1401:, by surgically removing the thymus from one-day-old mice, and observing the subsequent deficiency in a lymphocyte population, subsequently named T cells after the organ of their origin. Until the discovery of its immunological role, the thymus had been dismissed as a "evolutionary accident", without functional importance. The role the thymus played in ensuring mature T cells tolerated the tissues of the body was uncovered in 1962, with the finding that T cells of a transplanted thymus in mice demonstrated tolerance towards tissues of the donor mouse. B cells and T cells were identified as different types of lymphocytes in 1968, and the fact that T cells required maturation in the thymus was understood. The subtypes of T cells (CD8 and CD4) were identified by 1975. The way that these subclasses of T cells matured – positive selection of cells that functionally bound to MHC receptors – was known by the 1990s. The important role of the AIRE gene, and the role of negative selection in preventing autoreactive T cells from maturing, was understood by 1994.
674:. After the first year of life the amount of T cells produced begins to fall. Fat and connective tissue fills a part of the thymic volume. During involution, the thymus decreases in size and activity. Fat cells are present at birth, but increase in size and number markedly after puberty, invading the gland from the walls between the lobules first, then into the cortex and medulla. This process continues into old age, where whether with a microscope or with the human eye, the thymus may be difficult to detect, although typically weighs 5–15 grams. Additionally, there is an increasing body of evidence showing that age-related thymic involution is found in most, if not all, vertebrate species with a thymus, suggesting that this is an evolutionary process that has been conserved.
54:
1505:
4343:
694:
499:
1490:
484:
944:(AIRE) gene, which stimulates expression of self antigens in the epithelial cells within the medulla of the thymus. Because of defects in this condition, self antigens are not expressed, resulting in T cells that are not conditioned to tolerate tissues of the body, and may treat them as foreign, stimulating an immune response and resulting in autoimmunity. People with APECED develop an autoimmune disease that affects multiple
798:. A T cell that does react will survive and proliferate. A mature T cell expresses only CD4 or CD8, but not both. This depends on the strength of binding between the TCR and MHC class 1 or class 2. A T cell receptor that binds mostly to MHC class I tends to produce a mature "cytotoxic" CD8 positive T cell; a T cell receptor that binds mostly to MHC class II tends to produce a CD4 positive T cell.
4355:
1530:
1015:. It is often associated with thymic hyperplasia or thymoma, with antibodies produced probably because of T cells that develop abnormally. Myasthenia gravis most often develops between young and middle age, causing easy fatiguing of muscle movements. Investigations include demonstrating antibodies (such as against acetylcholine receptors or
740:
on cells of the body. The MHC presents an antigen to the T cell receptor, which becomes active if this matches the specific T cell receptor. In order to be properly functional, a mature T cell needs to be able to bind to the MHC molecule ("positive selection"), and not to react against antigens that
345:
in the upper front part of the chest, stretching upwards towards the neck. In children, the thymus is pinkish-gray, soft, and lobulated on its surfaces. At birth, it is about 4–6 cm long, 2.5–5 cm wide, and about 1 cm thick. It increases in size until puberty, where it may have a size
1336:
Removal of the thymus in infancy results in often fatal immunodeficiency, because functional T cells have not developed. In older children and adults, which have a functioning lymphatic system with mature T cells also situated in other lymphoid organs, the effect is reduced, but includes failure to
991:
can occur in people with thymoma. In this condition, the T cells developed in the thymus are directed against the tissues of the body. This is because the malignant thymus is incapable of appropriately educating developing thymocytes to eliminate self-reactive T cells. The condition is virtually
1110:
classification also exists but is not used as part of standard clinical practice. Benign tumours confined to the thymus are most common; followed by locally invasive tumours, and then by carcinomas. There is variation in reporting, with some sources reporting malignant tumours as more common.
781:
genes. This process is error-prone, and some thymocytes fail to make functional T-cell receptors, whereas other thymocytes make T-cell receptors that are autoreactive. If a functional T cell receptor is formed, the thymocyte will begin to express simultaneously the cell surface proteins
4375:
793:
The survival and nature of the T cell then depends on its interaction with surrounding thymic epithelial cells. Here, the T cell receptor interacts with the MHC molecules on the surface of epithelial cells. A T cell with a receptor that doesn't react, or reacts weakly will die by
591:
The two lobes differ slightly in size, with the left lobe usually higher than the right. Thymic tissue may be found scattered on or around the gland, and occasionally within the thyroid. The thymus in children stretches variably upwards, at times to as high as the thyroid gland.
1117:) to other areas of the body. Even though thymomas occur of epithelial cells, they can also contain thymocytes. Treatment of thymomas often requires surgery to remove the entire thymus. This may also result in temporary remission of any associated autoimmune conditions.
632:
opening of each diverticulum is soon obliterated, but the neck of the flask persists for some time as a cellular cord. By further proliferation of the cells lining the flask, buds of cells are formed, which become surrounded and isolated by the invading mesoderm.
1477:
1476:
1467:
806:
T cells that attack the body's own proteins are eliminated in the thymus, called "negative selection". Epithelial cells in the medulla and dendritic cells in the thymus express major proteins from elsewhere in the body. The gene that stimulates this is
2613:
Prelog, Martina; Wilk, Cordula; Keller, Michael; Karall, Thomas; Orth, Dorothea; Geiger, Ralf; Walder, Gernot; Laufer, Guenther; Cottogni, Marco; Zimmerhackl Lothar, Bernd; Stein, Joerg; Grubeck-Loebenstein, Beatrix; Wuerzner, Reinhard (2008-01-30).
1504:
1332:
in the neonatal period. Other indications for thymectomy include the removal of thymomas and the treatment of myasthenia gravis. In neonates the relative size of the thymus obstructs surgical access to the heart and its surrounding vessels.
1470:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1468:
741:
are actually from the tissues of body ("negative selection"). Positive selection occurs in the cortex and negative selection occurs in the medulla of the thymus. After this process T cells that have survived leave the thymus, regulated by
1475:
601:
832:, whether because of a problem with the development of the thymus gland, or a problem specific to thymocyte development. Immunodeficiency can be profound. Loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation (as in
1472:
3199:
Video by Janice Yau, describing stromal signaling and tolerance. Department of
Immunology and Biomedical Communications, University of Toronto. Master's Research Project, Master of Science in Biomedical Communications.
1027:
may be considered as a treatment, particularly if a thymoma is found. Other treatments include increasing the duration of acetylcholine action at nerve synapses by decreasing the rate of breakdown. This is done by
530:
sometimes seen. The branches reach the thymus and travel with the septa of the capsule into the area between the cortex and medulla, where they enter the thymus itself; or alternatively directly enter the capsule.
1290:
The thymus may contain cysts, usually less than 4 cm in diameter. Thymic cysts are usually detected incidentally and do not generally cause symptoms. Thymic cysts can occur along the neck or in the chest
725:("positive selection"), but that they do not react against antigens found on body tissue ("negative selection"). Once mature, T cells emigrate from the thymus to provide vital functions in the immune system.
