particular contexts in some early daughter languages. 1260: 1252: 581: 360: 238: 154: 1244:

Some of the changes undergone by the PIE consonants in daughter languages are the following:

180:

in traditional phonology) is mostly uncontroversial, although areas of dispute remain. Their

5208: 5140: 5130: 5070: 5060: 5055: 5040: 5025: 5020: 4934: 4924: 4867: 4782: 4676: 4564: 4546: 4536: 4118: 4114: 4104: 4099: 4054: 4039: 4034: 3471: 3200:

in Greek. In PIE itself, though, roots were always monosyllabic. Roots usually followed the

3086: 2366: 2362: 2342: 2266: 2199: 2195: 1150: 1029: 946: 860: 741: 638: 494: 485: 233: 158: 3908: 5218: 5198: 5183: 5145: 5050: 4990: 4914: 4899: 4894: 4862: 4857: 4684: 4671: 4584: 3953: 3943: 3847: 3817: 3759: 3729: 2178: 1468: 1385: 775: 272: 243: 193: 2354: 2314:. Additional patterns exist for both nouns and verbs. For example, some nouns (so-called 2246: 1381: 1314: 1276: 652: 3248:, but are quite rare. Suffixes with two consonants following the vowel always ended in * 5233: 5188: 4380: 4318: 4187: 4172: 4134: 4124: 4109: 3869: 2970: 2722: 2468: 2326: 1760: 1420: 1310: 643: 303: 220:

for a summary of how these phonemes reflected in the various Indo-European languages.

197: 2880:

Metathetized and unmetathetized forms survive in different ablaut grades of the root *

2353:). It is indirectly attested in some phenomena in other PIE languages, especially the 613:

standard reconstruction now includes only three series of stops, with the traditional

5248: 4157: 3708: 3483: 3216:

is impossible), and a root cannot have both unvoiced and aspirated consonants (e.g. *

2330: 2056: 1951: 1060:(also denoting "unknown laryngeal"), stand for three "laryngeal" phonemes. The term 868: 848: 571: 309: 166: 3638:

were morphologically considered to be consonants, despite phonetically being vowels.

768:

According to the traditional reconstruction, such as the one laid out in Brugmann's

176:

The reconstruction of abstract units of PIE phonological systems (i.e. segments, or

3843: 3713:

Vergleichende Laut-, Stammbildungs- und Flexionslehre der indogermanischen Sprachen

2773: 2370: 2284: 2250: 1936: 1443: 1438: 1248: 1145: 1085: 688:*ml- > *bl-, connecting the dubious root *bel- 'power, strength' (> Sanskrit 153:. Because PIE was not written, linguists must rely on the evidence of its earliest 125: 3244:. More complex formations are possible, usually having no (ablauting) vowel (e.g. 1230:

were certainly phonetic vowels, they behave phonologically as syllabic sonorants.

3797: 3475: 1809:, a synchronic phonological rule that operated within PIE, but prosodically-long 1110:= or "are in all probability accurate". Another commonly cited speculation for 4177: 1450: 1171:

is sometimes used for a laryngeal between consonants, in a "syllabic" position.

783: 4192: 3977: 3782:"The Syllabic Structure of Proto-Indo-European - In memory of Jochem Schindler" 3169:, "to stand"). In some cases, however, presence of a laryngeal before apparent 3022:, for example, it appears that PIE had an alternation between a "strong" stem * 2742: 1524: 1455: 518: 3700: 1581:

existed, but these sounds are usually analyzed as syllabic allophones of the

629:. However, such a tripartite system is not found in any descendant language ( 17: 4463: 3660: 2874: 2836: 1903:

respectively). The following arguments can be set forth against recognizing

1715: 1493: 1075: 134: 3462:

Simon, Zsolt (2013). "Once again on the Hieroglyphic Luwian sign *19 〈á〉".

3192:, as descendants in later languages would yield a disyllabic root, such as 3802:. Translation by Charles Gertmenian. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter. 2940: 2926: 2906: 2892: 1931:

usually have reflexes in only a few Indo-European languages. For example,

927:

The centum group of languages, on the other hand, merged the palatovelars

3422:

Pharyngealization and the three dorsal stop series of Proto-Indo-European

3294: 2823:

The following cases illustrate some possible outcomes of the metathesis:

2728: 2625:

This rule has been preserved in Hittite where cluster *tst is spelled as

2082: 1014: 920: 630: 614: 552:

Knowledge (XXG)'s canonical notation for transcribing Proto-Indo-European

181: 162: 146: 1876:"; his former student, Alexander Lubotsky, reaches the same conclusion. 3050:) are due to analogical generalization of one or the other protoforms. 2086: 1966: 1415: 213: 184:

interpretation is harder to establish; this pertains especially to the

177: 121: 2993:'in the earth', as preserving the intermediate stage of this process. 1560:

even only one vowel, according to some researchers) may have existed.

963:

was a strident sound, whose phonetic realization could range from or

149:, based on the similarities and differences among current and extinct 3874:

The new sound of Indo-European: essays in phonological reconstruction

3755: 3725: 2981: 859:, while the "plain velars" were pronounced farther back, perhaps as 3181:

alone in the onset of a root's syllable (apparent occurrences were

3077:); *h₂érye- ('plow' present tense) from *h₂erh₃- ('plow' cf. Lith. 771:

Grundriß der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

3796:

Meier-Brügger, Michael; Matthias Fritz; Manfred Mayrhofer (2003).

3553: 2203: 898: 871:

forms of the "plain velars", they would then have been pronounced

185: 170: 3685:. Michiel Arnoud Cor de Vaan. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co. 3349:, it is termed "lengthened e-grade"; likewise if a syllable had 3345:, it is termed "e-grade" or "full-grade", and if a syllable had 1994:. This phoneme appears to be present in reconstructions such as 1166: 4436: 3981: 2377:, few traces of the PIE accent remain in any modern languages. 3145:) may precede the initial consonant. Roots which appear to be 29: 3271:, with most of the exceptions occurring in the plural (e.g. * 102:

This article contains characters used to write reconstructed

3683:

Comparative Indo-European linguistics : An Introduction

4275:

Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme

3236:

Nominal suffixes almost always have the syllable structure

2181:) they are still important for reconstructing PIE vowels. 3961:"Voiceless high vowels and syncope in older Indo-European" 3944:"Alwin Kloekhorst. "Proto-Indo-European "thorn"-clusters"" 3173:

roots cannot be proven, especially for those with initial

1192:) are non-labial sonorants, grouped with the cover symbol 2177:

in non-initial syllables, but (especially in the case of

1787:

appeared from well-established morphophonological rules.

