Navigation Acts - Knowledge (XXG)

476:, having been passed by 'usurping powers'. Nonetheless, with benefits of the act widely recognized, Parliament soon passed new legislation which enlarged its scope. While the act of 1651 applied only to shipping, or the ocean carrying business, the 1660 act was the most important piece of commercial legislation as it related to shipbuilding, to navigation, to trade, and to the benefit of the merchant class. The 1660 act is generally considered to be the basis of the "Navigation Acts", which (with later amendments, additions and exceptions) remained in force for nearly two centuries. The navigation acts entitled colonial shipping and seamen to enjoy the full benefits of the otherwise exclusively English provisions. "English bottoms" included vessels built in English plantations, particularly in America. There were no restrictions put in the way of English colonists who might wish to build or trade in their own ships to foreign plantations or other European countries besides England, provided they did not violate the enumerated commodity clause. Some of the most important products of colonial America, including grain of all sorts and the fisheries of New England, were always non-enumerated commodities. 1655:

all and every clause contained in the act be "punctually and bona fide observed according to the true intent and meaning". Governors nominated in the future were required to take this oath before assuming office. To tighten compliance among colonial customs officials, the act required that all current and future officers give a security bond to the Commissioners of the Customs in England to undertake the "true and faithfull performance of their duty". Additionally, the act gave colonial customs officers the same power and authority as of customs officers in England; these included the ability to board and search ships and warehouses, load and unload cargoes, and seize those imported or exported goods prohibited or those for which duties should have been paid under the acts. Commissioners of the treasury and of the customs in England would now appoint the colonial customs officials. Due to colonial "doubts or misconstructions" concerning the bond required under the 1660 act, the 1696 act now mandated that no enumerated goods could be loaded or shipped until the required bond was obtained. The act was followed by a special instruction about the oaths and

1316:. c. 26). This act imposes forfeiture penalties of the ship and cargo if enumerated commodities are shipped without a bond or customs certificate, or if shipped to countries other than England, or if ships unload sugar or enumerated products in any port except in England. The act requires the governors of American plantations to report annually to customs in London a list of all ships loading any commodities there, as well as a list of all bonds taken. The act states that prosecutions for a breach of the navigation acts should be tried in the court of the high admiral of England, in any of the vice-admiralty courts, or in any court of record in England, but while the act again hints at the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts, it does not explicitly provide for them. In a move against Ireland, the act additionally repealed the ability of Ireland (in the 1660 act) to obtain the necessary bond for products shipped to overseas colonies. 1663:

subjects of England, Ireland or the colonies. It also enacted that all laws, bylaws, usages or customs in current or future use in the plantations, which are found to be repugnant to the navigation acts in any way, are to be declared illegal, null and void. The act additionally declared that all persons or their heirs claiming any right or property "in any Islands or Tracts of Land upon the Continent of America by Charter or Letters Patent shall not in the future alienate, sell or dispose of any of the Islands, Tracts of Land, or Proprieties other than to the Natural Born Subjects of England, Ireland, Dominion of Wales or Town of Berwick upon Tweed without the License and Consent of His Majesty". Colonial-born subjects were not mentioned. Such a sale must be signified by a prior Order in Council.

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export article by the East India Company into India, exchanging the silver into cheap Indian gold. This change had major implications for the East India Company, for England and for India. The majority of silver in England was exported to India, creating enormous profits for the individual participants, but depriving the Crown of England of necessary silver and taxation. Much of the silver exported was procured by English piracy directed against Spanish and Portuguese merchant ships bringing silver from their colonies in the Americas to Europe. It was later revealed that the Act passed Parliament due to enormous bribes paid by the East Indian Company to various influential members of Parliament.

320: 1195:, also termed the Encouragement of Trade Act 1663 or the Staple Act, was passed on 27 July. This strengthening of the navigation system now required all European goods, bound for America and other colonies, had to be trans-shipped through England first. In England, the goods would be unloaded, inspected, approved, duties paid, and finally, reloaded for the destination. This trade had to be carried in English vessels ("bottoms") or those of its colonies. Furthermore, imports of the 'enumerated' commodities (such as tobacco and cotton) had to be landed and taxes paid before continuing to other countries. "England", as used here, includes 1967:, which eventually (after the Anglo-Dutch Alliance of 1689 limited the Dutch navy to three-fifths of the size of the English one) led to Britain becoming a global superpower, which it remained until the mid-20th century. That naval might, however, never limited Dutch trading power – because the Dutch enjoyed enough leverage over overseas markets and shipping resources (combined with a financial power that was only overtaken by Britain during the 18th century) to enable them to put enough pressure on Britain to prevent them from sustaining naval campaigns long enough to wrest maritime concessions from the Dutch. 3315: 1834: 1638:

or shipped to England, Wales, or Berwick upon Tweed, except in "what is or shall bee of the Built of England or of the Built of Ireland or the said Colonies or Plantations and wholly owned by the People thereof ... and navigated with the Masters and Three-Fourths of the Mariners of the said Places onely". To enforce this change, the act required the registration of all ships and owners, including an oath that they have no foreign owners, before the ship would be considered English-built. Exceptions were introduced for foreign-built ships taken as