1420:, where it undergoes the same shrinkage with age and plays the same immunological function as in other vertebrates. Recently, in 2011, a discrete thymus-like lympho-epithelial structure, termed the
1365:), meaning "anger", or in Ancient Greek, "heart, soul, desire, life", possibly because of its location in the chest, near where emotions are subjectively felt; or else the name comes from the herb
608:
The thymocytes and the epithelium of the thymus have different developmental origins. The epithelium of the thymus develops first, appearing as two outgrowths, one on either side, of the third
483:
867:. This results in a failure of development of the third and fourth pharyngeal pouches, resulting in failure of development of the thymus, and variable other associated problems, such as
1208:. that occur most commonly in young and middle-aged, more prominent in females. Most often, when symptoms occur it is because of compression of structures near the thymus, such as the
1439:
The thymus is also present in most other vertebrates with similar structure and function as the human thymus. A second thymus in the neck has been reported sometimes to occur in the
498:
3225:
1197:
1129:(ALL). These are similar in symptoms, investigation approach and management to other forms of ALL. Symptoms that develop, like other forms of ALL, relate to deficiency of
461:
In the medulla, the network of epithelial cells is coarser than in the cortex, and the lymphoid cells are relatively fewer in number. Concentric, nest-like bodies called
1471:
1045:
840:, or a very rare "nude" thymus causing absence of hair and the thymus) results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection by viruses,
1667:
401:
The thymus consists of two lobes, merged in the middle, surrounded by a capsule that extends with blood vessels into the interior. The lobes consist of an outer
2255:
Wadhera A, Maverakis E, Mitsiades N, Lara PN, Fung MA, Lynch PJ (October 2007). "Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity: a graft-versus-host-like disease".
1303:. Despite this, the presence of a cyst can cause problems similar to those of thymomas, by compressing nearby structures, and some may contact internal walls (
194:
988:
940:, is a rare genetic autoimmune syndrome that results from a genetic defect of the thymus tissues. Specifically, the disease results from defects in the
811:. Thymocytes that react strongly to self antigens do not survive, and die by apoptosis. Some CD4 positive T cells exposed to self antigens persist as
4050:
1067:; detected because of screening in patients with myasthenia gravis, which has a strong association with thymomas and hyperplasia; and detected as an
937:
310:
2082:
Hohl TM (2019). "6. Cell mediated defence against infection: Thymic selection of CD4+ and CD8+ T Cells". In
Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ (eds.).
1133:, resulting in bruising or bleeding; immunosuppression resulting in infections; or infiltration by cells into parts of the body, resulting in an
438:
to the blood vessels, which enter the cortex via septa near the junction with the medulla. Other cells are also present in the thymus, including
640:
bone-marrow precursors migrate into the thymus. Normal development is dependent on the interaction between the epithelium and the hematopoietic
3218:
361:
in the neck to as low as the cartilage of the fourth rib. The lobes are covered by a capsule. The thymus lies behind the sternum, rests on the
560:
travel only away from the thymus, accompanying the arteries and veins. These drain into the brachiocephalic, tracheobronchial and parasternal
3160:
3130:
3103:
2220:
2003:
1853:
1585:
170:
1724:
Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Aster JC (2014-08-27). "Chapter 13. Diseases of White Blood Cells, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, and Thymus: Thymus.".
1102:
Thymomas can be benign; benign but by virtue of expansion, invading beyond the capsule of the thymus ("invasive thymoma"), or malignant (a
980:, and symptoms often beginning in childhood. Many other autoimmune diseases may also occur. Treatment is directed at the affected organs.
1309:) and be difficult to distinguish from tumours. When cysts are found, investigation may include a workup for tumours, which may include
2846:
2489:
2406:
892:
53:
4298:
3211:
3179:
2940:
Bajoghli B, Guo P, Aghaallaei N, Hirano M, Strohmeier C, McCurley N, et al. (February 2011). "A thymus candidate in lampreys".
2091:
2045:
1781:
1733:
1643:
604:
Scheme showing development of branchial epithelial bodies from the thoracic cavity of the fetus. I, II, III, IV. Branchial pouches.
259:, where the body adapts to specific foreign invaders. The thymus is located in the upper front part of the chest, in the anterior
1451:(which arose from a spontaneous laboratory mutation) possesses no thymic tissue whatsoever, and the organ cavity is replaced with
413:. The lobes are divided into smaller lobules 0.5-2 mm diameter, between which extrude radiating insertions from the capsule along
4395:
902:
737:
287:
3120:
4171:
1029:
670:
life. It increases to a mass of 20 to 50 grams by puberty. It then begins to decrease in size and activity in a process called
4306:
1296:
2036:
Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Aster JC (2014-08-27). "Chapter 6. Diseases of the immune system. The normal immune system.".
717:. T cells begin as hematopoietic precursors from the bone-marrow, and migrate to the thymus, where they are referred to as
681:, and chemical or physical castration of an adult results in the thymus increasing in size and activity. Severe illness or
4043:
2564:
Eysteinsdottir JH, Freysdottir J, Haraldsson A, Stefansdottir J, Skaftadottir I, Helgason H, Ogmundsdottir HM (May 2004).
1328:
is the surgical removal of the thymus. The usual reason for removal is to gain access to the heart for surgery to correct
1126:
910:
609:
474:
189:
74:
4333:
4236:
3246:
2566:"The influence of partial or total thymectomy during open heart surgery in infants on the immune function later in life"
1489:
1391:
1204:, although by the activity of genes and occasionally microscopic shape, unusually they also have the characteristics of
682:
102:
2905:
Miller JF (June 2004). "Events that led to the discovery of T-cell development and function--a personal recollection".
2751:
3093:
1229:
1209:
1068:
298:). The thymus is the largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. By the early teens, the
473:
that increase in number throughout life. They are the remains of the epithelial tubes, which grow out from the third
1059:. They most often occur in adults older than 40. Tumours are generally detected when they cause symptoms, such as a
3947:
1314:
1166:
1161:, a protein found on T cells, and help further distinguish the maturity of the T cells. Genetic analysis including
431:
4410:
4390:
4117:
3907:
1107:
993:
612:. It sometimes also involves the fourth pharyngeal pouch. These extend outward and backward into the surrounding
543:
271:. It is made up of two lobes, each consisting of a central medulla and an outer cortex, surrounded by a capsule.
2799:
Nishino M, Ashiku SK, Kocher ON, Thurer RL, Boiselle PM, Hatabu H (2006). "The thymus: a comprehensive review".
4264:
4036:
3915:
1329:
868:
519:
153:
1252:. Other markers may also be used to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment usually includes the typical regimens of
1337:
mount immune responses against new antigens, an increase in cancers, and an increase in all-cause mortality.
662:
The thymus continues to grow after birth reaching the relative maximum size by puberty. It is most active in
4405:
4400:
4103:
4085:
4068:
1213:
1008:
742:
527:
523:
462:
106:
36:
4342:
828:
As the thymus is where T cells develop, congenital problems with the development of the thymus can lead to
492:
showing a lobule of the thymus. The cortex (deeper purple area) surrounds a less dense and lighter medulla.
4385:
3841:
3746:
3598:
1880:
1872:
1432:
possess a protothymus associated with the pharyngeal velar muscles, which is responsible for a variety of
1012:
896:
714:
547:
256:
201:
177:
165:
2661:
Kooshesh, Kameron A.; Foy, Brody H.; Sykes, David B.; Gustafsson, Karin; Scadden, David T. (2023-08-03).
1539:
1377:), which became the name for a "warty excrescence", possibly due to its resemblance to a bunch of thyme.