1652:

as well as weaker evidence for a non-alternating phoneme

740:

The standard reconstruction identifies three coronal, or

3968:

Martin Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics,

3924:

Martin Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics,

3185:). Roots which ended in laryngeals are sometimes called 885:

Centum and satem languages § Different realisations

641:

of the PIE stop system, replacing the voiced stops with

1897:(rendering the previously reconstructed short and long 1660:

Furthermore, all the daughter languages have a segment

892:

Centum and satem languages § Only two velar series

3657:

Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction

3129:

Proto-Indo-European roots have the syllable structure

2481:, again with compensatory lengthening: Vwm > *Vːm. 750:. They are symbolically grouped with the cover symbol 3220:

is impossible), except for when the root starts with

1598:('tree, wood') (reconstructed with genitive singular 4163: 4064: 3954:

glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online

3100: 3094: 3029: 3023: 3017: 3003: 2988: 2947: 2933: 2919: 2913: 2899: 2881: 2855: 2827: 2753: 2747: 2735: 2644: 2633: 2612: 2606: 2518:

Some linguists include an additional rule to delete

2260: 2254: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2172: 2166: 2160: 2154: 2144: 2138: 2118: 2108: 2102: 2096: 2090: 2066: 2060: 2012: 2004: 1996: 1989: 1983: 1977: 1959: 1945: 1939: 1926: 1916: 1910: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1871: 1850: 1832: 1816: 1810: 1798: 1792: 1782: 1776: 1770: 1764: 1734: 1728: 1719: 1705: 1699: 1681: 1676:. For example, what used to be reconstructed as PIE 1671: 1661: 1653: 1647: 1641: 1631: 1625: 1619: 1612: 1605: 1599: 1592: 1585: 1576: 1570: 1564: 1554: 1548: 1393: 1370: 1364: 1358: 1352: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1298: 1292: 1286: 1280: 1270: 1264: 1225: 1219: 1213: 1203: 1197: 1187: 1181: 1163: 1139: 1126:

is (e.g. Beekes). Simon (2013) has argued that the

1121: 1116: 1111: 1105: 1099: 1093: 1079: 1069: 1054: 1047: 1041: 1035: 1008: 1002: 995: 988: 958: 940: 934: 928: 914: 908: 902: 878: 872: 842: 836: 830: 818: 809: 803: 797: 791: 745: 732: 675: 665: 575: 565: 555: 538: 528: 501: 483: 470: 451: 443: 435: 427: 419: 400: 392: 384: 376: 367: 348: 340: 332: 324: 316: 286: 278: 5171: 4978: 4762: 4529: 4396: 4350: 4327: 4301: 4250: 4201: 4145: 4015: 3275:). Verb endings usually have the form -(C)CV (e.g. 3263:

