Timeline of computing hardware before 1950

2668:'s binary system (Babbage and others unsuccessfully tried to build decimal programmable computers). Zuse's machine also featured floating-point numbers with a 7-bit exponent, 14-bit mantissa (with a '1' bit automatically prefixed unless the number is 0), and a sign bit. The memory held 64 of these words and therefore required over 1400 relays; there were 1200 more in the arithmetic and control units. It also featured parallel adders. The program, input, and output were implemented as described above for the Z1. Although conditional jumps were not available, it has been shown that Zuse's Z3 is, in principle, capable of functioning as a universal computer. The machine could do 3–4 additions per second, and took 3–5 seconds for a multiplication. The Z3 was destroyed in 1943 during an Allied bombardment of Berlin, and had no impact on computer technology in America and England. 57: 2577:'; it was later known as the 'Model I Relay Calculator'. It used telephone switching parts for logic: 450 relays and 10 crossbar switches. Numbers were represented in 'plus 3 BCD'; that is, for each decimal digit, 0 is represented by binary 0011, 1 by 0100, and so on up to 1100 for 9; this scheme requires fewer relays than straight BCD. Rather than requiring users to come to the machine to use it, the calculator was provided with three remote keyboards, at various places in the building, in the form of teletypes. Only one could be used at a time, and the output was automatically displayed on the same one. On 9 September 1940, a teletype was set up at a 1280:, which operated on 6-digit numbers and second-order differences (i.e., it could tabulate quadratic polynomials). The complete engine, which would have been room-sized, was planned to operate both on sixth-order differences with numbers of about 20 digits, and on third-order differences with numbers of 30 digits. Each addition would have been done in two phases, the second one taking care of any carries generated in the first. The output digits were to be punched into a soft metal plate, from which a printing plate might have been made. But there were various difficulties, and no more than this prototype piece was ever finished. 1460:(the Difference Engine No.2), producing a completely executed set of plans by 1849. The machine would have operated on 7th-order differences and 31-digit numbers, but nobody was found to pay to have it built. In 1989–1991 a team at London's Science Museum did build one from the surviving plans. They built components using modern methods, but with tolerances no better than Clement could have provided... and, after a bit of tinkering and detail-debugging, they found that the machine works properly. In 2000, the printer was also completed. 2466:. It worked with floating-point numbers (7-bit exponent, 16-bit mantissa, and sign bit). The memory used sliding metal parts to store 16 such numbers, and worked well; but the arithmetic unit was less successful, occasionally suffering from certain mechanical engineering problems. The program was read from holes punched in discarded 35 mm movie film. Data values could have been entered from a numeric keyboard, and outputs were displayed on electric lamps. The machine was not a general purpose computer (i.e., 2924:. The program was read from one paper tape; data could be read from the other tapes, or the card readers, or from the constant registers. Conditional jumps were not available. However, in later years, the machine was modified to support multiple paper tape readers for the program, with the transfer from one to another being conditional, rather like a conditional subroutine call. Another addition allowed the provision of plug-board wired subroutines callable from the tape. Used to create ballistics tables for the 2691:(with refresh circuits—the first regenerative memory) mounted on two revolving drums. The clock speed was 60 Hz, and an addition took 1 second. For secondary memory it used punched cards, moved around by the user. The holes were not actually punched in the cards, but burned. The punched card system's error rate was never reduced beyond 0.001%, and this was inadequate. Atanasoff left Iowa State after the U.S. entered the war, ending his work on digital computing machines. 334: 2915:'s). The whole machine was 51 feet (16 m) long, weighed 5 (short) tons (4.5 tonnes), and incorporated 750,000 parts. It used 3304 electromechanical relays as on-off switches, had 72 accumulators (each with its own arithmetic unit), as well as a mechanical register with a capacity of 23 digits plus sign. The arithmetic was fixed-point and decimal, with a 2765:'. This was a specialized counting machine used for cipher-breaking, not a general-purpose calculator or computer, but a logic device using a combination of electronics and relay logic. It read data optically at 2000 characters per second from two closed loops of paper tape. It was significant as it was the forerunner of Colossus. Newman knew Turing from 1406:, a mechanical calculator with a very intuitive user interface, especially for multiplying and dividing numbers because the result was displayed as soon as the operands were entered. It received a gold medal at the French national show in Paris in 1849. Unfortunately its complexity and the fragility of its design prevented it from being manufactured. 3041:(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer): One of the first totally electronic, vacuum tube, digital, program-controlled computers was unveiled although it was shut down on 9 November 1946 for a refurbishment and a memory upgrade, and was transferred to Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland in 1947. Development had started in 1943 at the 4647:

cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census." Carroll D. Wright Commissioner of Labor in Charge.

921:; one in 1623 and the other in 1624. A fire later destroyed the machine as it was being built in 1624 and he decided to abandon his project. This machine became known to the world only in 1957 when the two letters were discovered. Some replicas were built in 1961. This machine had no impact on the development of mechanical calculators. 966:, its public introduction in 1645 started the development of mechanical calculators first in Europe and then in the rest of the world. It was the first machine to have a controlled carry mechanism. Pascal built 50 prototypes before releasing his first machine (eventually twenty machines were built). The Pascaline inspired the works of 1699:. This was the first calculator in which operands are entered by pressing keys rather than having to be, for example, dialled in. It was feasible because of Felt's invention of a carry mechanism fast enough to act while the keys return from being pressed. Felt and Tarrant started a partnership to manufacture the comptometer in 1887. 1577:, and the second was ordered in 1857 by the British government. The Albany machine was used to produce a set of astronomical tables; but the Observatory's director was fired for this extravagant purchase, and the machine never seriously used again, eventually ending up in a museum. The second machine had a long and useful life. 1658:, living in New York City, invented a calculator with an internal multiplication table; this was much faster than the shifting carriage, or other digital methods of the time. He wasn't interested in putting it into production, however; it seems he just wanted to show that a Spaniard could invent as well as an American. 3522:(Monetary National Income Analogue Computer) also known as the Phillips Hydraulic Computer, was created in 1949 to model the national economic processes of the United Kingdom. The MONIAC consisted of a series of transparent plastic tanks and pipes. It is thought that twelve to fourteen machines were built. 4646:

Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895 Washington, D.C., July 29 1895 Page 9: "You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire

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functions for helping to establish the rotor settings of the Lorenz SZ42 machine. Ten Mark 2 Colossi were in use at Bletchley Park by the end of the war in Europe in May 1945. All but two of the machines were then dismantled into such small parts that it was not possible to infer their use, so as to

1838:

to increment mechanical counters. This method was used in the 1890 census. The net effect of the many changes from the 1880 census: the larger population, the data items to be collected, the Census Bureau headcount, the scheduled publications, and the use of Hollerith's electromechanical tabulators,

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from 1887 to 1890). Its simplicity made it the most reliable calculator to date. It was a big machine (a 20 digit arithmometer was long enough to occupy most of a desktop). Even though the arithmometer was only manufactured until 1915, twenty European companies manufactured improved clones of its

3269:(Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator). It was the first computer to modify a stored program. "About 1300 vacuum tubes were used to construct the arithmetic unit and eight very high-speed registers, while 23000 relays were used in the control structure and 150 registers of slower memory." 2462:. Zuse's 1936 patent application (Z23139/GMD Nr. 005/021) also suggested a 'von Neumann' architecture (re-invented about 1945) with program and data modifiable in storage. Originally the machine was called the 'V1' but retroactively renamed after the war, to avoid confusion with the 1863:

of St. Louis invented a machine similar to Felt's (see 1884) in 1885 but unlike the comptometer it was a 'key-set' machine which only processed each number after a crank handle was pulled. The true manufacturing of this machine started in 1891 even though Burroughs had started his

2605:' (originally 'V2'), which combined the Z1's existing mechanical memory unit with a new arithmetic unit using relay logic. Like the Z1, the Z2 lacked loop capabilities. The project was interrupted for a year when Zuse was drafted in 1939, but continued after he was released. 2415:

of the Bell Telephone Laboratories (Bell Labs), New York City, constructed a demonstration 1-bit binary adder using relays. This was one of the first binary computers, although at this stage it was only a demonstration machine; improvements continued leading to the

413:. The chariot was a two-wheeled vehicle, upon which is a pointing figure connected to the wheels by means of differential gearing. Through careful selection of wheel size, track and gear ratios, the figure atop the chariot always pointed in the same direction. 2804:

format using seven relays for each digit, of which exactly two should be "on": 01 00001 for 0, 01 00010 for 1, and so on up to 10 10000 for 9. Some of the later machines in this series would use the biquinary notation for the digits of floating-point numbers.