3648:
1201:
1088:
1080:
913:, which are the precursors of both B and T cells. A number of genetic defects can cause SCID, including
860:
551:
469:) are formed by aggregations of the medullary epithelial cells. These are concentric, layered whorls of
347:
309:
Abnormalities of the thymus can result in a decreased number of T cells and autoimmune diseases such as
2992:
693:
2615:
859:
The most common congenital cause of thymus-related immune deficiency results from the deletion of the
721:. In the thymus they undergo a process of maturation, which involves ensuring the cells react against
333:, it is only since the 1960s that the function of the thymus in the immune system has become clearer.
4142:
3877:
3613:
3048:
2949:
1285:
1273:
1257:
1225:
1217:
1174:
957:
941:
390:
378:
354:
1948:
Sutherland JS, Goldberg GL, Hammett MV, Uldrich AP, Berzins SP, Heng TS, et al. (August 2005).
4186:
3626:
3395:
1876:
1310:
1300:
1253:
770:
745:. Further maturation occurs in the peripheral circulation. Some of this is because of hormones and
1390:
defined by an increase in lymphoid tissue and an enlarged thymus. It was thought to be a cause of
3818:
3689:
3451:
3442:
3428:
3074:
3017:
2973:
2887:
2708:
2543:
2149:
1661:
1182:
1092:
1064:
880:
636:
The epithelium forms fine lobules, and develops into a sponge-like structure. During this stage,
386:
382:
1079:
and tumours originating from the thymus are associated with other autoimmune diseases – such as
1383:
was the first to note that the size of the organ changed over the duration of a person's life.
4221:
4154:
4017:
4007:
3719:
3697:
3538:
3335:
3175:
3156:
3126:
3099:
3066:
3035:
Terszowski G, Müller SM, Bleul CC, Blum C, Schirmbeck R, Reimann J, et al. (April 2006).
2965:
2922:
2879:
2842:
2816:
2700:
2682:
2643:
2635:
2595:
2535:
2485:
2453:
2402:
2349:
2272:
2216:
2210:
2141:
2087:
2041:
1999:
1971:
1915:
1849:
1826:
1818:
1777:
1729:
1649:
1639:
1581:
1544:
1205:
1154:
1004:
965:
921:
864:
833:
812:
671:
657:
576:
314:
299:
286:
which help the thymocytes develop. T cells that successfully develop react appropriately with
2862:
Miller JF (July 2002). "The discovery of thymus function and of thymus-derived lymphocytes".
2514:"A Tour of the Thymus: A Review of Thymic Lesions with Radiologic and Pathologic Correlation"
2480:
Smith SD, Press OW (2015). "Chapter 98. Diffuse Large B-Cell
Lymphoma and Related Diseases".
4311:
4254:
4231:
4191:
4060:
3984:
3491:
3474:
3355:
3305:
3300:
3056:
3007:
2957:
2914:
2871:
2808:
2690:
2674:
2627:
2585:
2577:
2525:
2443:
2435:
2339:
2331:
2264:
2133:
1961:
1907:
1810:
1261:
1158:
977:
829:
557:
283:
235:
86:
2512:
Goldstein, Alan J.; Oliva, Isabel; Honarpisheh, Hedieh; Rubinowitz, Ami (1 February 2015).
905:(SCID) are group of rare congenital genetic diseases that can result in combined T, B, and
381:
may even be embedded within the thymus. In the neck, it lies on the front and sides of the
19:
This article is about the organ of the immune system. For organ of the hormone system, see
4380:
4376:
Knowledge (XXG) articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray's
Anatomy (1918)
4359:
4316:
4276:
4216:
4211:
4176:
3992:
3940:
3892:
3823:
3813:
3410:
3238:
2834:
1518:(brighter in this image) mass by the upper lobe of the child's right (left in image) lung.
1408:
have allowed the function of the thymus in T-cell maturation to be more fully understood.
1142:
1113:
1096:
1023:
to detect thymoma or thymectomy. With regard to the thymus, removal of the thymus, called
837:
769:
T cells have distinct T cell receptors. These distinct receptors are formed by process of
729:
470:
1885:
1165:
may reveal specific abnormalities that may influence prognosis or treatment, such as the
3052:
2953:
2695:
2662:
909:
deficiencies. These syndromes are caused by mutations that affect the maturation of the
357:. It is made up of two lobes that meet in the upper midline, and stretch from below the
4347:
3869:
3759:
3603:
3581:
3554:
3400:
3255:
2590:
2565:
2448:
2423:
2344:
2319:
1799:"Clinical and Radiologic Review of the Normal and Abnormal Thymus: Pearls and Pitfalls"
1398:
1358:
1196:
Tumours originating from the small population of B cells present in the thymus lead to
1084:
1033:
973:
949:
443:
330:
303:
32:
2616:"Diminished response to tick-borne encephalitis vaccination in thymectomized children"
329:. Although the thymus has been identified as a part of the body since the time of the
4369:
4286:
4159:
4137:
4012:
3852:
3677:
3665:
3652:
3636:
3390:
3325:
2918:
2875:
2712:
2581:
1535:
1433:
1265:
1186:
961:
953:
914:
710:
637:
580:
370:
342:
239:
141:
90:
3078:
2891:
2547:
2153:
1345:
When used as food for humans, the thymus of animals is known as one of the kinds of
4226:
3997:
3320:
3268:
2977:
1515:
1417:
1170:
1138:
1134:
1016:
872:
754:
678:
617:
539:
434:, which is continuous with a similar network in the medulla. This network forms an
81:
2631:
1950:"Activation of thymic regeneration in mice and humans following androgen blockade"
891:. Very low numbers of circulating T cells are seen. The condition is diagnosed by
409:
346:
of about 40–50 g, following which it decreases in size in a process known as
4028:
2335:
504:
Micrograph showing a
Hassall's corpuscle, found within the medulla of the thymus.
158:
4281:
4077:
3925:
3774:
3754:
3569:
3564:
3504:
1966:
1949:
1798:
1511:
1292:
1178:
1162:
1146:
1076:
1072:
969:
628:. Here the thymocytes and epithelium meet and join with connective tissue. The
572:
403:
366:
362:
260:
2530:
2513:
2268:
1447:'s thymus naturally atrophies as the animal reaches adulthood, but the athymic
1145:
or other sites. Blood test might reveal a large amount of white blood cells or
4246:
4166:
3833:
3702:
3672:
3621:
3526:
3234:
3196:
2439:
2084:
Mandell, Douglas, and
Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases
1911:
1868:
1448:
1444:
1405:
1346:
1325:
1305:
1269:
1177:, and management of associated problems, such as treatment of infections with
1024:
888:
849:
621:
561:
489:
455:
451:
439:
435:
415:
326:
279:
246:
69:
24:
2686:
2639:
1822:
1653:
317:. These are often associated with cancer of the tissue of the thymus, called
182:
3796:
3591:
3372:
3061:
3036:
1397:
The importance of the thymus in the immune system was discovered in 1961 by
1190:
1103:
1099:, likely because of defects in negative selection in proliferating T cells.
1060:
945:
876:
795:
718:
641:
423:
3203:
3070:
2969:
2926:
2883:
2820:
2704:
2647:
2599:
2539:
2457:
2353:
2276:
2145:
1975:
1919:
1830:
3012:
2841:(3rd ed.). New York: Henry Hold and Co./Owl Books. pp. 182–185.
