680:
298:
315:
31:
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595:, in particular, are distinct from thorns, spines, and prickles in that they are much smaller (often microscopic) outgrowths of epidermal tissue, and they are less rigid and more hair-like in appearance; they typically consist of just a few cells of the outermost layer of epidermis, whereas prickles may include cortex tissue. Trichomes are often effective defenses against small insect herbivores; thorns, spines, and prickles are usually only effective against larger herbivores like birds and mammals.
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767:(Rubiaceae), these probably give protection to ants which inhabit chambers within the tuber as they wander over the plant's surface. (Jackson 1986 and references therein). In many respects, the pattern of spine formation is similar to that which occurs in the development of thorns from lateral shoots. (Jackson 1986 and references therein).
257:
731:), there are spiny roots; some authors prefer to term these "root spines" if the length of the root is less than 10x the thickness and "spine roots" if the length is more than 10x the thickness. Adventitious spiny roots have also been described on the trunks of dicotyledonous trees from tropical Africa (e.g. Euphorbiaceae, as in
706:
Lateral roots on these two types of roots, as well as those on the stilt roots on this species, also become spinous. Some authors believe that some of these short spiny laterals have a ventilating function so they are 'pneumorhizae'. Short spiny laterals that may have a ventilating function may also be found on roots of
705:
grow downwards to a length of 6–12 cm, then stop growing and transform into a spine. The anatomy of crown roots on this species (roots among the bases of the living fronds) also alters during their life. They initially grow upwards and then turn down and finally they, too, become spinous.
249:
675:
is a term describing plants that bear any sharp structures that deter herbivory. It also can refer to the state of tending to be or become spiny in some sense or degree, as in: "... the division of the
African acacias on the basis of spinescent stipules versus non-spinescent stipules..."
1257:
Satterlee, James W.; Alonso, David; Gramazio, Pietro; Jenike, Katharine M.; He, Jia; Arrones, Andrea; Villanueva, Gloria; Plazas, Mariola; Ramakrishnan, Srividya; Benoit, Matthias; Gentile, Iacopo; Hendelman, Anat; Shohat, Hagai; Fitzgerald, Blaine; Robitaille, Gina M. (2024-08-02).
171:
are limited to defense from physical attacks by herbivores and other animals. In some cases, spines have been shown to shade or insulate the plants that grow them, thereby protecting them from extreme temperatures. For example,
125:(some authors consider them a kind of spine). On a leaf apex, if there is an apical process (generally an extension of the midvein), and if it is especially sharp, stiff, and spine-like, it may be referred to as spinose or as a
297:
1306:
Ross, J. H. "A conspectus of the
African Acacia species." Series: Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa, No. 44 Botanical Research Institute, Dept. of Agricultural Technical Services, Pretoria,
2564:
1141:"Benefits and Constraints on Plant Defense against Herbivores: Spines Influence the Legitimate and Illegitimate Flower Visitors of Yellow Star Thistle, Centaurea solstitialis L. (Asteraceae)"
920:, being strategically planted below windows or around the entire perimeter of a property. They also have been used to protect crops and livestock against marauding animals. Examples include
2569:
343:, or parts of leaves, such as extensions of leaf veins. Some authors prefer not to distinguish spines from thorns because, like thorns, and unlike prickles, they commonly contain
2702:
314:
394:, singular glochidium) – a particular kind of spine of different origin, which are smaller and deciduous with numerous retrose barbs along its length (as found in
1138:
Agrawal, Anurag A.; Rudgers, Jennifer A.; Botsford, Louis W.; Cutler, David; Gorin, Jessica B.; Lundquist, Carolyn J.; Spitzer, Brian W.; Swann, Alisa L. (2000).
410:
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380:), all of which are examples of spines developing from a part of a leaf containing the petiole, midrib, or a secondary vein. The plants of the
102:(so that they may or may not be branched, they may or may not have leaves, and they may or may not arise from a bud), spines are derived from
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523:, the positioning of prickles appears to be truly random. If not, then by a phyllotaxis so arcane as to give the appearance of randomness.