2919:

setting determining the number of decimal places. Input–output facilities include card readers, a card punch, paper tape readers, and typewriters. There were 60 sets of rotary switches, each of which could be used as a constant register—sort of mechanical

3053:. It weighed 30 tonnes and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, consuming around 160 kW of electrical power. It could do 5,000 basic calculations a second. It was used for calculating ballistic trajectories and testing theories behind the hydrogen bomb. 1340:

were to depend on the positioning of metal studs in a slotted barrel, called the "control barrel". The machine envisioned would have been capable of an addition in 3 seconds and a multiplication or division in 2–4 minutes. It was to be powered by a

502:

which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. This "cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century." They also invented an

850:

capable of addition and subtraction. A working model inspired by this plan was built in 1968 but it remains controversial whether Leonardo really had a calculator in mind. Da Vinci also made plans for a mechanical man: an early design for a

3506:), Australia's first computer, ran its first test program. It was a vacuum-tube-based electronic general-purpose computer. Its main memory stored data as a series of acoustic pulses in 5 ft (1.5 m) long tubes filled with mercury. 1556:, which they called a Tabulating Machine. It operated on 15-digit numbers and 4th-order differences, and produced printed output just as Babbage's would have. A second machine was later built in 1859 to the same design by the firm of 473:, some of them extremely accurate, had been known for centuries previous to this. This was an important technological leap forward; the earliest true computers, made a thousand years later, used technology based on that of clocks. 1929:

First model of Dalton adding machine is built. Remington advertised the Dalton adding machine as the first 10-key printing adding machine. The 10 keys were set on two rows. Six machines had been manufactured by the end of 1906.

2800:'. This was a programmable calculator; again, the program and data were read from paper tapes. An innovative feature was that, for greater reliability (error-detecting/self-checking), numbers were represented in a 2269:

such as traditional mathematics are either inconsistent in a certain sense, or contain unprovable but true statements. This result is often called the fundamental result of theoretical computer science.

1095:. The "engine" consisted of a wooden frame with wooden blocks containing parts of speech. When the engine's 40 levers are simultaneously turned, the machine displayed grammatical sentence fragments. 3405:

handheld mechanical calculator was sold. The Curta computed with 11 digits of decimal precision on input operands up to 8 decimal digits. The Curta was about the size of a handheld pepper grinder.

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invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by

3247:(ACM), was founded as the world's first scientific and educational computing society. It remains to this day with a membership currently around 78,000. Its headquarters are in New York City. 56: 1892:

began the development of a mechanical calculating machine (automatic abacus). Ryoichi independently conducted research on calculating machines, and it took three years to complete his

1316:. Babbage continued to work on the design for years, though after about 1840 design changes seem to have been minor. The machine would have operated on 40-digit numbers; the 'mill' ( 233: 3079:

Executive Committee, giving the first reasonably complete design of a stored-program computer. However, because of the strict and long-lasting secrecy around his wartime work at

1024:'. It could multiply numbers of up to 5 and 12 digits to give a 16 digit result. Two machines were built, one in 1694 (it was discovered in an attic in 1879), and one in 1706. 2867:

The first Mark 2 Colossus was commissioned. It was a development of the Mark 1 machine and contained 2400 vacuum tubes. It had five identical parallel processors fed from a

2458:', the first mechanical binary programmable computer. It was based on Boolean Algebra and had some of the basic ingredients of modern machines, using the binary system and 1806:, data processing would take longer than the 10 years before the next census—so a competition was held to find a better method. It was won by a Census Department employee, 80: 2265:, Austria, published a paper on a universal formal language based on arithmetic operations. He used it to encode arbitrary formal statements and proofs, and showed that 1916:

released the first 10-key adding machine in about 1900. The inventor, William Hopkins, filed his first patent on October 4, 1892. The 10 keys were set on a single row.

875:

algorithm and allowed the operator to multiply, divide, and calculate square and cube roots by moving the rods around and placing them in specially constructed boards.

5651: 1785:, a Swede living in Russia. Fluted drums were replaced by a "variable-toothed gear" design: a disk with radial pegs that could be made to protrude or retract from it. 5759: 5039: 4389: 1522:(invented in 1820). Aside from its clones, which started thirty years later, it was the only calculating machine available anywhere in the world for forty years ( 363: 1777:

A multiplying calculator more compact than the Arithmometer entered mass production. The design was the independent, and more or less simultaneous, invention of

1332:; the cards were to be chained and the motion of each chain reversible. The machine would have performed conditional jumps. There would also have been a form of 570: 5603:, from "The New AI: General & Sound & Relevant for Physics, In B. Goertzel and C. Pennachin, eds.: Artificial General Intelligence, pp. 175–198, 2006." 5322: 1535:

design until the beginning of WWII. Prominent clone manufacturers included Burkhardt, Layton, Saxonia, Gräber, Peerless, Mercedes-Euklid, XxX, and Archimedes.

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which, when coupled to a Pascaline, could perform all four mathematical operations. There is no evidence that Leibniz ever constructed this pinwheel machine.

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Kennedy, Edward S. (1952). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Maneteq" II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets".

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Multiplying Punch, an electromechanical machine that could read two numbers, up to 8 digits long, from a card and punch their product onto the same card.

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and divisions quickly and effectively by using a movable accumulator for the result. This machine was based on the earlier works of Pascal and Leibniz.

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for this purpose in 1946. The device was patented in 1947, but only a prototype was ever built and the device was kept as a secret outside military.

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was cancelled as an official project. The cost overruns had been considerable (£17,470 was spent, which, in 2004 money, would be about £1,000,000).

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that can be rewired to adapt the machine for different applications. Plugboards were widely used to direct machine calculations until displaced by

4946: 4660: 716:. The length of day and night could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. 182: 5706: 3564: 1818:. He invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine. Prior uses of machine readable media had been for control ( 306: 5162: 2142:

with 80 columns of data and rectangular holes. Widely known as IBM Cards, they dominate the data processing industry for almost half a century.

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Kennedy, Edward S. (1950). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Manateq" I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude".

1740:. First recorded use of this device was in 1889 in the Office of the Surgeon General of the Army. In 1896 Hollerith introduced improved model. 4807: 1802:

had taken 7 years to complete since all processing had been done by hand from journal sheets. The increasing population suggested that by the

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to six years for the 1890 census. The inspiration for this invention was Hollerith's observation of railroad conductors during a trip in the

248: 5644: 2999: 2395:' whose solution was sought in the paper by reasoning (as a mathematical device) about a simple and theoretical computer, known today as a 156: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 2683:

Atanasoff and Berry completed a special-purpose calculator for solving systems of simultaneous linear equations, later called the 'ABC' ('

301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 3857: 1191:' which after thirty more years of development became, in 1851, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. An operator could perform 1039:"Machina arithmetica in qua non additio tantum et subtractio sed et multiplicatio nullo, diviso vero paene nullo animi labore peragantur" 5739: 3244: 1124: 5045: 3796: 743: 525: 4877: 1944: 356: 131: 4991: 1675:, and concluded that it would be impossible now that Babbage was dead. The project was then largely forgotten, except by a very few; 5809: 5792: 5198: 4757: 4486: 4459: 4361: 4334: 4271: 3828: 1947:, built the Kawaguchi Electric Tabulation Machine, used to tabulate some of the results of the 1904 Demographics Statistical Study. 1896:

mechanical desktop calculating machine, before applying for a patent in 1902. It was Japan's first successful mechanical computer.