2678:
583:
reach the capsule of the thymus, but do not enter into the thymus itself.
306:. Nevertheless, some T cell development continues throughout adult life.
4149:
3972:
3935:
3930:
3857:
3729:
3310:
3295:
3273:
2812:
2775:
1814:
1130:
1056:
1020:
841:
758:
750:
746:
667:
613:
322:
2961:
2726:
1111:
Invasive tumours, although not technically malignant, can still spread (
856:
mutation are a strain of research mice as a model of T cell deficiency.
4002:
3920:
3897:
3801:
3791:
3786:
3724:
3707:
3660:
3365:
3315:
3290:
3021:
1898:
Venturi S, Venturi M (September 2009). "Iodine, thymus, and immunity".
1429:
1425:
1150:
906:
884:
733:
722:
629:
427:
358:
321:, or tissues arising from immature lymphocytes such as T cells, called
318:
275:
264:
20:
2776:"thymus | Origin and meaning of thymus by Online Etymology Dictionary"
692:
207:
4271:
4259:
4203:
4126:
3957:
3952:
3887:
3882:
3828:
3764:
3712:
3631:
3521:
3464:
3423:
3418:
3360:
3285:
1221:
918:
706:
645:
515:
447:
374:
251:
243:
117:
3170:
Kasper D, Fauci A, Hauser S, Longo D, Jameson J, Loscalzo J (2015).
2296:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2137:
600:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2232:
1216:; when lymph nodes are affected it is often in the mediastinum and
917:
gene loss of function, and mutation resulting in deficiency of the
3967:
3962:
3847:
3574:
3481:
3382:
3340:
3330:
3279:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
1496:
1440:
1380:
1106:). This classification is based on the appearance of the cells. A
853:
845:
663:
625:
599:
568:
268:
129:
97:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2167:
2165:
2163:
1007:
is an autoimmune disease most often due to antibodies that block
3734:
3469:
3345:
3263:
1452:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1149:, and deficiency in other cell lines – such as low platelets or
1125:
Tumours originating from T cells of the thymus form a subset of
1055:
Tumours originating from the thymic epithelial cells are called
808:
778:
774:
535:
4032:
3207:
3769:
3586:
3350:
3092:
Suckow, Mark A.; Stevens, Karla A.; Wilson, Ronald P. (2012).
2397:
2124:
Miller JF (May 2011). "The golden anniversary of the thymus".
1931:
1929:
787:
783:
554:. Sometimes the veins end directly in the superior vena cava.
3095:
The
Laboratory Rabbit, Guinea Pig, Hamster, and Other Rodents
3151:
Ralston SH, Penman ID, Strachan MW, Hobson RP, eds. (2018).
1295:). Cysts usually just contain fluid and are lined by either
1998:(13th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. 466–7.
1636:
Gray's
Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice
1578:
Gray's
Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice
1386:
In the nineteenth century, a condition was identified as
677:
The atrophy is due to the increased circulating level of
1776:(6th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. 204–6.
1774:
Wheater's functional histology: a text and colour atlas
648:
is also necessary for thymus development and activity.
3125:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 289.
2991:
Riviere HB, Cooper EL, Reddy AL, Hildemann WH (1975).
2475:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2382:
1272:, and other chemotherapeutics; and potentially also a
302:
and the tissue of the thymus is gradually replaced by
4331:
2320:"Epidemiology of thymoma and associated malignancies"
2422:
Dabrowska-Iwanicka A, Walewski JA (September 2014).
852:
with the very rare "nude" deficiency as a result of
430:, are supported by a network of the finely-branched
4297:
4245:
4202:
4125:
4116:
4094:
4076:
4067:
3983:
3906:
3868:
3745:
3688:
3647:
3612:
3553:
3490:
3450:
3441:
3409:
3381:
3254:
3245:
2040:(9th (online) ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences.
1728:(9th (online) ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences.
1198:
primary mediastinal (thymic) large B cell lymphomas
188:
176:
164:
152:
140:
128:
123:
112:
96:
80:
68:
63:
46:
3037:"Evidence for a functional second thymus in mice"
2663:"Health Consequences of Thymus Removal in Adults"
1797:Nasseri, Farbod; Eftekhari, Farzin (March 2010).
948:tissues, with the commonly affected organs being
2507:
2505:
2503:
2501:
1580:(40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone.
1361:, and its name comes from the Greek word θυμός (
1260:or other regimens; regimens generally including
1046:Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
1767:
1765:
1638:(41st ed.). Philadelphia. pp. 983–6.
1220:groups. Such tumours are often detected with a
1185:. Very high white cell counts may also require
749:secreted by cells within the thymus, including
426:and epithelial cells. The thymocytes, immature
294:) and not against proteins of the body (called
3153:Davidson's principles and practice of medicine
2373:
2300:
2257:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology
2242:
2196:
2171:
2038:Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease
1996:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology
1935:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1726:Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease
300:thymus begins to decrease in size and activity
4044:
3219:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1169:. Management can include multiple courses of
8:
2518:Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal
2212:The Mouse in Biomedical Research: Immunology
1848:(3rd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 366–367.
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1317:of the area the cyst is suspected to be in.
883:, and the presence of a fistula between the
732:, suited to a specific substance, called an
341:The thymus is an organ that sits behind the
3174:(19th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional.
3122:Immunologic Defects in Laboratory Animals 1
3119:Gershwin, M. Eric; Merchant, Bruce (2012).
2424:"Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma"
2077:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1063:or affecting nearby structures such as the
4122:
4073:
4051:
4037:
4029:
3447:
3251:
3226:
3212:
3204:
3172:Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
2075:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2057:
1666:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
989:Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity
984:Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity
52:
3060:
3011:
2694:
2589:
2529:
2447:
2343:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1965:
705:The thymus facilitates the maturation of
685:infection may also result in involution.
518:supplying the thymus are branches of the
23:. For culinary use of animal thymus, see
1424:, was discovered in the gills of larval
938:Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1
407:rich with cells and an inner less dense
311:autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1
4338:
2484:(9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
2401:(9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
1576:Standring S, et al., eds. (2008).
1553:
1462:
479:
2428:Current Hematologic Malignancy Reports
1772:Young B, O'Dowd G, Woodford P (2013).
1659:
1534:This article incorporates text in the
871:, and abnormalities of mouth (such as
205:
116:Support the development of functional
43:
2559:
2557:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
290:immune receptors of the body (called
7:
2570:Clinical and Experimental Immunology
1483:Explanation of the thymus's function
736:. Most T cell receptors bind to the
571:supplying the thymus arise from the
255:mature. T cells are critical to the
2086:(9th (online) ed.). Elsevier.
223:
1634:Standring S, Gray H, eds. (2016).
477:of the embryo to form the thymus.
325:. Removal of the thymus is called
274:The thymus is made up of immature
14:
3197:T cell development in the thymus.
2993:"In Search of the Hagfish Thymus"
1232:, cell surface proteins – namely
1228:. This will show the presence of
933:Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome
893:fluorescent in situ hybridization
879:), failure of development of the
773:gene rearrangement stimulated by
282:, as well as lining cells called
4353:
4341:
2919:10.1111/j.0001-2815.2004.00255.x
2876:10.1034/j.1600-065X.2002.18502.x
2582:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02437.x
1528:
1503:
1488:
1465:
903:Severe combined immunodeficiency
738:major histocompatibility complex
497:
482:
422:The cortex is mainly made up of
4172:Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths
3098:. Academic Press. p. 583.