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191:(2000) found that spines seem to have little effect on specialist pollinators, on which many plants rely in order to reproduce.
1960:
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prickles) do not have vascular bundles inside, so that they can be removed more easily and cleanly than thorns and spines.
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In common language, the terms are used more or less interchangeably, but in botanical terms, thorns are derived from
749:; Ixonanthaceae, Sterculiaceae), and may also be found protecting perennating organs such as tubers and corms (e.g.
2426:
787:
Spinose structures occur in a wide variety of ecologies, and their morphology also varies greatly. They occur as:
507:
Prickles are comparable to hairs but can be quite coarse (for example, rose prickles). They are extensions of the
279:
2758:
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519:, for instance, have prickles. While the position of thorns and spines are known positively to be controlled by
30:
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in a mechanical form. For this reason, they are classified as physical or mechanical defenses, as opposed to
779:
in plants growing in sandy environments that provided inadequate resources for fast regeneration of damage.
776:
751:
515:. Technically speaking, many plants commonly thought of as having thorns or spines actually have prickles.
121:
Leaf margins may also have teeth, and if those teeth are sharp, they are called spinose teeth on a spinose
2544:
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544:
129:(again, some authors call them a kind of spine). When the leaf epidermis is covered with very long, stiff
530:
concluded that plants with these types of prickles have been identified as sharing a common gene family.
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745:
708:
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1955:
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spp. -Iridaceae- respectively). Short root spines cover the tuberous base of the epiphytic ant-plant
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238:
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1194:
763:
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thorn, its leaves, nodes, and emergence from an axillary bud demonstrating its nature as a branch.
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tissue (so that they can be found anywhere on the plant and do not have vascular bundles inside).
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There are also spines derived from roots, like the ones on the trunk of the "Root Spine Palms" (
248:
1430:
Judd, Campbell, Kellogg, Stevens, Donoghue. 2007. "Structural and
Biochemical Characters". In:
1032:
Judd, Campbell, Kellogg, Stevens, Donoghue. 2007. "Structural and
Biochemical Characters". In:
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Hard, rigid extensions or modifications of leaves, roots, stems or buds with sharp, stiff ends
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106:(either the entire leaf or some part of the leaf that has vascular bundles inside, like the
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are derived from shoots and leaves respectively, and have vascular bundles inside, whereas
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Pointing or spinose processes can broadly be divided by the presence of vascular tissue:
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Other similar structures are spinose teeth, spinose apical processes, and trichomes.
384:
are particularly well known for their dense covering of spines. Some cacti have also
2662:
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1260:"Convergent evolution of plant prickles by repeated gene co-option over deep time"
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Plants bearing thorns, spines, or prickles are often used as a defense against
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in this case; for some authors a kind of prickle), it may be referred to as a
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Dyer, R. Allen, “The Genera of
Southern African Flowering Plants”, Vol 2.
86:
with sharp, stiff ends, and generally serve the same function: physically
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There can be found also spines or spinose structures derived from roots.
130:
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in the
Americas and in other countries where they have been introduced,
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It has been proposed that thorny structures may have first evolved as a
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The predominant function of thorns, spines, and prickles is deterring
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896:) bear leaves. The thorns of many species are branched (e.g. in
850:
715:
There are also spines that function as pneumorhizae on the palm
560:
516:
208:
103:
75:
71:
1503:
1373:
Anderson, Edward F., The Cactus Family, Pub: Timber Press 2001
2290:
1852:
1191:
Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology
141:; if the trichomes are stinging trichomes, it may be called a
1332:
August
Weismann, John Arthur Thomson, Margaret R. Thomson,
1068:
1066:
1064:
1499:
1432:
Plant
Systematics, a phylogenetic approach, third edition
1402:
Hunter, J. A. (1993) "Hunter" Publisher: Buccaneer Books,
1034:
Plant
Systematics, a phylogenetic approach, third edition
821:
a tiny point at the tip of the leaf (mucronate leaves) (
1321:
Identifying and
Harvesting Edible and Medicinal Plants
1048:
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1044:
1042:
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230:Cactus areoles; shoot (yellow), spines (green) and
184:, glochids insulate the apical meristem in winter.