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system used up until the early 1990s for problems in mechanical and structural design, fluidics, and various transient problems.

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Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory

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with an initial investment of $ 538 (equivalent to $ 11,645 in 2023); this was considered to be the symbolic founding of

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by Stephen White. An excellent computer history site; the present article is a modified version of his timeline, used with

4419: 4351: 4324: 5797: 5787: 4449: 3571: 3132: 3042: 1865: 1232: 999:. Instead of a carry mechanism, it registered carries on auxiliary dials, from which the user re-entered them as addends. 349: 337: 207: 197: 3874: 2684: 1328:) would have held a thousand 50-digit numbers. There would have been several punched card readers, for both programs and 6099: 5802: 5754: 5660: 4261: 3360: 3172: 3105: 2829: 2155: 323: 311: 146: 5606: 4476: 1235:, which can calculate the precise calendar for over 4000 years, accounting for leap years and variation in day length. 5744: 5193:; Sharpe, Mitchell R (1979). The Rocket Team. Apogee Books Space Series 36. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. pp. 46, 294. 3466:

about stored program computers, the EDSAC was the first complete, fully functional von Neumann architecture computer.

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final specification is completed; this machine was notably in being the first computer to use the equivalent of base/

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to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a

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for information storage and search. He designed several machines to demonstrate his ideas, including the so-called

212: 2061:

and designed a Babbage type of calculating machine that used electromechanical parts which introduced the idea of

1111:, in what is now Germany, made a successful portable calculator able to perform all four mathematical operations. 811:, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in 3878: 3820: 2574: 2459: 2418: 2062: 2054: 1803: 1799: 1481:) which has been widely used in binary computer design and operation, beginning about a century later. See 1939. 487: 3300:, officially came online on this date. The control was entirely electromechanical and the memory was based on a 788: 5842: 5749: 3324: 3008: 2916: 2801: 2532:), Ames, Iowa, completed a prototype 16-bit adder. This was the first machine to calculate using vacuum tubes. 2332: 1893: 1782: 1192: 867:

reinvented a form of logarithms and an ingenious system of movable rods (1617, referred to as Napier's Rods or

1108: 3984: 1382: 5624: 5294:(Interview). Interview #465. IEEE History Center, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc 5190: 4770:"【Kawaguchi Ichitaro (Ministry of Communications and Transportation) 】Kawaguchi Electric Tabulation Machine" 3924:

Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi".

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Koetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators".

2359:-controlled sequencer switch that he designed. The combined system was used to automate the integration of 1847:; they encoded a crude description of the passenger (tall, bald, male) in the way they punched the ticket. 589:

and positions of the Moon, Sun and planets without calculation, using a geometrical model to represent the

17: 5868: 5734: 5386:

Campbell-Kelly, Martin (April 1982). "The Development of Computer Programming in Britain (1945 to 1955)".

3388: 3327:. It ran its first program on this date. It was the first computer to store both its programs and data in 2582: 2521: 1622: 872: 537: 444: 402: 202: 5422: 4537:. Inside the world's first computers - Allan Bromley. Reed Business Information. 1983-09-15. p. 784. 4532: 2840:, and applied a programmable logical function to a stream of characters, read and re-read from a loop of 2769:(Turing was a student of Newman's), and had been the first person to see a draft of Turing's 1936 paper. 5668: 5326: 4923: 3897: 3850: 3839: 3534: 2529: 2495: 2399:. In many ways, this device was more convenient than Gödel's arithmetics-based universal formal system. 2360: 2190: 2186: 1869: 1844: 1733: 1305: 1160: 847: 800: 422: 267: 5600: 4326:

The Philosophical Breakfast Club: Four Remarkable Friends Who Transformed Science and Changed the World

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From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush

3768: 3432: 3424: 3328: 3084: 2392: 2078: 804: 678: 511: 48: 39: 3391:(FRUs), which cut downtime as entire pluggable units can simply be replaced instead of troubleshot. 2585:, with a connection to New York, and those attending the conference could use the machine remotely. 4868: 3759: 3420: 3293: 3199: 2754: 2438:

published a paper on the implementation of symbolic logic using relays as his MIT Master's thesis.

2352: 2210: 2163: 2114: 2027: 1066: 1046: 774: 98: 4970: 4612: 4405: 2781:. Two later machines in the series were named after London stores with 'Robinson' in their names. 1963:, Charles's son, with the help of the firm of R. W. Munro, completed the 'mill' from his father's 846:

produced drawings of a device consisting of interlocking cog wheels which can be interpreted as a

5908: 5863: 5403: 5263: 5228: 5143: 5087: 5033: 4580:. Leipälä, Timo; Turku, Finland. "The Life and Works of WT Odhner (Part II).". pp. 69–70, 72 4573: 4542: 4518: 4154: 4117: 4080: 4035: 4027: 3941: 3615: 3607: 2900: 2214: 1127:, of England, designed and constructed a successful multiplying calculator similar to Leibniz's. 689: 674: 540: 492: 192: 5100:(1938), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. A correction", 2548:

completed a prototype 10-bit adder using vacuum tubes, and a prototype memory using neon lamps.

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connects an IBM 285 Tabulator, an 016 Duplicating Punch and an IBM 601 Multiplying Punch with a

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in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history.

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Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments".

3489:, a feature not entering common computer architecture until the second generation around 1955. 2911:

and his team, financed and built by IBM—it became the second program-controlled machine (after

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that enabled processing of 25,000 characters a second. Colossus could evaluate a wide range of

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launched the mechanical calculator industry by starting the manufacturing of a much simplified

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Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942

5194: 5014: 5004: 4966: 4864: 4753: 4592: 4482: 4455: 4357: 4330: 4267: 4072: 4019: 3854: 3824: 3694: 3482: 3340: 3195: 3152: 3050: 3020: 2821: 2665: 2578: 2435: 2262: 1964: 1840: 1672: 1639: 1597: 1553: 1549: 1457: 1440: 1436: 1420: 1297: 1277: 1212: 1144: 1042: 1017: 967: 910: 868: 843: 770: 724: 655: 604: 566: 434: 410: 66: 33: 4793: 4313:(it) Museo Nazionale Della Scienza E Della Tecnologia Leonardo Da Vinci. Retrieved 2010-10-04 6013: 5998: 5943: 5726: 5558: 5395: 5255: 5220: 5135: 5105: 5079: 4894: 4731: 4146: 4109: 4064: 4011: 3933: 3793: 3776: 3686: 3642: 3599: 3463: 3336: 3168: 3164: 3087:) from explaining that he knew that his ideas could be implemented in an electronic device. 2990: 2921: 2704: 2328: 2008: 1988: 1807: 1778: 1729: 1713: 1574: 1515: 1325: 1309: 1301: 1147:(first written reference to the basic principles of a difference machine is dated to 1784). 1021: 971: 883: 430: 406: 122: 4391:

Rapport du jury central sur les produits de l'agriculture et de l'industrie exposés en 1849

3959: 2660:(originally 'V3'): the first operational programmable computer. One major improvement over 665:: this seems to have been the first serious, scientific (as opposed to magical) plan for a 6063: 6033: 5988: 5963: 5953: 5928: 5918: 5873: 5056: 5022: 3910: 3861: 3800: 3757:

Lorch, R. P. (1976). "The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum".