2727:"Sweetbread recipes – BBC Food"
2667:New England Journal of Medicine
1030:acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
968:of body surfaces including the
1200:. These are a rare subtype of
911:hematopoietic progenitor cells
1:
2632:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.11.074
1416:The thymus is present in all
1394:but is now an obsolete term.
1127:acute lymphoblastic leukaemia
353:The thymus is located in the
2482:Williams hematology (online)
2399:Williams hematology (online)
2336:10.1097/JTO.0b013e3181f1f62d
2324:Journal of Thoracic Oncology
1392:sudden infant death syndrome
1357:The thymus was known to the
683:human immunodeficiency virus
365:, and is separated from the
58:Position of the human thymus
3155:(23rd ed.). Elsevier.
2839:Why zebras don't get ulcers
1967:10.4049/jimmunol.175.4.2741
1542:of the 20th edition of
1230:clusters of differentiation
1157:will reveal cells that are
728:Each T cell has a distinct
709:, an important part of the
234:) is a specialized primary
4427:
2531:10.1016/j.carj.2013.09.003
2318:Engels EA (October 2010).
2269:10.1016/j.jaad.2007.02.027
2126:Nature Reviews. Immunology
1514:, the thymus appears as a
1283:
1248:, and with the absence of
1167:Philadelphia translocation
1043:
1013:between nerves and muscles
655:
432:epithelial reticular cells
18:
4237:Waldeyer's tonsillar ring
2440:10.1007/s11899-014-0219-0
2215:. Elsevier. p. 277.
1912:10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.002
1388:status thymicolymphaticus
1297:many layers of flat cells
1011:, involved in signalling
994:graft versus host disease
970:inner lining of the mouth
544:left brachiocephalic vein
526:, with branches from the
524:inferior thyroid arteries
200:
51:
4265:High endothelial venules
1330:congenital heart defects
869:congenital heart disease
624:in front of the ventral
446:, and a small amount of
4396:Lymphatics of the torso
4086:Hematopoietic stem cell
3062:10.1126/science.1123497
2756:A Greek-English Lexicon
1214:upper respiratory tract
1009:acetylcholine receptors
992:indistinguishable from
743:sphingosine-1-phosphate
528:superior thyroid artery
37:Thymus (disambiguation)
3678:Lymphoid immune system
3247:Musculoskeletal system
2330:(10 Suppl 4): S260-5.
1404:Recently, advances in
1304:
1112:
1017:muscle-specific kinase
976:due to dysfunction of
897:thymus transplantation
715:cell-mediated immunity
697:
605:
552:inferior thyroid veins
548:internal thoracic vein
510:Blood and nerve supply
414:
408:
402:
267:, and in front of the
257:adaptive immune system
202:Anatomical terminology
75:Third pharyngeal pouch
35:. For other uses, see
27:. For the plant genus
3666:Myeloid immune system
3452:Cardiovascular system
2864:Immunological Reviews
2750:Liddell HG, Scott R.
2679:10.1056/NEJMoa2302892
1954:Journal of Immunology
1284:Further information:
1202:Non-Hodgkins lymphoma
1089:pure red cell aplasia
1081:hypogammaglobulinemia
819:Clinical significance
696:
603:
391:sternothyroid muscles
242:. Within the thymus,
4104:Hassall's corpuscles
4018:Islets of Langerhans
3878:Genitourinary system
3614:Integumentary system
2813:10.1148/rg.262045213
1815:10.1148/rg.302095131
1286:Cervical thymic cyst
1274:stem cell transplant
1226:immunohistochemistry
1175:stem cell transplant
942:autoimmune regulator
579:. Branches from the
463:Hassall's corpuscles
379:brachiocephalic vein
355:anterior mediastinum
261:superior mediastinum
4187:Trabecular arteries
3908:Reproductive system
3627:Subcutaneous tissue
3396:Cartilaginous joint
3053:2006Sci...312..284T
3013:10.1093/icb/15.1.39
2962:10.1038/nature09655
2954:2011Natur.470...90B
2303:, pp. 1141–43.
1449:hairless guinea pig
1341:Society and culture
1301:column-shaped cells
1224:that is subject to
1071:on imaging such as
771:V(D)J recombination
538:of the thymus, the
3690:Respiratory system
3443:Circulatory system
3000:American Zoologist
2780:www.etymonline.com
2245:, pp. 2756–7.
1443:As in humans, the
1210:superior vena cava
1206:Hodgkins lymphomas
1183:blood transfusions
1093:pernicious anaemia
1069:incidental finding
1065:superior vena cava
928:Autoimmune disease
881:parathyroid glands
813:T regulatory cells
802:Negative selection
765:Positive selection
698:
606:
475:pharyngeal pouches
296:negative selection
292:positive selection
4329:
4328:
4325:
4324:
4155:Cords of Billroth
4112:
4111:
4026:
4025:
3549:
3548:
3539:Glymphatic system
3437:
3436:
3162:978-0-7020-7028-0
3132:978-1-4757-0325-2
3105:978-0-12-380920-9
2222:978-0-08-046908-9
2199:, pp. 79–80.
2005:978-1-4557-7016-8
1855:978-0-443-06583-5
1844:Larsen W (2001).
1587:978-0-8089-2371-8
1478:
1459:Additional images
1418:jawed vertebrates
1155:Immunophenotyping
1005:Myasthenia gravis
1000:Myasthenia gravis
966:candida infection
958:Addison's disease
922:adenine deaminase
895:and treated with
865:DiGeorge syndrome
834:DiGeorge syndrome
701:T cell maturation
672:thymic involution
658:Thymic involution
577:sympathetic chain
575:and the cervical
558:Lymphatic vessels
520:internal thoracic
467:thymic corpuscles
315:myasthenia gravis
216:
215:
211:
4418:
4411:Organs (anatomy)
4391:Lymphatic system
4358:
4357:
4356:
4346:
4345:
4337:
4255:Lymphatic vessel
4232:Tonsillar crypts
4192:Trabecular veins
4123:
4118:Secondary organs
4074:
4061:lymphatic system
4053:
4046:
4039:
4030:
3985:Endocrine system
3747:Digestive system
3492:Lymphatic system
3475:Lymphatic vessel
3448:
3252:
3228:
3221:
3214:
3205:
3185:
3166:
3137:
3136:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3064:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3015:
2997:
2988:
2982:
2981:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2902:
2896:
2895:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2698:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2593:
2561:
2552:
2551:
2533:
2509:
2496:
2495:
2477:
2462:
2461:
2451:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2394:
2377:
2376:, pp. 2759.
2371:
2358:
2357:
2347:
2315:
2304:
2298:
2281:
2280:
2252:
2246:
2240:
2227:
2226:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2175:
2174:, pp. 2493.
2169:
2158:
2157:
2121:
2098:
2097:
2079:
2052:
2051:
2033:
2010:
2009:
1994:Hall JE (2016).