1139:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
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70:), are hard, rigid extensions or modifications of
526:A study published for peer review to the journal
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998:
996:
994:
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988:
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982:
1515:
1441:, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. 767 pp.
1423:Simpson, M. G. 2010. "Plant Morphology". In:
1233:"Cross-Section Through the Prickle of a Rose"
1210:(illustrated ed.). Struik. p. 184.
1004:Simpson, M. G. 2010. "Plant Morphology". In:
8:
2621:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1055:Sonoran Desert Plants, an Ecological Atlas.
1722:
1522:
1508:
1500:
1291:
1117:. Springer Science & Business Media.
1114:New Root Formation in Plants and Cuttings
2565:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1208:How to Identify Trees in Southern Africa
1193:. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.
978:
597:
532:
406:
325:showing characteristic branched thorns.
275:
1185:
1183:
1075:How to identify trees in South Africa.
195:Definitions and technical distinctions
1427:. Elsevier Academic Press. Chapter 9.
1008:. Elsevier Academic Press. Chapter 9.
936:in the prairie states of the US, and
7:
456:Areoles and spines of the tree-like
839:stipules converted to spines (many
886:Some thorns are hollow and act as
830:leaves fully converted to spines (
350:Spines are variously described as
273:. They may be simple or branched.
88:defending plants against herbivory
25:
2570:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
1448:. Timber Press, Portland. 423 pp.
180:in summer, and in members of the
114:), and prickles are derived from
2733:
2732:
1490:The New Student's Reference Work
1459:
870:urticating (i.e. stinging) hairs
683:"Root spines" on the trunk of a
654:
636:
618:
600:
568:
553:
535:
485:
467:
449:
431:
409:
313:
296:
278:
269:Thorns are modified branches or
252:A spinose tooth in a leaf margin
1425:Plant Systematics, 2nd. edition
1231:Sengbusch, Peter (2003-07-31).
1006:Plant Systematics, 2nd. edition
967:Plant defense against herbivory
542:Raised prickles on the stem of
234:(also spines, green and little)
167:Not all functions of spines or
1:
2769:Hazards of outdoor recreation
2764:Biological defense mechanisms
1111:Jackson, M. B. (2012-12-06).
2611:History of plant systematics
2198:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1057:University of Arizona Press.
878:finely barbed spines called
791:sharpened branches (e.g. in
1146:The Southwestern Naturalist
18:Thorns, spines and prickles
2785:
2427:Alternation of generations
1475:Collier's New Encyclopedia
699:spp.). The trunk roots of
643:Stiff, sharp trichomes in
625:Spinose apical process in
575:Prickles on the leaves of
2728:
2577:Cultivated plant taxonomy
2540:Biological classification
1537:
1446:Tropical Flowering Plants
2437:Evolutionary development
1073:Van Wyk, Van Wyk. 2007.
459:Rhodocactus grandifolius
260:A spinose apical process
68:spinose apical processes
2088:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1276:10.1126/science.ado1663
1206:Van Wyk, Braam (2007).
1195:preview in google books
783:Morphological variation
607:Spinose leaf margin in
495:Mammillaria balsasoides
133:(more correctly called
2703:by author abbreviation
2627:Plant taxonomy systems
2545:Botanical nomenclature
1389:Felson, Marcus (2006)
812:spiky inflorescences (
690:
545:Caesalpinia decapetala
441:Vachellia xanthophloea
422:develop from the leaf
261:
253:
245:
235:
223:
127:pungent apical process
39:
2710:Botanical expeditions
1464:Texts on Wikisource:
752:Dioscorea prehensilis
729:Acanthorhiza aculeata
682:
661:Stinging trichome in
305:Gymnosporia buxifolia
259:
251:
241:
229:
217:
33:
2442:Evolutionary history
2432:Double fertilization
2284:Cellular respiration
1444:Llamas, K. A. 2003.