Nominal case endings almost always have the forms -

2834:'bear' > Hittite ḫartaggas /ḫartkas/, but Latin 1751:With particular morphological (such as a result of 1714:contained the vowel in spoken PIE, it would be an 1212:. All of them had syllabic allophones, transcribed 851:(lip rounding) accompanying the velar articulation. 3133:, where C is any consonant, and V is any vowel or 2973:led to the name "thorn cluster" for these groups. 2373:, the Balto-Slavic languages and (to some extent) 1384:and changes to labiovelars (especially outside of 3715:. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Strasburg: Trübner. 1610:) or in the derivation of words such as the noun 3585: 3583: 3353:, it is termed "o-grade", and if a syllable had 3405:On the Chronology of Sound Changes in Tocharian 2233:were merged. A separate reflex of the original 1666:and those with long vowels generally have long 1279:. Proto-Celtic retains the distinction between 106:words (for an explanation of the notation, see 3752:Poredbenopovijesna gramatika hrvatskoga jezika 3525:harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFByrd2015 ( 3420:. Wiesbaden: Reichert. Cited in Prescott, C., 2165:(to Proto-Germanic *ō) as well as a merger of 1849:) or appearing as a first part of a diphthong 1575:were extremely common, and syllabic sonorants 993:that emerged by assimilation in words such as 27:Reconstructed sound system of a proto-language 4448: 3993: 2860:'decaying, decline, ruin' > Ancient Greek 2598:In a sequence of dental stops, an epenthetic 2369:) it was lost without a trace. Other than in 2333:. It is also reflected to some extent in the 8: 3897:. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 2477:is deleted when between a vowel and a final 877:but the pronunciation of the labiovelars as 3300:Proto-Indo-European vowels had 5 different 2812:. Sanskrit has assibilation of the cluster 1078:pronounced far back in the mouth, and that 4455: 4441: 4433: 4259:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 4000: 3986: 3978: 3822:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 3554:"Against a Proto-Indo-European phoneme *a" 3099:given above, compared to the strong stem * 2704:'nourishment' > (first dental deleted) 2924:('beget, bring forth') in Ancient Greek, 1406:different from the others (the so-called 774:more than a century ago, three series of 80:Learn how and when to remove this message 3306: 3293:The Indo-European ablaut is a system of 2727:Siebs' law is related to the feature of 1430: 1275:. (In Proto-Balto-Slavic this postdated 227: 43:This article includes a list of general 3383: 3157:, "to be") and roots that appear to be 2079:, which can complicate reconstruction. 1805:'father' results by the application of 1736:*ey, *oy, *ēy, *ōy, *ew, *ow, *em, *en, 957:The only certain PIE fricative phoneme 118:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 3615: 3539: 2690:'measure' > (first dental deleted) 2206:) that they are somewhat less useful. 1891:preceded or followed by the laryngeal 1646:in addition to an alternating phoneme 4420:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 4291:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 3936:"Elements of Indo-European Phonology" 3626: 3624: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3598: 3558:Essays in Phonological Reconstruction 3508: 3496: 3392:Markedness in Synchrony and Diachrony 2804:, but these forms appear in Sanskrit 1637: 230: 7: 3520: 2820:, while Greek has metathesis alone. 2668:'seat' > (second dental deleted) 2400:Szemerényi's law deleted word-final 1694:(*H representing any laryngeal) and 1208:), are marked with the cover symbol 1088:up to more definite proposals; e.g. 647:and the voiced aspirated stops with 196:and the voiced and voiced aspirated 4267:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben 3848:"Don Ringe ties up some loose ends" 3552:Alexander Lubotsky (January 1989). 3042:) or without the laryngeal (Gothic 1704:next to the "a-coloring" laryngeal 1263:merged the voiced aspirated series 817:"Plain velars" (or "pure velars"), 737:remains a highly marginal phoneme. 4283:Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon 1988:phonemes existed independently of 1823:'foot' was analogically levelled. 670:are grouped with the cover symbol 49:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 3177:. PIE most likely could not have 2537:When two of the same sonorant or 2488:'sky' (accusative singular) > 1624:, from the same root as the verb 901:languages merged the labiovelars 887:for more support of this theory. 2325:The accent is best preserved in 1925:), and words reconstructed with 1630:('to yoke, harness, join') with 1138:) and represented the reflex of 173:, to reconstruct its phonology. 94: 34: 3722:Uvod u indoeuropsku lingvistiku 3208:could possibly be a root, but * 2987:'inhumation', probably , from * 2361:. In other languages (e.g. the 867:. If the labiovelars were just 3304:, or forms, they could be in: 2113:can often be reconstructed by 1885:could be reduced to the vowel 1680:is now often reconstructed as 1: 4404:Proto-Indo-European mythology 3894:Proto-Indo-European Phonology 3403:See for example Ringe, D.A., 3196:"to mix", which later became 1269:with the plain voiced series 108:Proto-Indo-European phonology 5255:Proto-Indo-European language 4314:Proto-Indo-European homeland 4009:Proto-Indo-European language 3476:10.1515/indo.2013.118.2013.1 2886:('burn' whence also English 2776:. For example, for the noun 2451:ending where possible, e.g. 2075:or contraction of vowels in 1092:writes that realizations of 1052:), marked with cover symbol 987:. It had a voiced allophone 933:with the plain velar series 907:with the plain velar series 139:Proto-Indo-European language 4690:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect 4409:Proto-Indo-European society 3464:Indogermanische Forschungen 2941: 2927: 2907: 2893: 2602:was inserted between them. 2329:and (in the case of nouns) 2265:which were retained in the 2129:Proto-Indo-Iranian language 778:are reconstructed for PIE: 5276: 4164: 4065: 3372:Proto-Indo-European accent 3286: 3228:, "to march, to ascend"). 