3738:"Transfer of Islamic Technology to the West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering" 3364: 3320: 3227: 3207: 3117: 3046: 3016: 2872: 2708: 2661: 2545: 2467: 2463: 2356: 2320: 1378: 1208: 1062: 918: 796: 747: 681: 616: 608: 582: 533: 426: 381: 108: 4702: 4512: 4173:"History of Computers and Computing, Mechanical calculators, Pioneers, Leonardo da Vinci" 1889: 1140: 5576: 4890: 3772: 3715:(2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents". 2649:

Now working with limited backing from the DVL (German Aeronautical Research Institute),

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and was capable of tracking the relative positions of all then-known heavenly bodies.

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The Evolution of the Modern Computer (1934 to 1950): An Open Source Graphical History

5123: 4875:(October 1931), "Analysis of the α-Particles Emitted from Thorium C and Actinium C", 4872: 4121: 4039: 3619: 3415: 3375: 3351: 3257: 3238: 3218: 3185: 3033: 2985: 2965: 2960: 2949: 2945: 2890: 2852:

during World War II—as a follow on from the less productive Heath Robinson machines.

2833: 2825: 2791: 2778: 2678: 2655: 2602: 2556: 2516: 2487: 2478: 2455: 2430: 2407: 2388: 2384: 2343: 2309: 2278: 2266: 2258: 2182: 2177: 2150: 2130: 2102: 2033: 2003: 1992: 1975: 1967:, to show that it would have worked. It does. The complete machine was not produced. 1960: 1924: 1907: 1855: 1827: 1793: 1764: 1748: 1724: 1707: 1687: 1593: 1568: 1353: 1313: 1164: 1013: 955: 499: 466: 5596: 5407: 5267: 5232: 5147: 4845:

by Brian Randell, 1982, Ludgate: pp. 4–5, Quevedo: pp. 6, 11–13, Bush: pp. 13, 16–17

4084: 2122:

in Physics 1954. Digital circuitries of all kinds make heavy use of this technique.

1443:

with printer; the Swedish government agreed to fund their next development in 1851.

6038: 5978: 5973: 5938: 5903: 5888: 4999:. Tampere International Center for Signal Processing (TICSP) Series. Vol. 40. 3223: 3203: 3126: 2908: 2848:

of memory, the program being set on switches and plug panels. Colossus was used at

2841: 2303: 2139: 2082: 1831: 1737: 1676: 1557: 1519: 1474: 1358: 1342: 1252: 1188: 1168: 975: 670: 470: 5074:(1936), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", 3011:. It directly or indirectly influenced nearly all subsequent projects, especially 654:

and made numerous other technological innovations. One of these is a design for a

5091: 704:

travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour, and five

6078: 6048: 5883: 5878: 3712: 3332: 3301: 3072: 2941: 2912: 2837: 2728: 2650: 2598: 2451: 2376: 2119: 1984: 1696: 1573:

The first Tabulating Machine (see 1853) was bought by the Dudley Observatory in

1531: 1527: 1403: 895: 864: 766: 713: 697: 693: 529: 5246:

Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer".

5211:

Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer".

5109: 5083: 1839:

was to reduce the time required to process the census from eight years for the

6058: 6053: 5923: 3882: 3690: 3191: 3113: 2774: 2757:

and their team at the secret Government Code and Cypher School ('Station X'),

2750: 2712: 2109: 2058: 1823: 887: 578: 574: 544: 496: 377: 5018: 4735: 4656: 4023: 3698: 5893: 5399: 5259: 5224: 3497: 3101: 2973: 2797: 2688: 2562: 2218: 2012: 1830:, ...), not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on 1819: 1753: 1692: 1601: 1523: 1333: 963: 891: 812: 732: 662: 651: 647: 612: 586: 504: 5620: 4943:

Switching Theory/Relay Circuit Network Theory/Theory of Logical Mathematics

4899: 4076: 3124:. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented a 2796:

Williams and Stibitz completed the 'Relay Interpolator', later called the '

1600:

machine intended to prepare interest rates (first publication in 1860) and

1439:

and his son Edvard produced a 5-digit numbers and third-order model of the

1211:

designed his first mechanical computer, the first prototype of the decimal

773:

centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and

4135:

Kennedy, Edward S. (1951). "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes".

5829: 5769: 5629: 3266: 3121: 2732: 907: 828: 824: 820: 807:. He also invented a mechanical "planetary computer" which he called the 739: 709: 632: 551:-wheels. This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing 89: 29: 5614: 5358: 2993:

drafted a report describing the future computer eventually built as the

2383:, England, published a paper on 'computable numbers' which reformulated 5423:"School of Computer Science & Information Systems: A Short History" 5323:"Briton: 'I invented the computer mouse 20 years before the Americans'" 3945: 3611: 3384: 3331:, as modern computers do. By 1949 the 'Baby' had grown, and acquired a 2936: 2925: 2876:

maintain the secrecy of the work. The remaining two were dismantled at

2836:

at Bletchley Park. It was a binary digital machine that contained 1500

2723: 2699: 2644: 2593: 2540: 2446: 2287: 2253: 2097: 1135: 1103: 1032: 1007: 755: 728: 628: 624: 552: 5597:

Timeline: exponential speedup since first automatic calculator in 1623

5139: 4158: 4031: 4002:

Kennedy, E. S. (November 1947). "Al-Kāshī's "Plate of Conjunctions"".

3664: 3519: 3503: 2948:, the first higher-level programming language. He also presented the 1980: 1873: 1772: 1768: 1588: 1543: 1509: 1431: 1397: 1243: 1179: 1155: 949: 816: 685: 429:

believed to have been designed and built in the Corinthian colony of

3937: 3603: 1143:, an engineer in the Hessian army, first conceived of the idea of a 4150: 4113: 4068: 4015: 5104:, 2, vol. 43, no. 6 (published 1937), pp. 544–546, 3462:

computer, which used paper tape input–output. Based on ideas from

3459: 3428: 3402: 3285: 3038: 3012: 2994: 2969: 2298: 2166:(AC) electrical transmission line simulations up until the 1960s. 2044: 1938: 1884: 1835: 1650: 1386: 1373: 1362: 1324:

and some auxiliary ones for specific purposes, while the 'store' (

1223: 1057: 852: 832: 705: 666: 507: 4834: 2221:

tubes to construct a binary digital counter that counted emitted

4501:

the first clone maker was made by Burkhardt from Germany in 1878

4451:

The Dawn of Innovation: The First American Industrial Revolution

3304:. This was the first rotating drum storage device in existence. 2877: 1329: 751: 736: 548: 5633: 754:-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared 4421:

A History of the Royal Society: With Memoirs of the Presidents

3847: 3380: 3262: 2896: 2845: 2731:

developed the S1, the world's first process computer, used by

2316: 2283: 2135: 4514:

Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine

708:

musicians who play music when struck by levers operated by a

5292:"RALPH BENJAMIN: An Interview Conducted by Peter C. J. Hill" 3003:

includes the first published description of the design of a

2899:

Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator was turned over to

2118:, for use in physics experiments, for which he received the 1345:. In the end, no more than a few parts were actually built. 55: 3661:

History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations

1671:

A committee investigated the feasibility of completing the

4408:

Maurice d'Ocagne, page 269, Bibliothèque numérique du CNAM

2777:

known for drawings of comical machines, like the American

1381:'s first public exposition about his Analytical Engine at 38:. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see 4750:

Antique Office Machines: 600 Years of Calculating Devices

2032:

Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work,

1716:

tabulating system in the Baltimore Department of Health.

5316: 5314: 5312: 5310: 5308: 4636:

Columbia University Computing History - Herman Hollerith

3677:

Hill, Donald (1985). "Al-Bīrūnī's mechanical calendar".