1991:
1980:
1979:
1969:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1924:
1923:
1895:
1889:
1886:qblood/lymphat03
1869:Swiss embryology
1866:
1860:
1859:
1846:Human Embryology
1841:
1835:
1834:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1769:
1740:
1739:
1721:
1672:
1671:
1665:
1657:
1631:
1592:
1591:
1573:
1532:
1531:
1507:
1492:
1480:
1479:
1321:Surgical removal
1262:cyclophosphamide
830:immunodeficiency
824:Immunodeficiency
610:pharyngeal pouch
501:
486:
471:epithelial cells
284:epithelial cells
225:
208:edit on Wikidata
103:Tracheobronchial
87:Lymphatic system
56:
44:
4426:
4425:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4354:
4352:
4340:
4332:
4330:
4321:
4317:Germinal center
4293:
4277:Germinal center
4241:
4198:
4177:Germinal center
4108:
4090:
4063:
4057:
4027:
4022:
3979:
3941:Seminal vesicle
3902:
3864:
3814:Small intestine
3741:
3684:
3643:
3608:
3545:
3486:
3433:
3411:Muscular system
3405:
3377:
3256:Skeletal system
3241:
3232:
3193:
3188:
3182:
3169:
3163:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3140:
3133:
3118:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3047:(5771): 284–7.
3034:
3033:
3029:
2995:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2907:Tissue Antigens
2904:
2903:
2899:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2784:
2782:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2760:
2758:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2735:
2733:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2660:
2659:
2655:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2511:
2510:
2499:
2492:
2479:
2478:
2465:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2396:
2395:
2380:
2374:Harrison's 2015
2372:
2361:
2317:
2316:
2307:
2301:Davidson's 2018
2299:
2284:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2243:Harrison's 2015
2241:
2230:
2223:
2209:Fox JG (2006).
2208:
2207:
2203:
2197:Davidson's 2018
2195:
2178:
2172:Harrison's 2015
2170:
2161:
2138:10.1038/nri2993
2123:
2122:
2101:
2094:
2081:
2080:
2055:
2048:
2035:
2034:
2013:
2006:
1993:
1992:
1983:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1936:Davidson's 2018
1934:
1927:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1867:
1863:
1856:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1784:
1771:
1770:
1743:
1736:
1723:
1722:
1675:
1658:
1646:
1633:
1632:
1595:
1588:
1575:
1574:
1555:
1529:
1526:
1519:
1508:
1499:
1493:
1484:
1481:
1466:
1461:
1414:
1369:(also in Greek
1355:
1343:
1323:
1288:
1282:
1123:
1097:dermatomyositis
1053:
1048:
1042:
1002:
986:
935:
930:
861:22nd chromosome
838:CHARGE syndrome
826:
821:
804:
767:
730:T cell receptor
703:
691:
660:
654:
598:
589:
512:
505:
502:
493:
487:
444:dendritic cells
399:
339:
212:
59:
40:
17:
16:Endocrine gland
12:
11:
5:
4424:
4422:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4406:Mammal anatomy
4403:
4401:Lymphoid organ
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4368:
4367:
4363:
4362:
4350:
4327:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4320:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4303:
4301:
4295:
4294:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4269:
4268:
4267:
4257:
4251:
4249:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4208:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4195:
4194:
4189:
4183:Blood vessels
4181:
4180:
4179:
4174:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4157:
4147:
4146:
4145:
4140:
4131:
4129:
4120:
4114:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4100:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4088:
4082:
4080:
4071:
4069:Primary organs
4065:
4064:
4059:Organs of the
4058:
4056:
4055:
4048:
4041:
4033:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3989:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3912:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3874:
3872:
3870:Urinary system
3866:
3865:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3792:Laryngopharynx
3789:
3779:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3760:Salivary gland
3751:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3694:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3657:
3655:
3653:immune systems
3649:Haematopoietic
3645:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3629:
3624:
3618:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3599:Somatic system
3596:
3595:
3594:
3589:
3582:Sensory system
3579:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3559:
3557:
3555:Nervous system
3551:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3534:CNS equivalent
3531:
3530:
3529:
3524:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3496:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3456:
3454:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3415:
3413:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3401:Synovial joint
3398:
3393:
3387:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3277:
3271:
3260:
3258:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3233:
3231:
3230:
3223:
3216:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3192:
3191:External links
3189:
3187:
3186:
3180:
3167:
3161:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3131:
3111:
3104:
3084:
3027:
2983:
2948:(7332): 90–4.
2932:
2897:
2854:
2848:978-0805073690
2847:
2826:
2791:
2767:
2742:
2718:
2673:(5): 406–417.
2653:
2626:(5): 595–600.
2605:
2553:
2497:
2491:978-0071833004
2490:
2463:
2414:
2408:978-0071833004
2407:
2378:
2359:
2305:
2282:
2247:
2228:
2221:
2201:
2176:
2159:
2099:
2092:
2053:
2046:
2011:
2004:
1981:
1960:(4): 2741–53.
1940:
1925:
1890:
1861:
1854:
1836:
1809:(2): 413–428.
1789:
1782:
1741:
1734:
1673:
1644:
1593:
1586:
1552:
1551:
1545:Gray's Anatomy
1525:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1509:
1502:
1500:
1494:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1413:
1410:
1399:Jacques Miller
1359:ancient Greeks
1354:
1351:
1342:
1339:
1322:
1319:
1281:
1278:
1135:enlarged liver
1122:
1119:
1085:Graves disease
1052:
1049:
1041:
1038:
1034:pyridostigmine
1001:
998:
985:
982:
962:adrenal glands
950:hypothyroidism
934:
931:
929:
926:
825:
822:
820:
817:
803:
800:
766:
763:
702:
699:
690:
687:
656:Main article:
653:
650:
597:
594:
588:
585:
581:phrenic nerves
511:
508:
507:
506:
503:
496:
494:
488:
481:
398:
395:
373:by a layer of
338:
335:
331:Ancient Greeks
236:lymphoid organ
214:
213:
204:
198:
197:
192:
186:
185:
180:
174:
173:
168:
162:
161:
156:
150:
149:
144:
138:
137:
132:
126:
125:
121:
120:
114:
110:
109:
100:
94:
93:
89:, part of the
84:
78:
77:
72:
66:
65:
61:
60:
57:
49:
48:
33:Thymus (plant)
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4423:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4386:Immune system
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4373:
4371:
4361:
4351:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4335:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4312:Peyer's patch
4310:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4300:
4296:
4288:
4287:Marginal zone
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4270:
4266:
4263:
4262:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4248:
4244:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4165:
4161:
4160:Marginal zone
4158:
4156:
4153:
4152:
4151:
4148:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4128:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4115:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4084:
4083:
4081:
4079:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4054:
4049:
4047:
4042:
4040:
4035:
4034:
4031:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3949:
3946:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3867:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3853:Biliary tract
3851:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3844:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3810:
3807:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3756:
3753:
3752:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3721:
3718:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3687:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3638:
3637:Mammary gland
3635:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3489:
3483:
3480:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3391:Fibrous joint
3389:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3380:
3374:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3235:Human systems
3229:
3224:
3222:
3217:
3215:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3190:
3183:
3181:9780071802154
3177:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3158:
3154:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3134:
3128:
3124:
3123:
3115:
3112:
3107:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3088:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2994:
2987:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2913:(6): 509–17.
2912:
2908:
2901:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2855:
2850:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2807:(2): 335–48.
2806:
2802:
2801:Radiographics
2795:
2792:
2781:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2743:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2609:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2576:(2): 349–55.
2575:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2434:(3): 273–83.
2433:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2415:
2410:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2214:
2213:
2205:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2132:(7): 489–95.