3117: 3101: 3095: 3030: 3024: 3018: 3004: 2989: 2948: 2934: 2920: 2914: 2900: 2882: 2856: 2828: 2754: 2748: 2736: 2720: 2645: 2634: 2613: 2607: 2466: 2393: 2279:Proto-Indo-European accent 2276: 2261: 2255: 2241: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2173: 2167: 2161: 2155: 2145: 2139: 2127:of a preceding velar (see 2119: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2091: 2067: 2061: 2049: 2013: 2005: 1997: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1960: 1946: 1940: 1927: 1917: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1887: 1881: 1872: 1851: 1833: 1817: 1811: 1799: 1793: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1765: 1753:Proto-Indo-European ablaut 1735: 1729: 1720: 1706: 1700: 1682: 1672: 1662: 1654: 1648: 1642: 1632: 1626: 1620: 1613: 1606: 1600: 1593: 1586: 1577: 1571: 1565: 1555: 1549: 1394: 1371: 1365: 1359: 1353: 1343: 1337: 1331: 1325: 1299: 1293: 1287: 1281: 1271: 1265: 1237: 1226: 1220: 1215:*r̥, *l̥, *m̥, *n̥, *i, *u 1214: 1204: 1198: 1188: 1182: 1164: 1140: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1106: 1100: 1094: 1080: 1070: 1055: 1048: 1042: 1036: 1027: 1009: 1007:appearing initially: such 1003: 996: 989: 959: 941: 935: 929: 915: 909: 903: 879: 873: 843: 837: 831: 819: 810: 804: 798: 792: 764:Centum and satem languages 761: 746: 733: 676: 666: 576: 566: 556: 539: 529: 502: 484: 471: 452: 444: 436: 428: 420: 401: 393: 385: 377: 368: 349: 341: 333: 325: 317: 287: 279: 5260:Indo-European phonologies 4474: 4386:North European hypothesis 3799:Indo-European Linguistics 3439:Indo-European Linguistics 3394:, de Gruyter 1989, p. 99. 3320: 2898:('is being burnt') < * 2506:'cattle' (acc. sg.) > 1690:are now reconstructed as 1535: 1528: 1442: 1437: 1435: 1196:, while labial sonorants 913:, while the palatovelars 708:, *méh₂lom (> Hittite 674:. The phonemic status of 635:Proto-Indo-European roots 517: 493: 461: 302: 271: 247: 242: 237: 232: 124:combining characters and 4309:Indo-European migrations 3791:. 43–44 No.1-2: 169–184. 3367:Indo-European sound laws 3341:If a syllable had plain 3120:Proto-Indo-European root 2997:Laryngeal deletion rules 2590:'house' (acc. sg.) > 2073:compensatory lengthening 2052:Indo-European sound laws 1710:. (Though they may have 1297:while the latter became 1266:*bʰ, *dʰ, *ǵʰ, *gʰ, *gʷʰ 1240:Indo-European sound laws 939:, while the labiovelars 218:Indo-European sound laws 212:as having the following 192:, the palatal and plain 4722:Regional North American 4328:Artificial compositions 3826:Oxford University Press 3577:Mayrhofer 1986: 170 ff. 2952:(perfect vs. present) . 2638:'eateth' > Sanskrit 2137:show a merger of short 1587:*y, *w, *r, *l, *m, *n. 208:Proto-Indo-European is 151:Indo-European languages 64:more precise citations. 5156:Dialects and varieties 4717:Received Pronunciation 4557:American Sign Language 4211:(nouns and adjectives) 4075:Glossary of sound laws 3720:Kapović, Mate (2008). 3435:Meier-Brügger, Michael 2932:('had begoten') < * 2530:Avoidance of geminates 2339:Balto-Slavic languages 2302:, with varied between 2249:. Subsequently, Early 1972:However, others, like 1412:Balto-Slavic languages 4414:Indo-European studies 3934:Jost Gippert (2001). 3846:(February 20, 2009). 3789:Suvremena Lingvistika 3416:Kümmel, M.J. (2007), 3118:Further information: 2808:and Ancient Greek as 1410:) in most contexts. 157:descendants, such as 4368:Anatolian hypothesis 4341:The king and the god 3679:Beekes, Robert S. P. 3653:Beekes, Robert S. P. 3289:Indo-European ablaut 2961:'artisan' vs. Greek 2556:, Proto-Slavic *esi. 2439:is reconstructed as 2320:hysterodynamic nouns 2101:into a single vowel 2071:, often triggered a 1291:– the former became 1159:schwa indogermanicum 660:Labials and coronals 5081:Proto-Indo-European 4727:White South African 4377:Outdated theories: 4373:Armenian hypothesis 4363:Schleicher theories 4119:Edgerton's converse 3673:. (Europe). (U.S.). 3407:, AOS 1996, p. 152. 3028:and a "weak" stem * 2694:> Ancient Greek 2580:> Ancient Greek 2526:: *Vh₂m > *Vːm. 2462: 2421:> Ancient Greek 2389: 1837:'sacrifice' (Latin 1636:Some authors (e.g. 1583:sonorant consonants 1563:The surface vowels 1432: 1272:*b, *d, *ǵ, *g, *gʷ 1130:sign *19 stood for 1128:Hieroglyphic Luwian 796:(also transcribed 550:The table uses the 104:Proto-Indo-European 4335:Schleicher's fable 3970:University of Jena 3926:University of Jena 3663:: John Benjamins. 3202:sonority hierarchy 3135:syllabic consonant 2716: 2381:Phonological rules 2359:Germanic languages 2357:variations in the 2335:accentual patterns 2219:Proto-Balto-Slavic 2135:Germanic languages 1604:and dative plural 1578:*r̥, *l̥, *m̥, *n̥ 1431: 1257:Proto-Balto-Slavic 835:(also transcribed 204:Phonemic inventory 5242: 5241: 4732:Standard Canadian 4468:world's languages 4430: 4429: 4358:Kurgan hypothesis 3904:978-0-292-73341-1 3835:978-0-19-928413-9 3769:978-953-150-840-7 3739:978-953-150-847-6 3692:978-90-272-8500-3 3339: 3338: 2946:('begets') < * 1974:Manfred Mayrhofer 1747:Lengthened vowels 1544: 1543: 1349:Bartholomae's law 861:uvular consonants 588:transcription is 582:palatal semivowel 548: 547: 415: 363: 312: 267: 262: 257: 114:rendering support 90: 89: 82: 16:(Redirected from 5267: 5094:Kerkrade dialect 4707:General American 4457: 4450: 4443: 4434: 4167: 4166: 4068: 4067: 4040:Laryngeal theory 4035:Glottalic theory 4030:Centum and satem 4002: 3995: 3988: 3979: 3974: 3965: 3950: 3948: 3939: 3930: 3921: 3912: 3907:. Archived from 3889:Lehmann, Winfred 3877: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3852: 3839: 3818:Ringe, Donald A. 3813: 3792: 3786: 3780:(1–2 May 1997). 3778:Matasović, Ranko 3773: 3748:Matasović, Ranko 3743: 3716: 3704: 3674: 3639: 3628: 3619: 3613: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3587: 3578: 3575: 3569: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3549: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3530: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3431: 3425: 3414: 3408: 3401: 3395: 3388: 3307: 3104: 3103: 3098: 3097: 3033: 3032: 3027: 3026: 3021: 3020: 3007: 3006: 2992: 2991: 2951: 2950: 2944: 2937: 2936: 2930: 2923: 2922: 2918:, and the root * 2917: 2916: 2912:('burns') < * 2910: 2903: 2902: 2896: 2885: 2884: 2872:, perhaps Latin 2859: 2858: 2840:, Ancient Greek 2833: 2832: 2796:and Tocharian A 2757: 2756: 2751: 2750: 2739: 2738: 2680:, Ancient Greek 2648: 2647: 2637: 2636: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2609: 2548:'thou art' > 2396:Szemerényi's law 2390:Szemerényi's law 2367:Celtic languages 2363:Italic languages 2316:acrostatic nouns 2267:Baltic languages 2264: 2263: 2258: 2257: 2244: 2243: 2238: 2237: 2232: 2231: 2226: 2225: 2200:Celtic languages 2196:Italic languages 2176: 2175: 2170: 2169: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2157: 2148: 2147: 2142: 2141: 2122: 2121: 2112: 2111: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2099: 2094: 2093: 2070: 2069: 2064: 2063: 2016: 2015: 2008: 2007: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1987: 1986: 1981: 1980: 1963: 1962: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1942: 1930: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1919: 1914: 1913: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1901: 1896: 1895: 1890: 1889: 1884: 1883: 1875: 1874: 1859:, Ancient Greek 1854: 1853: 1841:, Ancient Greek 1836: 1835: 1822: 1821: 1814: 1813: 1807:Szemerényi's law 1804: 1803: 1796: 1795: 1786: 1785: 1780: 1779: 1774: 1773: 1768: 1767: 1757:Szemerényi's law 1738: 1737: 1732: 1731: 1723: 1722: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1702: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1684: 