1334:The Evolution Theory
1053:Turner et al. 2005,
899:Crataegus crus-galli
755:-Dioscoreaceae- and
419:Fouquieria splendens
335:Spines are modified
285:Smooth, featureless
1661:Non-vascular plants
848:prickles on stems (
764:Myrmecodia tuberosa
702:Cryosophila guagara
222:and arise from buds
2166:Surface structures
1961:Flower development
924:hedges in Europe,
905:Carissa macrocarpa
893:Crataegus monogyna
890:; others (e.g. in
740:Bridelia micrantha
709:Iriartea exorrhiza
691:
438:Stipule spines on
262:
254:
246:
242:(A) Thorn or spine
236:
224:
62:(sometimes called
60:spinose structures
40:
2746:
2745:
2385:Herbaceous plants
2211:
2210:
1408:978-1-56849-109-7
1379:978-0-88192-498-5
1189:Bell, A.D. 1997.
1124:978-94-009-4358-2
777:defense mechanism
734:Macaranga barteri
322:Carissa bispinosa
201:thorns and spines
176:spines shade the
58:, and in general
16:(Redirected from
2776:
2759:Plant morphology
2736:
2735:
2715:Individual trees
2390:Secondary growth
2361:Succulent plants
2349:Prostrate shrubs
2232:Apical dominance
2217:Plant physiology
2178:Epicuticular wax
1723:
1716:
1707:Plant morphology
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1391:Crime and Nature
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1235:. Archived from
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1177:
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1129:
1128:
1108:
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1002:
724:Cryosophila nana
718:Euterpe oleracea
658:
640:
622:
604:
587:Other structures
572:
557:
539:
492:Hooked spine of
489:
471:
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317:
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139:hispid vestiture
44:plant morphology
21:
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2582:Citrus taxonomy
2560:Author citation
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2315:
2311:Turgor pressure
2219:
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1976:Floral symmetry
1894:
1886:
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1805:Vascular bundle
1800:Vascular tissue
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1666:Vascular plants
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1627:Plant pathology
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1437:Esau, K. 1965.
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1336:(1904), p. 124.
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1327:
1319:, Evelyn Dean,
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614:
610:Ilex aquifolium
605:
589:
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372:stipular spines
352:petiolar spines
345:vascular tissue
333:
326:
318:
309:
301:
292:
283:
267:
243:
197:
178:apical meristem
154:
143:urent vestiture
96:
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5:
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1470:Thorn (plant)
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1239:on 2008-04-30
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664:Urtica dioica
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64:spinose teeth
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
37:
32:
19:
2663:Horticulture
2653:Floriculture
2555:Correct name
2405:Reproduction
2395:Woody plants
2320:Plant growth
2279:Gas Exchange
2264:Phytomelanin
2197:
2142:Plant embryo
1892:Reproductive
1740:Phragmoplast
1488:
1473:
1445:
1438:
1434:. Chapter 4.
1431:
1424:
1417:Bibliography
1398:
1390:
1385:
1369:
1352:
1346:Bihrmann.com
1341:
1333:
1328:
1320:
1312:
1302:
1267:
1263:
1252:
1241:. Retrieved
1237:the original
1226:
1207:
1201:
1190:
1149:
1145:
1133:
1113:
1074:
1054:
1036:. Chapter 4.
1033:
1005:
937:
934:Osage orange
915:
903:
897:
891:
885:
861:
855:
849:
840:
831:
822:
813:
804:
798:
792:
786:
774:
762:
756:
750:
746:B. pubescens
744:
738:
732:
728:
722:
716:
714:
707:
700:
694:
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671:
662:
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334:
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286:
268:
204:
200:
198:
188:
186:
182:Opuntioideae
166:
155:
147:
142:
138:
126:
120:
97:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
41:
2479:Pollen tube
2474:Pollinators
2464:Pollination
2459:Germination
2274:Respiration
2257:Chlorophyll
2103:Pedicellate
2037:Gametophyte
1956:Aestivation
1907:Antheridium
1902:Archegonium
1750:Plasmodesma
1727:Plant cells
1590:Paleobotany
1585:Ethnobotany
1570:Astrobotany
1317:Steve Brill
942:in Africa.