2131:
2127:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2093:9780323482554
2089:
2085:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2047:9780323296397
2043:
2039:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1941:
1938:, p. 67.
1937:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1862:
1857:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1803:RadioGraphics
1800:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1783:9780702047473
1779:
1775:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1735:9780323296397
1731:
1727:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1663:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1645:9780702052309
1641:
1637:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1583:
1579:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1536:public domain
1523:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1501:
1498:
1491:
1486:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1412:Other animals
1411:
1409:
1407:
1402:
1400:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1287:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1266:anthracycline
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1187:cytoreduction
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1115:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1050:
1047:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
999:
997:
995:
990:
983:
981:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
954:thyroid gland
951:
947:
943:
939:
932:
927:
925:
923:
920:
916:
915:IL-2 receptor
912:
908:
904:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
823:
818:
816:
814:
810:
801:
799:
797:
791:
789:
785:
780:
776:
772:
764:
762:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
735:
731:
726:
724:
720:
716:
712:
711:immune system
708:
700:
695:
688:
686:
684:
680:
675:
673:
669:
665:
659:
651:
649:
647:
643:
639:
638:hematopoietic
634:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
602:
595:
593:
586:
584:
582:
578:
574:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
553:
550:, and in the
549:
545:
542:, end in the
541:
537:
532:
529:
525:
521:
517:
509:
500:
495:
491:
485:
480:
478:
476:
472:
468:
465:(also called
464:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
420:
418:
417:
412:
411:
406:
405:
396:
394:
392:
388:
385:, behind the
384:
380:
376:
372:
371:great vessels
368:
364:
360:
356:
351:
349:
344:
336:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
272:
270:
266:
263:, behind the
262:
258:
254:
253:
248:
245:
241:
240:immune system
237:
233:
229:
221:
209:
203:
199:
196:
193:
191:
187:
184:
181:
179:
175:
172:
169:
167:
163:
160:
157:
155:
151:
148:
145:
143:
139:
136:
133:
131:
127:
122:
119:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101:
99:
95:
92:
91:immune system
88:
85:
83:
79:
76:
73:
71:
67:
62:
55:
50:
45:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
4095:
3840:
3808:
3781:
3533:
3516:
3509:
3499:
3459:
3171:
3152:
3121:
3114:
3094:
3087:
3044:
3040:
3030:
3006:(1): 39–49.
3003:
2999:
2986:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2910:
2906:
2900:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2838:
2829:
2804:
2800:
2794:
2783:. Retrieved
2779:
2770:
2759:. Retrieved
2755:
2745:
2734:. Retrieved
2730:
2721:
2670:
2666:
2656:
2623:
2619:
2608:
2573:
2569:
2521:
2517:
2481:
2431:
2427:
2417:
2398:
2327:
2323:
2263:(4): 683–9.
2260:
2256:
2250:
2211:
2204:
2129:
2125:
2083:
2037:
1995:
1957:
1953:
1943:
1906:(9): 977–9.
1903:
1899:
1893:
1884:
1864:
1845:
1839:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1773:
1725:
1635:
1577:
1547:
1533:
1527:
1495:Thymus of a
1438:
1421:
1415:
1403:
1396:
1387:
1385:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1344:
1335:
1324:
1289:
1280:Thymic cysts
1195:
1171:chemotherapy
1147:lymphoblasts
1124:
1101:
1073:chest x-rays
1054:
1003:
987:
936:
901:
873:cleft palate
858:
827:
805:
792:
768:
755:thymopoietin
727:
704:
679:sex hormones
676:
661:
635:
618:neural crest
607:
590:
566:
556:
540:thymic veins
533:
513:
466:
460:
421:
400:
397:Microanatomy
352:
340:
308:
304:fatty tissue
295:
291:
273:
250:
231:
227:
219:
217:
171:A13.1.02.001
146:
134:
41:
28:
4282:Mantle zone
4247:Lymph nodes
4078:Bone marrow
4008:Parathyroid
3708:Nasopharynx
3570:Spinal cord
3505:Bone marrow
3274:Collar bone
2870:(1): 7–14.
2835:Sapolsky RM
2524:(1): 5–15.
1512:chest X-ray
1436:responses.
1293:mediastinum
1179:antibiotics
1163:karyotyping
1143:lymph nodes
1114:metastasise
1077:Hyperplasia
972:and of the
596:Development
573:vagus nerve
562:lymph nodes
456:eosinophils
452:neutrophils
440:macrophages
387:sternohyoid
377:. The left
367:aortic arch
363:pericardium
247:lymphocytes
244:thymus cell
124:Identifiers
107:parasternal
4370:Categories
4222:Pharyngeal
4167:White pulp
4143:Trabeculae
3787:Oropharynx
3527:Lymph node
3460:peripheral
3306:Metatarsus
3301:Metacarpus
3280:Thigh bone
3276:(clavicle)
2785:2019-12-10
2761:2019-12-10
2736:2019-12-12
1524:References
1516:radiodense
1445:guinea pig
1406:immunology
1347:sweetbread
1326:Thymectomy
1270:prednisone
1044:See also:
1025:thymectomy
978:TH17 cells
889:oesophagus
719:thymocytes
713:providing
652:Involution
642:thymocytes
630:pharyngeal
622:mesenchyme
490:Micrograph
436:adventitia
424:thymocytes
348:involution
327:thymectomy
280:thymocytes
25:Sweetbread
3993:Pituitary
3842:accessory
3797:Esophagus
3517:secondary
3429:Diaphragm
3373:Cartilage
3321:Phalanges
2713:260377788
2687:0028-4793
2640:0264-410X
1900:Nutrition
1823:0271-5333
1662:cite book
1654:920806541
1540:page 1273
1191:apheresis
1131:platelets
1121:Lymphomas
1104:carcinoma
1061:neck mass
946:endocrine
877:cleft lip
863:, called
850:Nude mice
796:apoptosis
759:thymosins
747:cytokines
620:-derived
587:Variation
337:Structure
70:Precursor
4360:Medicine
4212:Palatine
4150:Red pulp
3973:Placenta
3936:Testicle
3931:Prostate
3858:Pancreas
3819:Appendix
3809:lower GI
3782:upper GI
3730:Bronchus
3673:Lymphoid
3356:Vertebra
3311:Ossicles
3296:Mandible
3079:24553384
3071:16513945
2970:21293377
2927:15140026
2892:12108587
2884:12190917
2837:(2004).
2821:16549602
2731:BBC Food
2705:37530823
2696:10557034
2648:18178293
2600:15086401
2548:33986973
2540:24736228
2458:24952250
2354:20859116
2277:17433850
2154:21191923
2146:21617694
1976:16081852
1920:19647627
1831:20228326
1455:spaces.