1679: 1675: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1657: 1656: 1651: 1650: 1645: 1644: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1628: 1623: 1622: 1616: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1603: 1602: 1596: 1595: 1589: 1588: 1580: 1579: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1567: 1558: 1557: 1552: 1551: 1433: 1401: 1397: 1396: 1374: 1373: 1368: 1367: 1362: 1361: 1356: 1355: 1346: 1345: 1340: 1339: 1334: 1333: 1328: 1327: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1295: 1290: 1289: 1284: 1283: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1267: 1229: 1228: 1223: 1222: 1217: 1216: 1207: 1206: 1201: 1200: 1191: 1190: 1185: 1184: 1170: 1169: 1143: 1142: 1137: 1133: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1119: 1115: 1114: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1102: 1097: 1096: 1083: 1082: 1073: 1072: 1058: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1045: 1044: 1039: 1038: 1030:Laryngeal theory 1012: 1011: 1006: 1005: 999: 998: 992: 991: 986: 978: 970: 962: 961: 944: 943: 938: 937: 932: 931: 918: 917: 912: 911: 906: 905: 882: 881: 876: 875: 866: 858: 846: 845: 840: 839: 834: 833: 822: 821: 813: 812: 807: 806: 801: 800: 795: 794: 749: 748: 736: 735: 716:, Ancient Greek 692:, Ancient Greek 679: 678: 669: 668: 639:glottalic theory 627:voiced aspirated 617:descriptions of 603: 595: 579: 578: 574:. The consonant 569: 568: 559: 558: 542: 541: 532: 531: 505: 504: 489: 488: 474: 473: 455: 454: 447: 446: 439: 438: 431: 430: 423: 422: 411: 404: 403: 396: 395: 388: 387: 380: 379: 371: 370: 359: 352: 351: 344: 343: 336: 335: 328: 327: 320: 319: 308: 290: 289: 282: 281: 265: 260: 255: 228: 188:, the so-called 120: instead of 98: 97: 85: 78: 74: 71: 65: 60:this article by 51:inline citations 38: 37: 30: 21: 5275: 5274: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5265: 5264: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5238: 5167: 5121:Scottish Gaelic 4974: 4818:Standard Modern 4758: 4565:Modern Standard 4525: 4470: 4461: 4431: 4426: 4392: 4346: 4323: 4297: 4246: 4202:Parts of speech 4197: 4141: 4011: 4006: 3963: 3959: 3946: 3942: 3933: 3919: 3915: 3905: 3887: 3884: 3882:Further reading 3870:Vennemann, Theo 3868: 3859: 3857: 3850: 3842: 3836: 3816: 3810: 3795: 3784: 3776: 3770: 3760:Matica hrvatska 3754:(in Croatian). 3746: 3740: 3730:Matica hrvatska 3724:(in Croatian). 3719: 3707: 3693: 3677: 3671: 3651: 3648: 3643: 3642: 3629: 3622: 3614: 3605: 3597: 3593: 3589:Fortson 2009:65 3588: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3562: 3560: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3538: 3534: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3461: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3441:. p. 107. 3433: 3432: 3428: 3415: 3411: 3402: 3398: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3363: 3291: 3285: 3261: 3254:ent-, *-went-). 3234: 3149:- are actually 3127: 3122: 3116: 2999: 2890:) in Sanskrit, 2770: 2725: 2719: 2566:> Old Irish 2532: 2471: 2465: 2398: 2392: 2383: 2283:PIE had a free 2281: 2275: 2054: 2048: 2010:("father"), or 1829: 1749: 1429: 1390:Grassmann's law 1321:Grassmann's law 1242: 1236: 1177: 1134:(distinct from 1032: 1026: 971:to palatalized 955: 847:or stands for 766: 760: 662: 610: 226: 206: 141:(PIE) has been 131: 130: 129: 112:Without proper 99: 95: 86: 75: 69: 66: 56:Please help to 55: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5273: 5271: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5247: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5175: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5159: 5158: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5126:Serbo-Croatian 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5091: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4982: 4980: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4961: 4960: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4797: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4777: 4772: 4766: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4757: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4745: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4658: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4593: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4533: 4531: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4523: 4522: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4486: 4481: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4462: 4460: 4459: 4452: 4445: 4437: 4428: 4427: 4425: 4424: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4400: 4398: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4389: 4388: 4383: 4381:Beech argument 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4354: 4352: 4348: 4347: 4345: 4344: 4337: 4331: 4329: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4321: 4319:Salmon problem 4316: 4311: 4305: 4303: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4295: 4287: 4279: 4271: 4263: 4254: 4252: 4248: 4247: 4245: 4244: 4239: 4238: 4237: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4205: 4203: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4195: 4190: 4188:Thematic vowel 4185: 4180: 4175: 4173:Narten present 4170: 4160: 4155: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4139: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4060: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4021: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4007: 4005: 4004: 3997: 3990: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3957: 3951: 3940: 3931: 3913: 3911:on 2006-08-15. 3903: 3883: 3880: 3879: 3878: 3866: 3840: 3834: 3814: 3808: 3793: 3774: 3768: 3744: 3738: 3717: 3709:Brugmann, Karl 3705: 3691: 3675: 3669: 3647: 3644: 3641: 3640: 3620: 3603: 3591: 3579: 3570: 3544: 3532: 3513: 3501: 3489: 3470:(2013): 1–22. 