939:Sansevieria
824:Sansevieria
696:Cryosophila
686:Cryosophila
628:Sansevieria
521:phyllotaxis
479:balsasoides
477:Mammillaria
244:(B) Prickle
218:Thorns are
123:leaf margin
94:Description
2753:Categories
2501:Microspore
2491:Sporangium
2469:Artificial
2157:Sporophyte
2152:Sporophyll
2147:Receptacle
2042:Gynandrium
1912:Androecium
1821:Vegetative
1691:Angiosperm
1686:Gymnosperm
1580:Dendrology
1243:2009-04-27
1152:(1): 1–5.
973:References
912:Human uses
727:(formerly
673:Spinescent
474:Spines of
357:Fouquieria
164:defenses.
36:blackberry
2698:Botanists
2616:Herbarium
2513:Megaspore
2411:Evolution
2354:Subshrubs
2322:and habit
2247:Nutrition
2242:Cellulose
2237:Bulk flow
2220:Materials
2183:Epidermis
2047:Gynoecium
2028:Endosperm
2023:Dispersal
1939:Staminode
1875:Sessility
1863:Cataphyll
1783:Mesophyll
1735:Cell wall
1676:Lycophyte
1656:Bryophyte
1610:Geobotany
1595:Phycology
1393:, p. 288.
1284:0036-8075
1166:0038-4909
930:ocotillos
857:Erythrina
842:Vachellia
815:Tylecodon
806:Crataegus
771:Evolution
593:Trichomes
563:prickles.
513:epidermis
392:glochidia
377:Euphorbia
158:herbivory
131:trichomes
116:epidermis
2738:Category
2658:Forestry
2648:Agronomy
2641:Practice
2592:Cultivar
2587:Cultigen
2447:timeline
2339:Rosettes
2227:Aleurone
2203:Trichome
2120:Perianth
1932:Filament
1790:Meristem
1713:glossary
1575:Bryology
1293:11305333
1270:(6708).
962:Trichome
946:See also
922:hawthorn
918:burglary
880:glochids
689:species.
503:Prickles
424:petioles
387:glochids
341:stipules
232:glochids
205:prickles
187:Agrawal
169:glochids
162:chemical
152:Function
135:bristles
56:prickles
2416:Ecology
2173:Cuticle
2003:Capsule
1993:Anatomy
1944:Tapetum
1868:Petiole
1843:Rhizome
1838:Rhizoid
1765:Tissues
1755:Vacuole
1745:Plastid
1547:Outline
1542:History
1493:. 1914.
1478:. 1921.
1264:Science
1174:3672545
1077:Struik.
957:Glochid
833:Opuntia
794:Carissa
528:Science
401:Opuntia
396:areoles
374:(as in
367:Phoenix
364:(as in
354:(as in
112:stipule
108:petiole
2720:Plants
2623:(IAPT)
2376:Lianas
2344:Shrubs
2296:Starch
2188:Nectar
2108:Raceme
2074:Stigma
2062:Locule
2052:Carpel
2013:Pyrena
1951:Flower
1927:Anther
1922:Stamen
1917:Pollen
1639:groups
1531:Botany
1406:
1377:
1364:, 1976
1360:
1290:
1282:
1214:
1172:
1164:
1121:
952:Areole
926:agaves
800:Citrus
758:Moraea
509:cortex
370:), or
337:leaves
331:Spines
291:thorn.
288:Citrus
265:Thorns
207:(like
189:et al.
104:leaves
100:shoots
72:leaves
54:, and
52:spines
48:thorns
38:branch
2680:Lists
2597:Group
2520:Spore
2454:Flora
2371:Vines
2366:Trees
2329:Habit
2301:Sugar
2193:Stoma
2135:Sepal
2130:Petal
2125:Tepal
2113:Umbel
2098:Bract
2079:Style
2067:Ovule
2057:Ovary
1998:Berry
1988:Fruit
1981:Whorl
1848:Shoot
1646:Algae
1637:Plant
1485:Thorn
1170:JSTOR
721:. In
517:Roses
271:stems
110:or a
82:, or
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