2613:("German Laboratory for Aviation") in Berlin-Adlershof. 4475:

Gilbert, William J.; Nicholson, W. Keith (2004-01-30).

5126:(1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". 5078:, 2, vol. 42 (published 1937), pp. 230–265, 3842:, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", 3817:

Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction

3104:

was invented as part of a radar plotting system named

2687:'). This had 60 50-bit words of memory in the form of 1736:(granted in 1890), which could add numbers encoded on 1069:. It was made of wood and was built in the shape of a 799:

instrument used to determine the time of day at which

5564:. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 5551:(in French). Paris: Presses universitaires de France. 5285: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5277: 4438:, pp. 77 & 102–106, Oxford University Press, 2004 4393:, Tome II, page 542 - 548, Imprimerie Nationale, 1850 3450:

This is considered the birthday of modern computing.

2057:

formulates what will be a new branch of engineering:

1296:

Babbage conceived, and began to design, his decimal '

2607:

In 1940 Zuse presented the Z2 to an audience of the

1089:

described (satirically) a machine ("engine") in his

5856: 5828: 5768: 5725: 5667: 2997:(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). 2832:in London, to assist in the cracking of the German 1020:

started designing a machine which multiplied, the '

409:. It was the first known geared mechanism to use a 5557: 5525: 4815:The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection 4676:"Automatic Abacus】 Mechanical Calculating Machine" 4350:Dubbey, J. M.; Dubbey, John Michael (2004-02-12). 3926:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 3659:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 2844:at a rate of 5000 characters a second. It had 501 3875:"Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots" 4924:History of Research on Switching Theory in Japan 1065:was the first to build a calculator that used a 827:of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an 469:built the world's first fully mechanical clock; 5346:Booth, A.D.; Britten, K.H.V. (September 1947). 4928:IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Materials 2976:device linked to a library of books and films. 5476:Scripta Mathematica (Septembre 1932-Juin 1933) 5102:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 5076:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 4680:Mechanical Calculating Machine-Computer Museum 2569:completed a calculator which could operate on 5645: 5514:Histoire du calcul. Que sais-je ? n° 198 5066: 5064: 1945:Ministry of Communications and Transportation 1756:invented the first printing desk calculator. 615:, an observational instrument and mechanical 357: 8: 5163:"How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer" 4808:"Percy E. Ludgate Prize in Computer Science" 3116:Scientific Service. Benjamin's project used 2608: 1638:Babbage produced a prototype section of the 750:. Abi Bakr's geared astrolabe uses a set of 510:player which appears to have been the first 5611:a photographic gallery on computing history 5381: 5379: 4971:Some Historical Remarks on Switching Theory 4378:Charles Babbage e l’Accademia delle Scienze 4266:. Cambridge University Press. p. 154. 3288:, the first of three machines developed at 958:invented the mechanical calculator. Called 611:(Geber), may have invented or inspired the 18:Timeline of computing hardware 2400 BC–1949 5652: 5638: 5630: 5180:H. Otto Hirschler, 87, Aided Space Program 5038:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4932:Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan 2624: 2235: 1491: 931: 491:, invented "the earliest known mechanical 364: 350: 44: 5528:Computers: The Life Story of a Technology 4898: 4752:, 2001, p. 114, Schiffer Publishing Ltd, 4517:. Chicago: Washington Institute. p. 3458:executed the first stored program on the 2331:published a series of papers introducing 4794:"IBM Tabulators and Accounting Machines" 4353:The Mathematical Work of Charles Babbage 4138:Journal of the American Oriental Society 3989:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford 3964:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford 3663:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 450: 386: 5388:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5248:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5213:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5128:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 4947:Information Processing Society of Japan 4726:"In future will sell adding machines". 4697: 4695: 4661:Information Processing Society of Japan 4263:Passages from the Life of a Philosopher 3582: 3083:, he was prohibited (having signed the 2664:'s non-functional device is the use of 2633: 2630: 2470:) because it lacked loop capabilities. 2244: 2241: 1943:Ichitaro Kawaguchi, an engineer at the 1500: 1497: 940: 937: 823:of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the 677:which is considered to be the earliest 456: 392: 322: 266: 220: 169: 121: 88: 65: 47: 5031: 4930:, vol. 124 (2004) no. 8, pp. 720–726, 4590: 4540: 3906: 3895: 2610:Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt 114:Free software and open-source software 5057:Interconnected Punched Card Equipment 4670: 4668: 2830:The Post Office Research Laboratories 2761:, Bletchley, England, completed the ' 2502:. HP would grow to become one of the 1456:Babbage began to work on an improved 962:, Pascal's calculator and eventually 7: 4835:"Percy Ludgate's Analytical Machine" 4481:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 7. 3000:First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 1604:tables (first publication in 1875). 1276:produced a prototype segment of his 5760:Quantum computing and communication 5516:. Presses universitaires de France. 4578:www.rechenmaschinen-illustrated.com 3245:Association for Computing Machinery 2391:). His paper addressed the famous ' 1617:The first practical logic machine ( 1125:Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl Stanhope 4878:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 3781:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x 3077:National Physical Laboratory (NPL) 3075:presented a detailed paper to the 1834:..." His machines used mechanical 1732:filed a patent application for an 1167:, an automatic loom controlled by 593:'s mean and anomalistic position. 25: 4448:Morris, Charles R. (2014-03-04). 4424:. J. W. Parker. pp. 387–390. 3794:A 13th Century Programmable Robot 2735:to measure the surface of wings. 873:lattice or gelosia multiplication 619:device used to transform between 104:Software configuration management 27:This article presents a detailed 5497:. National Museums Of Scotland. 5493:Gladstone-Millar, Lynne (2003). 5290:Hill, Peter C. J. (2005-09-16). 5001:Tampere University of Technology 4963:Tampere University of Technology 4703:"Early Computers: Brief History" 4478:Modern Algebra with Applications 4329:. Crown/Archetype. p. 192. 3387:', the first machine to feature 2387:'s results (see related work by 871:). These rods were based on the 742:movement based on the design of 333: 332: 5593:, article from Virtual Travelog 4562:Hollerith Integrating Tabulator 4323:Snyder, Laura J. (2011-02-22). 4260:Babbage, Charles (2011-10-12). 3363:was an AC-energized electrical 2528:of Iowa State College (now the 1914:Standard Adding Machine Company 1552:completed the first full-scale 1514:After 30 years of development, 1361:invented the electromechanical 1185:Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar 917:on two letters that he sent to 913:drew a device that he called a 803:will occur, and for performing 34:computing software and hardware 5321:Copping, Jasper (2013-07-11). 4418:Weld, Charles Richard (1848). 4356:. Cambridge University Press. 3290:Birkbeck, University of London 3161:Birkbeck, University of London 3071:(Automatic Computing Engine): 2011:introduces a tabulator with a 1045:described a machine that used 1: 6105:History of computing hardware 5778:Free and open-source software 5578:A Brief History of Computing, 5478:. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. 5421:Johnson, Roger (April 2008). 4913:The IBM 601 Multiplying Punch 4454:. PublicAffairs. p. 63. 3647:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 3572:History of computing hardware 3112:when working for the British 3043:Ballistic Research Laboratory 1866:American Arithmometer Company 1402:Timoleon Maurel patented the 815:of the Sun and Moon, and the 536:. He also invented the first 5621:Timeline of Computer History 5608:Computing History Timeline, 5560:A Source Book in Mathematics 5556:Smith, David Eugene (1929). 5474:Ginsburg, Jekuthiel (2003). 4730:. Vol. 31. p. 34. 4235: 3635:Mechanism and Machine Theory 3173:Institute for Advanced Study 3106:Comprehensive Display System 2968:developed the theory of the 2504:largest technology companies 1781:, of the United States, and 1695:, of Chicago, developed his 1215:for tabulating polynomials. 621:spherical coordinate systems 585:device used for finding the 571:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī 433:. The mechanism contained a 324:Glossary of computer science 36:: from prehistory until 1949 32:of events in the history of 5495:John Napier: Logarithm John 3015:. The design team included 1810:, who went on to found the 6121: 5815:Virtualization development 5524:; Ferro, David L. (2005). 4973:, 2007, DOI 10.1.1.66.1248 4298: 3985:"History of the Astrolabe" 3509: 3502:CSIR Mk I (later known as 3492: 3469: 3408: 3394: 3370: 3346: 3307: 3272: 3250: 3233: 3213: 3178: 3139: 3090: 3056: 3026: 3007:, giving rise to the term 2979: 2955: 2931: 2883: 2855: 2808: 2784: 2738: 2718: 2711:to calculate and simulate 2694: 2671: 2637: 2588: 2551: 2535: 2509: 2473: 2454:of Berlin, completed the ' 2441: 2425: 2402: 2366: 2338: 2293: 2273: 2248: 2196: 2185:built a partly electronic 2169: 2145: 2125: 2092: 2068: 2039: 2022: 1998: 1970: 1950: 1933: 1919: 1899: 1879: 1850: 1812:Tabulating Machine Company 1788: 1759: 1743: 1719: 1702: 1682: 1661: 1645: 1628: 1607: 1580: 1563: 1548:To Babbage's delight, the 1538: 1504: 1477:developed binary algebra ( 1463: 1446: 1426: 1419:Construction of Babbage's 1409: 1392: 1368: 1348: 1283: 1262: 1238: 1233:Perpetual Calendar machine 1218: 1198: 1174: 1150: 1130: 1114: 1098: 1076: 1052: 1027: 1002: 981: 944: 901: 878: 858: 838: 780: 761: 719: 638: 596: 558: 517: 476: 460: 416: 396: 4286: 4247: 4231: 4219: 4207: 4195: 3821:University of Texas Press 3815:Howard R. Turner (1997), 3691:10.1080/00033798500200141 3151:Development of the first 2798:Model II Relay Calculator 2773:is the name of a British 2575:Complex Number Calculator 2460:floating-point arithmetic 2419:Complex Number Calculator 2158:AC Calculating board. An 2063:floating-point arithmetic 2055:Leonardo Torres y Quevedo 1868:in 1886 (it later became 1679:was a notable exception. 1047:wheels with movable teeth 488:Book of Ingenious Devices 81:Hardware 1960s to present 5355:Birkbeck College, London 5110:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544 5084:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 4945:, IPSJ Computer Museum, 4659:, IPSJ Computer Museum, 4613:"Key-Driven Calculators" 4311:Copy of Poleni's machine 3325:University of Manchester 3009:von Neumann architecture 2685:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 2333:switching circuit theory 1783:Willgodt Theophil Odhner 1320:) would have had 2 main 669:. He also invented the " 183:Graphical user interface 5740:Artificial intelligence 5625:Computer History Museum 5400:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10016 5260:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025 5225:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025 5191:Frederick I. Ordway III 3805:University of Sheffield 3592:Music Educators Journal 3389:Field Replaceable Units 3005:stored-program computer 2494:in Packard's garage in 2492:Hewlett-Packard Company 1383:Accademia delle Scienze 746:'s mechanical calendar 132:Artificial intelligence 5869:John Vincent Atanasoff 5661:Timelines of computing 5459:(in French). Hermann. 5455:Marguin, Jean (1994). 5432:. University of London 4965:), Mark G. Karpovsky ( 4957:Radomir S. Stanković ( 4900:10.1098/rspa.1931.0155 4597:: CS1 maint: others ( 4547:: CS1 maint: others ( 4511:Felt, Dorr E. (1916). 4234:, p. 48 (1994) Citing 3905:Cite journal requires 3855:Mechanical Engineering 3846:, May 1991, pp. 64–9 ( 3302:rotating magnetic drum 2903:, which called it the 2609: 2583:Hanover, New Hampshire 2565:, Samuel Williams and 2522:John Vincent Atanasoff 2361:differential equations 2191:differential equations 1623:William Stanley Jevons 1598:difference-engine-like 1526:only sold one hundred 1473:British Mathematician 1251:proposed the usage of 801:planetary conjunctions 403:south-pointing chariot 142:Early computer science 60: 6004:Klára Dán von Neumann 5810:Programming languages 4984:Stanković, Radomir S. 4961:), Jaakko T. Astola ( 3851:Donald Routledge Hill 3840:Donald Routledge Hill 3535:Timeline of computing 2907:. It was designed by 2838:vacuum tubes (valves) 2530:Iowa State University 2524:and graduate student 2496:Palo Alto, California 2187:differential analyzer 1870:Burroughs Corporation 1845:Western United States 1734:integrating tabulator 1642:'s mill and printer. 1161:Joseph-Marie Jacquard 1109:Philipp Matthäus Hahn 1037:In an article titled 848:mechanical calculator 793:Plate of Conjunctions 423:Antikythera mechanism 268:Timeline of computing 152:Programming languages 137:Compiler construction 59: 5783:Hypertext technology 5547:Taton, René (1963). 5512:Taton, René (1969). 5348:"Coding for the ARC" 5003:, Tampere, Finland. 4988:Astola, Jaakko Tapio 4869:Wynn-Williams, C. E. 4617:www.officemuseum.com 4301:, pp. 173–181 (1929) 4177:history-computer.com 3456:Cambridge University 3425:John William Mauchly 3339:, and it became the 3163:following work with 3085:Official Secrets Act 2767:Cambridge University 2573:, and named it the ' 2506:in the world today. 2393:Entscheidungsproblem 2381:Cambridge University 2085:published the first 2079:William Henry Eccles 2051:Essays on Automatics 1861:William S. Burroughs 1596:produced a reworked 1193:long multiplications 960:machine arithmétique 805:linear interpolation 744:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 650:, invented numerous 526:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 178:General-purpose CPUs 162:Software engineering 76:Hardware before 1960 49:History of computing 40:History of computing 6100:Computing timelines 5549:Le calcul mécanique 4891:1931RSPSA.133..351R 4406:Le calcul simplifié 3960:"Astrolabe gearing" 3844:Scientific American 3773:1976Cent...20...11L 3421:John Presper Eckert 3200:William B. Shockley 2755:C. E. Wynn-Williams 2353:Columbia University 2315:From 1934 to 1937, 2211:C. E. Wynn-Williams 2189:capable of solving 2164:alternating current 2160:AC network analyzer 2115:coincidence circuit 2028:Republic of Ireland 775:information science 684:. It displayed the 485:brothers, in their 5909:Edsger W. Dijkstra 5864:Kathleen Antonelli 5848:Web search engines 5838:Internet conflicts 5717:Women in computing 5601:Jürgen Schmidhuber 4865:Rutherford, Ernest 4289:, pp. 64–65 (1994) 3860:2007-12-25 at the 3799:2007-06-29 at the 3529:Computing timeline 3130:system called the 2901:Harvard University 2842:punched paper tape 2834:Lorenz SZ42 cipher 2824:was completed, by 2215:Cambridge, England 1872:and is now called 1814:, later to become 1092:Gulliver's Travels 725:Persian astronomer 675:astronomical clock 541:lunisolar calendar 495:", in this case a 493:musical instrument 198:Personal computers 157:Prominent pioneers 61: 6087: 6086: 6029:Bjarne Stroustrup 5934:Margaret Hamilton 5914:J. Presper Eckert 5788:Operating systems 5539:978-0-313-33149-7 5504:978-1-901663-70-9 5485:978-0-7661-3835-3 5466:978-2-7056-6166-3 5140:10.1109/85.707574 5010:978-952-15-1980-2 4967:Boston University 4959:University of Niš 4774:museum.ipsj.or.jp 4748:Thomas A. Russo: 4736:2027/uc1.c2647428 4728:Chicago Lumberman 4707:museum.ipsj.or.jp 4574:"Odhner Pictures" 3717:Turk J Elec Engin 3679:Annals of Science 3526: 3525: 3483:Manchester Mark 1 3341:Manchester Mark 1 3337:permanent storage 3323:was built at the 3196:Bell Laboratories 3190:Invention of the 3153:assembly language 3051:J. Presper Eckert 3021:J. Presper Eckert 2873:Boolean algebraic 2618: 2617: 2579:Dartmouth College 2436:Claude E. Shannon 2422:of January 1940. 