3454: 3447: 3426: 3409: 3396: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3375: 3374: 3369: 3362: 3359: 3337: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3328: 3325: 3322: 3318: 3317: 3314: 3311: 3287:Main article: 3284: 3281: 3260: 3257: 3233: 3230: 3141:or laryngeal ( 3126: 3123: 3115: 3112: 3107: 3106: 3090: 3081:' plows', not 3067: 2998: 2995: 2954: 2953: 2878: 2853: 2784:, Hittite has 2769: 2768:Thorn clusters 2766: 2765: 2764: 2758:> Sanskrit 2721:Main article: 2718: 2715: 2714: 2713: 2708:> Sanskrit 2699: 2685: 2659: 2658: 2653:, but Avestan 2649:> Sanskrit 2642: 2623: 2622: 2611:'eateth' > 2596: 2595: 2585: 2571: 2557: 2552:> Sanskrit 2531: 2528: 2516: 2515: 2510:> Sanskrit 2501: 2492:> Sanskrit 2467:Main article: 2464: 2461: 2433: 2432: 2415:'father' > 2394:Main article: 2391: 2388: 2382: 2379: 2351:Serbo-Croatian 2327:Vedic Sanskrit 2277:Main article: 2274: 2271: 2184:Evidence from 2151:Proto-Germanic 2125:palatalization 2115:Brugmann's law 2050:Main article: 2047: 2044: 1912:*e, *o, *ē, *ō 1855:'left' (Latin 1828: 1825: 1748: 1745: 1730:*e, *o, *ē, *ō 1668:/aː/,/iː/,/uː/ 1618:('yoke') with 1542: 1541: 1534: 1527: 1521: 1520: 1514: 1508: 1502: 1496: 1490: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1478: 1471: 1465: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1453: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1428: 1425: 1421:Vedic Sanskrit 1377: 1376: 1318: 1307:Proto-Germanic 1304: 1238:Main article: 1235: 1232: 1183:*r, *l, *n, *y 1176: 1173: 1074:represented a 1028:Main article: 1025: 1022: 954: 951: 942:*kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ 904:*kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ 853: 852: 841:). The raised 832:*kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ 824: 815: 805:*k̑, *g̑, *g̑ʰ 799:*k', *g', *g'ʰ 786:" (or simply " 762:Main article: 759: 756: 729: 728: 721: 661: 658: 609: 606: 546: 545: 543: 535: 533: 525: 523: 521: 515: 514: 512: 510: 508: 506: 499: 497: 491: 490: 481: 479: 477: 475: 467: 465: 459: 458: 456: 448: 440: 432: 424: 416: 408: 407: 405: 397: 389: 381: 373: 364: 356: 355: 353: 345: 337: 329: 321: 313: 306: 300: 299: 297: 295: 293: 291: 283: 275: 269: 268: 263: 258: 252: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 225: 222: 205: 202: 116:, you may see 100: 93: 92: 91: 88: 87: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5272: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5176: 5174: 5170: 5164: 5161: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4981: 4977: 4971: 4970:Luxembourgish 4968: 4966: 4963: 4959: 4958:Maastrichtian 4956: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4761: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4699: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4682: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4484:Orthographies 4482: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4458: 4453: 4451: 4446: 4444: 4439: 4438: 4435: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4378: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4343: 4342: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4326: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4294: 4292: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4240: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4210: 4207: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4161: 4159: 4158:Caland system 4156: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4120: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4085:Bartholomae's 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4053: 4052: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4003: 3998: 3996: 3991: 3989: 3984: 3983: 3980: 3972: 3971: 3962: 3958: 3955: 3952: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3927: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3856: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3809:3-11-017433-2 3805: 3801: 3800: 3794: 3790: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3670:90-272-2150-2 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3649: 3645: 3637: 3633: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3533: 3528: 3522: 3517: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3455: 3450: 3448:3-11-017433-2 3444: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3413: 3410: 3406: 3400: 3397: 3393: 3390:Tomic, O.M., 3387: 3384: 3377: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3298: 3296: 3290: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3258: 3256: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3121: 3113: 3111: 3091: 3088: 3087:Pinault's law 3084: 3080: 3076: 3073:' says', not 3072: 3068: 3065: 3062:'socket', OE 3061: 3057: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3049: 3046:, Lithuanian 3045: 3041: 3037: 3013: 3011: 2996: 2994: 2986: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2945: 2943: 2931: 2929: 2911: 2909: 2897: 2895: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2876: 2871: 2870: 2865: 2864: 2854: 2851: 2850: 2845: 2844: 2839: 2838: 2831: 2826: 2825: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2767: 2763: 2762: 2745: 2744: 2734: 2733: 2732: 2730: 2724: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2700: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2686: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2664: 2663: 2662: 2656: 2652: 2643: 2641: 2632: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2620: 2617:> Hittite 2605: 2604: 2603: 2601: 2593: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2572: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2542: 2540: 2535: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2522:before final 2521: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2484: 2483: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2470: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2430: 2426: 2425: 2420: 2419: 2414: 2411: 2410: 2409: 2407: 2403: 2397: 2387: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2331:Ancient Greek 2328: 2323: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2300:mobile accent 2297: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2280: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2252: 2248: 2220: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2153:*a) and long 2152: 2136: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2116: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2078: 2074: 2058: 2057:Ancient Greek 2053: 2045: 2043: 2042:, "behind"). 2041: 2037: 2034:, "father"), 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2009: 2001: 1976:, argue that 1975: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1956: 1953: 1952:Proto-Semitic 1938: 1934: 1877: 1869: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1808: 1802: 1788: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1725: 1717: 1713: 1673:*h₁, *h₂, *h₃ 1658: 1639: 1617: 1597: 1584: 1561: 1539: 1532: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1519: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1501: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1445: 1440: 1434: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1408:triple reflex 1403: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1350: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1305: 1278: 1262: 1261:Proto-Iranian 1258: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1241: 1233: 1231: 1211: 1195: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1161: 1160: 1154: 1152: 1147: 1129: 1091: 1090:Meier-Brügger 1087: 1077: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1043:*ə₁, *ə₂, *ə₃ 1037:*h₁, *h₂, *h₃ 1034:The phonemes 1031: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1000: 984: 976: 968: 952: 950: 948: 947:boukólos rule 925: 922: 900: 895: 893: 888: 886: 870: 862: 850: 