1426:lampreys
1315:MRI scan
1057:thymomas
1051:Thymomas
1032:such as
887:and the
842:protozoa
751:thymulin
723:antigens
689:Function
668:neonatal
614:mesoderm
516:arteries
323:lymphoma
228:thymuses
113:Function
4348:Anatomy
4334:Portals
4272:B cells
4260:T cells
4217:Lingual
4204:Tonsils
4013:Adrenal
4003:Thyroid
3921:Scrotum
3898:Urethra
3893:Bladder
3802:Stomach
3725:Trachea
3661:Myeloid
3500:primary
3366:Sternum
3316:Patella
3291:Humerus
3282:(femur)
3049:Bibcode
3041:Science
3022:3882269
2978:4417477
2950:Bibcode
2752:"θυμός"
2620:Vaccine
2591:1809033
2449:4180024
2345:2951303
1430:Hagfish
1422:thymoid
1353:History
1236:, with
1212:or the
1151:anaemia
1021:CT scan
1019:), and
960:of the
952:of the
907:NK cell
885:trachea
734:antigen
707:T cells
448:B cells
428:T cells
410:medulla
383:trachea
359:thyroid
343:sternum
319:thymoma
278:called
276:T cells
265:sternum
252:T cells
238:of the
159:D013950
118:T cells
64:Details
21:thyroid
4381:Thymus
4134:Parts
4127:Spleen
4096:Thymus
3998:Pineal
3958:Vagina
3953:Uterus
3948:Female
3888:Ureter
3883:Kidney
3829:Rectum
3765:Tongue
3713:Larynx
3632:Breast
3604:Tissue
3522:Spleen
3510:Thymus
3465:Artery
3424:Tendon
3419:Muscle
3383:Joints
3361:Pelvis
3336:Tarsus
3326:Radius
3286:Fibula
3269:Carpus
3239:organs
3178:
3159:
3129:
3102:
3077:
3069:
3020:
2976:
2968:
2942:Nature
2925:
2890:
2882:
2845:
2819:
2711:
2703:
2693:
2685:
2646:
2638:
2598:
2588:
2546:
2538:
2488:
2456:
2446:
2405:
2352:
2342:
2275:
2219:
2152:
2144:
2090:
2044:
2002:
1974:
1918:
1879:, and
1871:(from
1852:
1829:
1821:
1780:
1732:
1652:
1642:
1584:
1548:(1918)
1453:cystic
1434:immune
1375:θυμάρι
1363:thumos
1222:biopsy
1181:, and
1139:spleen
1040:Cancer
964:, and
919:enzyme
844:, and
757:, and
646:Iodine
569:nerves
522:, and
404:cortex
375:fascia
220:thymus
135:thymus
82:System
47:Thymus
31:, see
29:Thymus
4227:Tubal
4138:Hilum
3968:Ovary
3963:Vulva
3926:Penis
3848:Liver
3824:Colon
3775:Tooth
3755:Mouth
3720:Lower
3698:Upper
3575:Nerve
3565:Brain
3482:Heart
3341:Tibia
3331:Skull
3200:2011.
3144:Books
3075:S2CID
3018:JSTOR
2996:(PDF)
2974:S2CID
2888:S2CID
2709:S2CID
2544:S2CID
2150:S2CID
1538:from
1497:fetus
1441:mouse
1381:Galen
1371:θύμος
1367:thyme
1306:septa
1264:, an
1258:EPOCH
1189:with
974:nails
854:FOXN1
846:fungi
664:fetal
626:aorta
536:veins
416:septa
269:heart
232:thymi
206:[
147:θύμος
142:Greek
130:Latin
98:Lymph
4307:GALT
4299:MALT
3916:Male
3834:Anus
3735:Lung
3703:Nose
3651:and
3622:Skin
3470:Vein
3346:Ulna
3264:Bone
3237:and
3176:ISBN
3157:ISBN
3127:ISBN
3100:ISBN
3067:PMID
2966:PMID
2923:PMID
2880:PMID
2843:ISBN
2817:PMID
2701:PMID
2683:ISSN
2644:PMID
2636:ISSN
2596:PMID
2536:PMID
2486:ISBN
2454:PMID
2403:ISBN
2350:PMID
2273:PMID
2217:ISBN
2142:PMID
2088:ISBN
2042:ISBN
2000:ISBN
1972:PMID
1916:PMID
1850:ISBN
1827:PMID
1819:ISSN
1778:ISBN
1730:ISBN
1668:link
1650:OCLC
1640:ISBN
1582:ISBN
1254:CHOP
1250:CD15
1246:CD22
1244:and
1242:CD20
1238:CD19
1234:CD30
1218:neck
1095:and
875:and
809:AIRE
786:and
779:RAG2
777:and
775:RAG1
666:and
616:and
567:The
534:The
514:The
454:and
389:and
369:and
313:and
218:The
195:9607
183:5152
166:TA98
154:MeSH
3770:Lip
3592:Eye
3587:Ear
3351:Rib
3057:doi
3045:312
3008:doi
2958:doi
2946:470
2915:doi
2872:doi
2868:185
2809:doi
2691:PMC
2675:doi
2671:389
2628:doi
2586:PMC
2578:doi
2574:136
2526:doi
2444:PMC
2436:doi
2340:PMC
2332:doi
2265:doi
2134:doi
1962:doi
1958:175
1908:doi
1811:doi
1510:On
1373:or
1313:or
1299:or
1256:or
1159:CD3
1108:WHO
788:CD8
784:CD4
288:MHC
249:or
230:or
224:pl.
190:FMA
178:TA2
4372::
3073:.
3065:.
3055:.
3043:.
3039:.
3016:.
3004:15
3002:.
2998:.
2972:.
2964:.
2956:.
2944:.
2921:.
2911:63
2909:.
2886:.
2878:.
2866:.
2815:.
2805:26
2803:.
2778:.
2754:.
2729:.
2707:.
2699:.
2689:.
2681:.
2669:.
2665:.
2642:.
2634:.
2624:26
2622:.
2618:.
2594:.
2584:.
2572:.
2568:.
2556:^
2542:.
2534:.
2522:66
2520:.
2516:.
2500:^
2466:^
2452:.
2442:.
2430:.
2426:.
2381:^
2362:^
2348:.
2338:.
2326:.
2322:.
2308:^
2285:^
2271:.
2261:57
2259:.
2231:^
2179:^
2162:^
2148:.
2140:.
2130:11
2128:.
2102:^
2056:^
2014:^
1984:^
1970:.
1956:.
1952:.
1928:^
1914:.
1904:25
1902:.
1883:)
1881:UF
1877:UB
1875:,
1873:UL
1825:.
1817:.
1807:30
1805:.
1801:.
1744:^
1676:^
1664:}}
1660:{{
1648:.
1596:^
1556:^
1428:.
1349:.
1311:CT
1276:.
1268:,
1240:,
1193:.
1173:,
1153:.
1141:,
1137:,
1091:,
1087:,
1083:,
1075:.
1036:.
996:.
956:,
924:.
899:.
848:.
836:,
815:.
790:.
761:.
753:,
644:.
564:.
546:,
458:.
450:,
442:,
419:.
393:.
350:.
226::
105:,
4336::
4052:e
4045:t
4038:v
3227:e
3220:t
3213:v
3184:.
3165:.
3135:.
3108:.
3081:.
3059::
3051::
3024:.
3010::
2980:.
2960::
2952::
2929:.
2917::
2894:.
2874::
2851:.
2823:.
2811::
2788:.
2764:.
2739:.
2715:.
2677::
2650:.
2630::
2602:.
2580::
2550:.
2528::
2494:.
2460:.
2438::
2432:9
2411:.
2356:.
2334::
2328:5
2279:.
2267::
2225:.
2156:.
2136::
2096:.
2050:.
2008:.
1978:.
1964::
1922:.
1910::
1858:.
1833:.
1813::
1786:.
1738:.
1670:)
1656:.
1590:.
1291:(
222:(
210:]
39:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