2263:Vienna University 2229: 2228: 2217:, used a ring of 1965:Analytical Engine 1673:Analytical Engine 1640:Analytical Engine 1554:difference engine 1485: 1484: 1458:difference engine 1441:difference engine 1437:Per Georg Scheutz 1421:difference engine 1336:: the meaning of 1312:, in the form of 1304:for it was to be 1298:Analytical Engine 1278:difference engine 1257:linear homeoscope 1213:difference engine 1145:difference engine 1071:calculating clock 1043:Gottfried Leibniz 1018:Gottfried Leibniz 968:Gottfried Leibniz 946:1642 925: 924: 915:calculating clock 911:Wilhelm Schickard 844:Leonardo da Vinci 731:invented a brass 543:which employed a 465:Chinese inventor 441: 440: 435:differential gear 411:differential gear 374: 373: 147:Operating systems 16:(Redirected from 6112: 6014:Guido van Rossum 5999:John von Neumann 5944:David A. Huffman 5755:Machine learning 5727:Computer science 5654: 5647: 5640: 5631: 5617:by Computer Hope 5615:Computer History 5565: 5563: 5552: 5543: 5531: 5517: 5508: 5489: 5470: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5437: 5430:Birkbeck College 5427: 5418: 5412: 5411: 5383: 5374: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5364:on 24 March 2020 5363: 5357:. Archived from 5352: 5343: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5333: 5318: 5303: 5302: 5300: 5299: 5287: 5272: 5271: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5208: 5202: 5188: 5182: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5165:. Archived from 5158: 5152: 5151: 5120: 5114: 5112: 5094: 5068: 5059: 5054: 5048: 5044:(3+207+1 pages) 5043: 5037: 5029: 5027: 5021:. Archived from 4998: 4980: 4974: 4955: 4949: 4940: 4934: 4921: 4915: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4885:(822): 351–366, 4861: 4855: 4854: 4852: 4850: 4831: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4821: 4812: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4780: 4766: 4760: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4699: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4686: 4672: 4663: 4654: 4648: 4644: 4638: 4633: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4623: 4609: 4603: 4602: 4596: 4588: 4586: 4585: 4570: 4564: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4546: 4538: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4508: 4502: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4445: 4439: 4434:James Essinger, 4432: 4426: 4425: 4415: 4409: 4402: 4396: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4367: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4302: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4257: 4251: 4245: 4239: 4229: 4223: 4217: 4211: 4205: 4199: 4193: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4183: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4050: 4044: 4043: 3999: 3993: 3992: 3981: 3975: 3974: 3972: 3971: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3908: 3903: 3901: 3893: 3891: 3890: 3881:. Archived from 3871: 3865: 3837: 3831: 3813: 3807: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3745: 3744: 3735:Hassan, Ahmad Y. 3731: 3725: 3724: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3674: 3668: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3587: 3464:John von Neumann 3383:introduced the ' 3169:Herman Goldstine 3165:John von Neumann 3118:analog computers 2991:John von Neumann 2922:read-only memory 2625: 2612: 2490:established the 2329:Viktor Shestakov 2236: 2209:Welsh physicist 2138:standardizes on 2089:circuit design. 2009:Herman Hollerith 1989:thermionic valve 1808:Herman Hollerith 1779:Frank S. Baldwin 1730:Herman Hollerith 1714:Herman Hollerith 1575:Albany, New York 1516:Thomas de Colmar 1492: 1310:read-only memory 1022:Stepped Reckoner 972:Thomas de Colmar 954:French polymath 932: 894:as developed by 884:William Oughtred 789:Jamshīd al-Kāshī 451: 405:was invented in 387: 366: 359: 352: 336: 335: 123:Computer science 45: 21: 6120: 6119: 6115: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6083: 6064:Stephen Wolfram 6034:Ruth Teitelbaum 5989:Douglas McIlroy 5964:Semyon Korsakov 5954:Brian Kernighan 5929:Betty Holberton 5919:Adele Goldstine 5874:Charles Babbage 5852: 5824: 5764: 5745:Binary prefixes 5721: 5663: 5658: 5573: 5568: 5555: 5546: 5540: 5522:Swedin, Eric G. 5520: 5511: 5505: 5492: 5486: 5473: 5467: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5435: 5433: 5425: 5420: 5419: 5415: 5385: 5384: 5377: 5367: 5365: 5361: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5331: 5329: 5320: 5319: 5306: 5297: 5295: 5289: 5288: 5275: 5245: 5244: 5240: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5189: 5185: 5178: 5174: 5160: 5159: 5155: 5122: 5121: 5117: 5098:Turing, Alan M. 5096: 5072:Turing, Alan M. 5070: 5069: 5062: 5055: 5051: 5030: 5025: 5011: 4996: 4990:, eds. (2008). 4982: 4981: 4977: 4956: 4952: 4941: 4937: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4907: 4863: 4862: 4858: 4848: 4846: 4833: 4832: 4828: 4819: 4817: 4810: 4806: 4805: 4801: 4792: 4791: 4787: 4778: 4776: 4768: 4767: 4763: 4747: 4743: 4725: 4724: 4720: 4711: 4709: 4701: 4700: 4693: 4684: 4682: 4674: 4673: 4666: 4657:Early Computers 4655: 4651: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4630: 4621: 4619: 4611: 4610: 4606: 4589: 4583: 4581: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4560: 4556: 4539: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4510: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4462: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4433: 4429: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4403: 4399: 4387: 4383: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4337: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4297: 4293: 4285: 4281: 4274: 4259: 4258: 4254: 4246: 4242: 4230: 4226: 4218: 4214: 4206: 4202: 4194: 4190: 4181: 4179: 4171: 4170: 4166: 4134: 4133: 4129: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4001: 4000: 3996: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3969: 3967: 3958: 3957: 3953: 3938:10.2307/1006002 3923: 3922: 3918: 3904: 3894: 3888: 3886: 3879:History Channel 3873: 3872: 3868: 3862:Wayback Machine 3838: 3834: 3814: 3810: 3801:Wayback Machine 3792: 3788: 3756: 3755: 3751: 3742: 3740: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3658: 3654: 3632: 3631: 3627: 3604:10.2307/3391092 3589: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3531: 3487:index registers 3472: 3441: 3411: 3365:analog computer 3321:Manchester Baby 3310: 3275: 3253: 3228:Harvard Mark II 3208:Walter Brattain 3181: 3142: 3059: 3047:John W. Mauchly 3029: 3017:John W. Mauchly 2982: 2886: 2878:GCHQ Cheltenham 2858: 2811: 2787: 2741: 2709:analog computer 2674: 2662:Charles Babbage 2653:completed the ' 2640: 2623: 2601:completed the ' 2571:complex numbers 2546:Helmut Schreyer 2512: 2484:William Hewlett 2468:Turing complete 2464:V-1 flying bomb 2321:Akira Nakashima 2286:introduced the 2234: 2223:alpha particles 2017:stored programs 1771: 1767: 1621:) was built by 1490: 1479:Boolean algebra 1379:Charles Babbage 1209:Charles Babbage 1067:pinwheel design 1063:Giovanni Poleni 930: 919:Johannes Kepler 797:analog computer 748:analog computer 682:analog computer 617:analog computer 609:Jabir ibn Aflah 605:Arab astronomer 583:analog computer 581:, a mechanical 577:, invented the 567:Arab astronomer 534:analog computer 449: 427:analog computer 425:: A clockwork, 385: 370: 170:Modern concepts 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6118: 6116: 6108: 6107: 6102: 6092: 6091: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6044:Linus Torvalds 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6024:Frances Spence 6021: 6019:Claude Shannon 6016: 6011: 6009:Dennis Ritchie 6006: 6001: 5996: 5994:Marlyn Meltzer 5991: 5986: 5984:Joseph Kruskal 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5860: 5858: 5857:Notable people 5854: 5853: 5851: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5834: 5832: 5826: 5825: 5823: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5806: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5785: 5780: 5774: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5731: 5729: 5723: 5722: 5720: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5673: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5659: 5657: 5656: 5649: 5642: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5618: 5612: 5604: 5594: 5586: 5572: 5571:External links 5569: 5567: 5566: 5553: 5544: 5538: 5518: 5509: 5503: 5490: 5484: 5471: 5465: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5443: 5413: 5394:(2): 121–139. 