849:labialization 828: 825: 816: 811:*k̂, *ĝ, *ĝʰ) 789: 785: 781: 780: 779: 777: 773: 772: 765: 757: 755: 753: 743: 738: 731:At best, PIE 726: 722: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 686: 685: 682: 673: 659: 657: 654: 650: 646: 645: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 607: 605: 601: 593: 587: 583: 573: 572:labialization 564:, and raised 563: 553: 544: 536: 534: 526: 524: 522: 520: 516: 513: 511: 509: 507: 500: 498: 496: 492: 487: 486:*h₁, *h₂, *h₃ 482: 480: 478: 476: 468: 466: 464: 460: 457: 449: 441: 433: 425: 417: 414: 410: 409: 406: 398: 390: 382: 374: 365: 362: 358: 357: 354: 346: 338: 330: 322: 314: 311: 307: 305: 301: 298: 296: 294: 292: 284: 276: 274: 270: 264: 259: 254: 253: 250: 245: 240: 235: 229: 223: 221: 219: 215: 211: 210:reconstructed 203: 201: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 174: 172: 168: 167:Ancient Greek 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 143:reconstructed 140: 136: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 109: 105: 84: 81: 73: 63: 59: 53: 52: 46: 41: 32: 31: 19: 18:Thorn cluster 5224:West Frisian 5080: 5011:Massachusett 4509:Prepositions 4478: 4418: 4339: 4289: 4281: 4273: 4265: 4257: 4251:Main sources 4168:-conjugation 4130:Szemerényi's 4090:Fortunatov's 4063: 4055: 4016: 3967: 3923: 3909:the original 3893: 3873: 3858:. Retrieved 3855:Language Log 3854: 3821: 3798: 3788: 3751: 3721: 3712: 3682: 3656: 3646:Bibliography 3635: 3631: 3594: 3573: 3561:. Retrieved 3557: 3547: 3535: 3516: 3504: 3499::9–10, 15–17 3492: 3467: 3463: 3457: 3438: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3404: 3399: 3391: 3386: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3340: 3301: 3299: 3292: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3262: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3235: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3130: 3128: 3114:Phonotactics 3108: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3063: 3059: 3052: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3014: 3009: 3000: 2984: 2975: 2967:interdentals 2962: 2958: 2955: 2939: 2925: 2905: 2891: 2887: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2759: 2741: 2726: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2672:> Gothic 2669: 2665: 2660: 2654: 2650: 2639: 2626: 2624: 2618: 2599: 2597: 2591: 2587: 2581: 2577: 2576:'dawn' > 2573: 2567: 2563: 2562:'gift' > 2559: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2538: 2536: 2533: 2523: 2519: 2517: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2474: 2472: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2443:rather than 2440: 2436: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2412: 2405: 2401: 2399: 2384: 2371:Modern Greek 2355:Verner's law 2324: 2319: 2315: 2312:Narten stems 2311: 2307: 2304:strong forms 2303: 2299: 2296:fixed accent 2295: 2293: 2285:pitch accent 2282: 2251:Proto-Slavic 2247:Winter's law 2216: 2194: 2183: 2133: 2081: 2055: 2039: 2031: 2026:, "cloud"), 2023: 1971: 1937:interjection 1878: 1867: 1860: 1856: 1852:*ay: *laywos 1846: 1845:, Old Irish 1842: 1838: 1830: 1789: 1750: 1741: 1726: 1712:phonetically 1711: 1659: 1638:Ringe (2006) 1562: 1545: 1407: 1404: 1382:Verner's law 1378: 1315:Verner's law 1277:Winter's law 1249:Proto-Celtic 1243: 1209: 1193: 1178: 1157: 1155: 1146:Balto-Slavic 1086:lip-rounding 1066: 1061: 1053: 1033: 1019: 994: 956: 926: 896: 889: 854: 784:Palatovelars 769: 767: 751: 739: 730: 724: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 683: 671: 663: 653:Winter's law 649:plain voiced 648: 642: 626: 622: 618: 611: 549: 207: 175: 132: 107: 101: 76: 67: 48: 4954:Limburgish 4835:Greenlandic 4712:New Zealand 4645:Northern Wu 4499:Determiners 4479:Phonologies 4464:Phonologies 4178:Nasal infix 4095:Grassmann's 4080:Brugmann's 3860:6 September 3616:Beekes 2011 3540:Beekes 1995 3102:dʰugh̥₂tér- 3038:, Sanskrit 3025:dʰugh̥₂tér- 3019:dʰugh̥₂tér- 2990:h₁en dʰǵʰōm 2866:, Sanskrit 2846:, Sanskrit 2780:, genitive 2774:assibilates 2755:*sp(ʰ)r̥Hg- 2740:> Latin 2723:Siebs's law 2646:*bʰudʰ-to-s 2574:*h₂éws-os-s 2469:Stang's law 2463:Stang's law 2427:, Sanskrit 2002:("white"), 1761:Stang's law 1416:Old Avestan 1311:Grimm's law 936:*k, *g, *gʰ 930:*ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ 916:*ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ 910:*k, *g, *gʰ 827:Labiovelars 820:*k, *g, *gʰ 793:*ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ 747:*t, *d, *dʰ 667:*p, *b, *bʰ 644:glottalized 608:Stop series 560:stands for 128:characters. 62:introducing 5249:Categories 5214:Vietnamese 5085:Ripuarian 5076:Portuguese 4986:Macedonian 4965:Lithuanian 4875:Hindustani 4702:Australian 4655:Historical 4602:Belarusian 4494:Adjectives 4242:Vocabulary 4146:Morphology 4066:*kʷetwóres 4050:Sound laws 3844:Ringe, Don 3630:Note that 3599:Ringe 2009 3521:Byrd (2015 3509:Ringe 2006 3497:Ringe 2006 3187:disyllabic 3005:dʰugh₂tér- 2978:metathesis 2915:dʰgʷʰ-éh₁- 2857:*dʰgʷʰítis 2782:*dʰǵʰ-m-és 2717:Siebs' law 2702:*h₁éd-tro- 2347:Lithuanian 2308:weak forms 1933:*bʰardʰéh₂ 1550:*e, *o, *ē 1338:dʰi-dʰeh₁- 1309:underwent 1084:exhibited 1024:Laryngeals 1013:is called 953:Fricatives 869:labialized 838:*k, *g, *g 562:aspiration 519:Semivowels 463:Fricatives 224:Consonants 190:laryngeals 70:March 2009 45:references 5204:Ukrainian 5111:Sardinian 5089:Colognian 5046:Old Saxon 5031:Norwegian 4996:Maldivian 4940:Latgalian 4885:Icelandic 4880:Hungarian 4868:Samaritan 4749:Esperanto 4635:Cantonese 4612:Bulgarian 4580:Levantine 4552:Afrikaans 4220:Particles 4115:Sievers's 4105:Pinault's 4100:Osthoff's 4017:Phonology 3701:767736170 3661:Amsterdam 3484:171055457 3378:Citations 3246:*-tuh₂t-) 3131:(C)CVC(C) 2928:tétoke(n) 2901:dʰégʷʰ-e- 2830:*h₂ŕ̥tḱos 2778:*dʰéǵʰ-ōm 2761:sphūrjati 2749:*sbʰr̥Hg- 2688:*méd-tro- 2666:*sed-tlo- 2413:*ph₂tér-s 2375:Icelandic 2190:Tocharian 2186:Anatolian 1957:> PIE 1834:*a: *dap- 1763:) vowels 1743:Hittite. 1733:(such as 1716:allophone 1344:di-dʰeh₁- 1175:Sonorants 1076:fricative 1062:laryngeal 744:, stops: 700:in Latin 619:voiceless 413:aspirated 310:voiceless 249:Laryngeal 147:linguists 135:phonology 5101:Romanian 4910:Japanese 4863:Tiberian 4858:Biblical 4845:Hawaiian 4840:Gujarati 4803:Standard 4795:Galician 4783:Parisian 4754:Estonian 4685:Standard 4630:Mandarin 4626:Chinese 4590:Tunisian 4585:Moroccan 4570:Egyptian 4542:Acehnese 4514:Pronouns 4489:Grammars 4397:See also 4351:Theories 4225:Pronouns 4215:Numerals 4209:Nominals 4056:boukólos 4045:s-mobile 3891:(1952). 3820:(2006). 3750:(2008). 3711:(1897). 3681:(2011). 3655:(1995). 3563:March 1, 3437:(2003). 