5375: 5338: 5304: 5273: 5254:(3): 227–240. 5238: 5219:(3): 227–240. 5203: 5183: 5172: 5169:on 2009-11-02. 5153: 5115: 5060: 5049: 5028:on 2021-03-08. 5009: 4975: 4950: 4935: 4916: 4905: 4856: 4826: 4799: 4785: 4761: 4741: 4718: 4691: 4664: 4649: 4639: 4628: 4604: 4565: 4554: 4524: 4503: 4494: 4487: 4467: 4460: 4440: 4436:Jacquard's Web 4427: 4410: 4397: 4381: 4369: 4362: 4342: 4335: 4315: 4303: 4291: 4279: 4272: 4252: 4250:, p. 46 (1994) 4240: 4224: 4222:, p. 81 (1969) 4212: 4210:, p. 48 (1994) 4200: 4198:, p. 47 (1994) 4188: 4164: 4151:10.2307/595221 4127: 4114:10.1086/349363 4090: 4069:10.1086/349146 4063:(2): 180–183. 4045: 4016:10.1086/348036 4010:(1/2): 56–59. 3994: 3976: 3951: 3916: 3907:|journal= 3866: 3832: 3808: 3786: 3749: 3726: 3704: 3685:(2): 139–163. 3669: 3652: 3641:(5): 589–603. 3625: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3568: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3530: 3527: 3524: 3523: 3517: 3515:United Kingdom 3512: 3508: 3507: 3500: 3495: 3491: 3490: 3479: 3477:United Kingdom 3474: 3468: 3467: 3454:and a team at 3452:Maurice Wilkes 3448: 3446:United Kingdom 3443: 3437: 3436: 3427:construct the 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2676: 2670: 2669: 2647: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2632: 2629: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2586: 2567:George Stibitz 2559: 2554: 2550: 2549: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2533: 2526:Clifford Berry 2519: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2500:Silicon Valley 2481: 2476: 2472: 2471: 2449: 2444: 2440: 2439: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2423: 2413:George Stibitz 2410: 2405: 2401: 2400: 2397:Turing machine 2374: 2372:United Kingdom 2369: 2365: 2364: 2349:Wallace Eckert 2346: 2341: 2337: 2336: 2325:Claude Shannon 2313: 2296: 2292: 2291: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2271: 2267:formal systems 2256: 2251: 2247: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2207: 2205:United Kingdom 2202: 2195: 2194: 2180: 2175: 2168: 2167: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2143: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2123: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2090: 2076: 2074:United Kingdom 2071: 2067: 2066: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2037: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2020: 2019:in the 1950s. 2006: 2001: 1997: 1996: 1991:) invented by 1978: 1973: 1969: 1968: 1958: 1956:United Kingdom 1953: 1949: 1948: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1918: 1917: 1910: 1905: 1898: 1897: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1877: 1858: 1853: 1849: 1848: 1800:1880 US census 1796: 1791: 1787: 1786: 1775: 1762: 1758: 1757: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1741: 1727: 1722: 1718: 1717: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1700: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1680: 1669: 1667:United Kingdom 1664: 1660: 1659: 1653: 1648: 1644: 1643: 1636: 1634:United Kingdom 1631: 1627: 1626: 1619:logical abacus 1615: 1613:United Kingdom 1610: 1606: 1605: 1591: 1586: 1579: 1578: 1571: 1566: 1562: 1561: 1546: 1541: 1537: 1536: 1512: 1507: 1503: 1502: 1499: 1496: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1471: 1469:United Kingdom 1466: 1462: 1461: 1454: 1452:United Kingdom 1449: 1445: 1444: 1434: 1429: 1425: 1424: 1417: 1415:United Kingdom 1412: 1408: 1407: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1390: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1356: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1294: 1292:United Kingdom 1289: 1282: 1281: 1274:Joseph Clement 1270: 1268:United Kingdom 1265: 1261: 1260: 1249:Semen Korsakov 1246: 1241: 1237: 1236: 1229:Giovanni Plana 1226: 1221: 1217: 1216: 1206: 1204:United Kingdom 1201: 1197: 1196: 1187:invented the ' 1182: 1177: 1173: 1172: 1163:developed the 1158: 1153: 1149: 1148: 1138: 1133: 1129: 1128: 1122: 1120:United Kingdom 1117: 1113: 1112: 1106: 1101: 1097: 1096: 1087:Jonathan Swift 1084: 1082:United Kingdom 1079: 1075: 1074: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1050: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1025: 1010: 1005: 1001: 1000: 993:Samuel Morland 989: 987:United Kingdom 984: 980: 979: 952: 947: 943: 942: 939: 936: 929: 926: 923: 922: 904: 900: 899: 881: 877: 876: 869:Napier's bones 861: 857: 856: 841: 837: 836: 809:Plate of Zones 786: 779: 778: 764: 760: 759: 758:in existence. 722: 718: 717: 712:attached to a 641: 637: 636: 602: 595: 594: 591:celestial body 573:(Arzachel) of 564: 557: 556: 523: 516: 515: 479: 475: 474: 463: 459: 458: 455: 448: 442: 439: 438: 419: 415: 414: 399: 395: 394: 391: 384: 375: 372: 371: 369: 368: 361: 354: 346: 343: 342: 341: 340: 327: 326: 320: 319: 318: 317: 313:more timelines 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 271: 270: 264: 263: 262: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 223: 222: 218: 217: 216: 215: 210: 208:World Wide Web 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 172: 171: 167: 166: 165: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 126: 125: 119: 118: 117: 116: 111: 106: 101: 93: 92: 86: 85: 84: 83: 78: 70: 69: 63: 62: 52: 51: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6117: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6097: 6095: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6074:Steve Wozniak 6072: 6070: 6069:Niklaus Wirth 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5969:Nancy Leveson 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5959:Andrew Koenig 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5855: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 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Greenwood. 5530: 5529: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5506: 5500: 5496: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5462: 5458: 5453: 5452: 5447: 5431: 5424: 5417: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5382: 5380: 5376: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5342: 5339: 5328: 5327:The Telegraph 5324: 5317: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5293: 5286: 5284: 5282: 5280: 5278: 5274: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5242: 5239: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5207: 5204: 5200: 5199:1-894959-00-0 5196: 5192: 5187: 5184: 5181: 5176: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5161:Rojas, Raúl. 5157: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5116: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5067: 5065: 5061: 5058: 5053: 5050: 5047: 5041: 5035: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4985: 4979: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4948: 4944: 4939: 4936: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4920: 4917: 4914: 4909: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4879: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4860: 4857: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4830: 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Knowledge (XXG)

Timeline of computing hardware before 1950

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