3361:See also 3295:apophony 3252:(e.g. *- 3232:Suffixes 3226:*steygʰ- 3204:, thus * 3165:- (e.g. 3153:- (e.g. 3036:thugátēr 2985:īnzagan- 2949:tí-tḱ-e- 2863:phthísis 2737:*bʰr̥Hg- 2729:s-mobile 2706:*h₁etro- 2676:, Latin 2635:*h₁ed-ti 2614:*h₁etsti 2608:*h₁ed-ti 2578:*h₂éwsōs 2560:*ném-mn̥ 2546:*h₁és-si 2496:, Latin 2221:, short 2212:Armenian 2208:Albanian 2083:Sanskrit 2046:Reflexes 2032:at-ta-aš 2024:al-pa-aš 1372:bud-dʰo- 1366:budʰ-to- 1253:Albanian 1234:Reflexes 1015:s-mobile 921:sibilant 788:palatals 712:, Latin 631:Sanskrit 615:phonetic 596:and not 214:phonemes 182:phonetic 178:phonemes 163:Sanskrit 155:attested 5229:Yiddish 5194:Turkish 5179:Tagalog 5163:Swedish 5151:Spanish 5136:Slovene 5106:Russian 5066:Persian 5036:Occitan 5016:Medumba 5006:Marathi 4950:Latvian 4930:Kurdish 4920:Konkani 4905:Italian 4890:Ingrian 4849:Hebrew 4823:Ancient 4808:Bernese 4799:German 4779:French 4775:Finnish 4770:Faroese 4697:English 4667:Cornish 4662:Chukchi 4640:Hokkien 4622:Catalan 4617:Burmese 4607:Bengali 4597:Avestan 4561:Arabic 4466:of the 4302:Origins 4135:Weise's 4125:Stang's 4110:Siebs's 3265:(C)(V)C 3259:Endings 3194:*ḱerh₂- 3167:*steh₂- 3096:dʰugtr- 3085:). See 3044:dauhtar 3031:dʰugtr- 3010:daúhtar 2935:té-tok- 2908:kṣā́yat 2692:*métro- 2670:*sedlo- 2588:*dóm-m̥ 2504:*gʷow-m 2486:*dyéw-m 2457:*dyḗw-s 2418:*ph₂tḗr 2343:Latvian 2337:of the 2253:merged 2123:by its 2087:Avestan 2040:a-ap-pa 1998:*albʰós 1967:aurochs 1961:*táwros 1801:*ph₂tḗr 1739:etc.). 1607:*drúmos 1398:become 1363:, e.g. 1335:, e.g. 1162:symbol 1151:Latvian 1104:= and 997:*nisdós 919:became 880:*, *, * 874:*, *, * 863:, i.e. 758:Dorsals 696:) with 694:beltíōn 584:(whose 580:is the 495:Liquids 256:palatal 239:Coronal 159:Hittite 137:of the 122:Unicode 58:improve 5209:Uyghur 5141:Somali 5131:Slovak 5071:Polish 5061:Pashto 5056:Ottawa 5041:Ojibwe 5026:Nepali 5021:Navajo 4935:Kyrgyz 4925:Korean 4853:Modern 4814:Greek 4788:Quebec 4742:Middle 4681:Dutch 4677:Danish 4575:Hejazi 4547:Adyghe 4537:Abkhaz 4293:(IEED) 4277:(LIPP) 4235:copula 4193:Vṛddhi 4153:Ablaut 4025:Accent 3901: 3832: 3806: 3766: 3756:Zagreb 3736: 3726:Zagreb 3699: 3689: 3667: 3482: 3445: 3313:Short 3302:grades 3283:Ablaut 3224:(e.g. 3161:- are 3155:*h₁es- 3075:*eréei 3060:tórmos 3048:duktė̃ 3040:duhitṛ 2982:Luwian 2963:téktōn 2959:tákṣan 2942:tíktei 2894:dáhati 2883:dʰégʷʰ 2869:kṣítis 2849:ṛ́kṣas 2843:árktos 2810:khthṓn 2790:tagnās 2746:, but 2743:fragor 2696:métron 2682:sedlon 2651:buddhá 2564:*némn̥ 2550:*h₁ési 2453:*pṓd-s 2441:-mén-s 2341:(e.g. 2289:ablaut 2273:Accent 2179:Gothic 2092:*e, *a 2089:merge 2077:hiatus 2062:*s, *w 2036:𒀀𒀊𒉺 2028:𒀜𒋫𒀸 2020:𒀠𒉺𒀸 1955:*θawru 1950:(like 1857:laevus 1843:dapánē 1692:*iH*uH 1627:*yewg- 1614:*yugóm 1601:*dréws 1460:front 1427:Vowels 1386:Gothic 1347:) and 1199:*m, *w 776:velars 742:dental 725:píbati 710:maḫla- 702:melior 623:voiced 503:*r, *l 361:voiced 273:Nasals 266:labial 234:Labial 194:velars 186:vowels 169:, and 47:, but 5219:Welsh 5199:Ubykh 5184:Tamil 5146:Sotho 5116:Scots 5051:Oromo 5001:Māori 4991:Malay 4945:Latin 4915:Kiowa 4900:Irish 4895:Inuit 4828:Koine 4672:Czech 4519:Verbs 4504:Nouns 4422:(EIE) 4285:(NIL) 4269:(LIV) 4261:(IEW) 4230:Verbs 3964:(PDF) 3947:(PDF) 3920:(PDF) 3851:(PDF) 3785:(PDF) 3511::9–10 3480:S2CID 3316:Long 3310:Zero 3242:-CVC- 3218:gʰet- 3214:gerd- 3210:ḱetr- 3206:ḱret- 3190:roots 3137:. An 3125:Roots 3083:*ária 3071:eírei 3064:þearm 2971:thorn 2875:sitis 2837:ursus 2806:kṣā́ḥ 2802:tkan- 2794:dagān 2786:tēkan 2752:> 2678:sella 2674:sitls 2655:busta 2508:*gʷṓm 2494:dyā́m 2490:*dyḗm 2437:-men- 2429:pitā́ 2424:patḗr 2204:Latin 2006:*átta 1969:')). 1861:laiós 1819:*pṓds 1688:*ī,*ū 1594:*dóru 1469:Close 1463:back 1451:front 1439:short 1369:> 1357:> 1341:> 1329:> 1326:Tʰ-Tʰ 985:] 981:[ 977:] 973:[ 969:] 965:[ 899:satem 865:*,*,* 857:*,*,* 718:mēlon 714:mālum 706:apple 690:bálam 602:] 598:[ 594:] 590:[ 304:Stops 261:plain 244:Velar 198:stops 171:Latin 126:Latin 5234:Zuni 5189:Taos 4183:Root 4070:rule 4058:rule 3899:ISBN 3862:2010 3830:ISBN 3804:ISBN 3764:ISBN 3734:ISBN 3697:OCLC 3687:ISBN 3665:ISBN 3634:and 3618::171 3565:2018 3542::139 3527:help 3443:ISBN 3277:*-mi 3273:óHom 3269:(C)V 3267:or - 3238:-VC- 3198:kera 3183:*Hr- 3175:*h₁- 3079:ãria 2938:and 2904:and 2798:tkaṃ 2710:átra 2640:átti 2619:ezzi 2592:*dṓm 2568:neim 2512:gā́m 2498:diem 2445:-mḗn 2365:and 2349:and 2259:and 2227:and 2210:and 2198:and 2188:and 2171:and 2159:and 2149:(to 2143:and 2117:and 2095:and 2085:and 2065:and 2014:*apó 1982:and 1941:*way 1868:lěvъ 1847:dúas 1839:daps 1781:and 1769:and 1707:*h₂e 1683:*eh₂ 1569:and 1553:and 1525:Open 1456:back 1444:long 1332:T-Tʰ 1313:and 1285:and 1282:*gʷʰ 1259:and 1224:and 1202:(or 1186:(or 1156:The 1132:/ʔa/ 1098:= , 1046:and 1040:(or 897:The 790:"), 698:mel- 664:PIE 625:and 570:for 133:The 5172:T–Z 4979:M–S 4763:F–L 4737:Old 4650:Old 4530:A–E 4165:h₂e 3523::8) 3472:doi 3468:118 3279:). 3240:or 3222:*s- 3179:*r- 3171:VC- 3163:CVH 3151:HVC 3139:*s- 2921:teḱ 2888:day 2816:to 2814:*kt 2582:ēṓs 2554:asi 2404:or 2262:*ā, 2239:or 2217:In 2131:). 1991:*h₂ 1923:/q/ 1918:*k, 1900:*a, 1894:*h₂ 1865:OCS 1827:/a/ 1815:in 1797:in 1784:*ō, 1721:*e, 1718:of 1663:*a, 1655:*u. 1633:*w. 1556:*ō. 1494:Mid 1400:/f/ 1395:*gʰ 1360:TTʰ 1354:TʰT 1294:*gw 1288:*gʷ 1205:*u̯ 1189:*i̯ 1141:*h₁ 1136:/a/ 1123:*h₃ 1118:*h₂ 1113:*h₁ 1107:*h₃ 1101:*h₂ 1095:*h₁ 1081:*h₃ 1071:*h₂ 1049:/ə/ 979:or 808:or 802:or 604:). 586:IPA 453:gʷʰ 145:by 5251:: 3966:. 3922:. 3853:. 3828:. 3824:. 3787:. 3762:. 3758:: 3732:. 3728:: 3695:. 3659:. 3636:*i 3632:*u 3623:^ 3606:^ 3601::9 3582:^ 3556:. 3478:. 3466:. 3355:*ō 3351:*o 3347:*ē 3343:*e 3335:ō 3332:o 3327:ē 3324:e 3321:∅ 3250:-t 3159:CV 3147:VC 2818:kṣ 2800:, 2792:, 2788:, 2600:*s 2539:*s 2520:h₂ 2459:. 2455:, 2449:-s 2406:h₂ 2345:, 2256:*ō 2242:*a 2236:*o 2230:*a 2224:*o 2174:*i 2168:*e 2162:*ō 2156:*ā 2146:*o 2140:*a 2120:*e 2110:*o 2104:*a 2098:*o 2068:*y 1985:*ā 1979:*a 1965:(' 1947:*a 1928:*a 1906:*a 1888:*e 1882:*a 1873:*a 1863:, 1812:*o 1794:*e 1778:*ē 1772:*o 1766:*e 1759:, 1701:*e 1696:*a 1686:; 1678:*ā 1649:*y 1643:*i 1621:*u 1572:*u 1566:*i 1540:? 1533:? 1484:) 1480:(* 1477:) 1473:(* 1303:.) 1300:*b 1255:, 1251:, 1227:*u 1221:*i 1153:. 1017:. 1010:*s 1004:*s 990:*z 960:*s 949:. 894:. 829:, 754:. 734:*b 720:). 677:*b 621:, 577:*y 445:gʰ 437:ǵʰ 429:dʰ 421:bʰ 402:gʷ 372:) 366:(* 350:kʷ 200:. 165:, 161:, 110:). 4456:e 4449:t 4442:v 4121:) 4117:( 4001:e 3994:t 3987:v 3973:. 3949:. 3938:. 3929:. 3864:. 3838:. 3812:. 3772:. 3742:. 3703:. 3567:. 3529:) 3486:. 3474:: 3451:. 3424:. 3143:H 3105:. 3093:* 3089:. 3016:* 2852:. 2712:. 2698:. 2684:. 2657:. 2627:z 2621:. 2594:. 2584:. 2570:. 2524:m 2514:. 2500:. 2479:m 2475:w 2431:. 2402:s 2038:( 2030:( 2022:( 1538:ā 1536:* 1531:a 1529:* 1518:ō 1516:* 1512:ē 1510:* 1506:o 1504:* 1500:e 1498:* 1482:u 1475:i 1351:( 1323:( 1210:M 1194:R 1167:ə 1165:* 1056:H 983:ʃ 975:ɕ 967:θ 844:ʷ 823:. 814:. 782:" 752:T 727:. 672:P 600:y 592:j 567:ʷ 557:ʰ 540:w 537:* 530:y 527:* 472:s 469:* 450:* 442:* 434:* 426:* 418:* 399:* 394:g 391:* 386:ǵ 383:* 378:d 375:* 369:b 347:* 342:k 339:* 334:ḱ 331:* 326:t 323:* 318:p 315:* 288:n 285:* 280:m 277:* 83:) 77:( 72:) 68:( 54:. 20:)

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