1532: 1369: 1233: 1091: 953: 837: 702: 500: 35: 418:. The stadtholder had suddenly died, however, and the States were now embarrassed by Cromwell taking the idea too seriously. The English proposed the joint conquest of all remaining Spanish and Portuguese possessions. England would take America and the Dutch would take Africa and Asia. But the Dutch had just ended their war with Spain and already taken over most Portuguese colonies in Asia, so they saw little advantage in this grandiose scheme and proposed a 289:

had the prosperity and wealth of England exclusively at heart. The 1650 Act prohibiting trade with royalist colonies was broader, however, because it provided that all foreign ships were prohibited from trading with any English plantations, without license, and it was made lawful to seize and make prizes of any ships violating the act. This Act, sometimes referred to as the Navigation Act 1650, was hastily passed as a war measure during the

4950: 3622: 388:, who controlled much of Europe's international trade and even much of England's coastal shipping. It excluded the Dutch from essentially all direct trade with England, as the Dutch economy was competitive with, not complementary to the English, and the two countries, therefore, exchanged few commodities. This Anglo-Dutch trade, however, constituted only a small fraction of total Dutch trade flows. 1501:

required to carry the goods to England. The purpose of the act was to stop the carrying of plantation goods to another plantation with their subsequent shipment to a foreign country on the grounds that the 1660 act's requirements had been fulfilled. This change was a considerable advance toward the systematic execution of the previous acts, and increased much needed royal revenue given the recent

1687: 1051:, which prohibits growing tobacco in England and Ireland. The former act was intended to encourage domestic woolen manufacturing by increasing the availability of domestic raw materials; the latter act was passed to limit competition with the colonies and protect the plantations' main crop, as well as to protect this regulated royal revenue stream. With the kingdoms of 4960: 1950:, under which wealth was to be increased by restricting colonial trade to the mother country rather than through free trade. By 1849 "a central part of British import strategy was to reduce the cost of food through cheap foreign imports and in this way to reduce the cost of maintaining labour power" (van Houten). Repealing the Navigation Acts along with the 1670:, who wrote the handbook for the Board of Trade, considered the 1696 act to be the last major navigation act, with relatively minor subsequent acts. The system established by this act, and upon previous acts, was where the Navigation Acts still stood in 1792, though there would be major policy changes followed by their reversals in the intervening years. 384:

goods to England from a third country elsewhere in the European sphere. The Act also prohibited the import and export of salted fish in foreign ships, and penalized foreign ships carrying fish and wares between English posts. Breaking the terms of the act would result in the forfeiture of the ship and its cargo. These rules specifically targeted the

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Legislation during the reign of Elizabeth I also dealt with these questions and resulted in a large increase in English merchant shipping. Soon after actual settlements had been made in America, these early requirements illustrate the English theory then held regarding the governmental control of maritime commerce.

1505:. To better collect the customs revenue the act established that these were now to be levied and collected by the Commissioners of Customs in England. Also, if a ship arrived with insufficient funds to pay the duties, customs official could accept an equivalent proportion of the goods as payment instead. 1962:

The Acts caused Britain's (before 1707, England's) shipping industry to develop in isolation. However, it had the advantage to British shippers of severely limiting the ability of Dutch ships to participate in the carrying trade to Britain. By reserving British colonial trade to British shipping, the

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to ensure compliance and could recoup the funds upon arrival. The penalty for non-compliance was the forfeiture of both the ship and its cargo. The act provides that violations of the navigation act were to be tried in "any court of record," but it also authorizes and strictly requires all commanders

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In tightening the wording of the 1660 act, and after noting the daily "great abuses committed ... by the artifice and cunning of ill disposed persons", this act now required that no goods or merchandise could be imported, exported, or carried between English possessions in Africa, Asia and America,

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To better secure their own plantation trade from considerable illegal indirect trade in enumerated products to Europe, by way of legal inter-colonial trade, the act instituted that customs duties and charges should be paid on departure from the colonies, if traveling without first obtaining the bond

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The most important new legislation embedded in this Act, as seen from the perspective of the interests behind the East India Company, was the repeal of legislation which prohibited export of coin and bullion from England overseas. This export was the real issue behind the Act, as silver was the main

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for all European products bound for the colonies, and to prevent the colonies from establishing an independent import trade. This mandated change increased shipping times and costs, which in turn, increased the prices paid by the colonists. Due to these increases, some exemptions were allowed; these

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In a significant bow to English merchants and to the detriment of numerous foreign colonists, section two of the act declared that "no alien or person not born within the allegiance of our sovereign lord the King, his heirs and successors, or naturalized or made a free denizen, shall... exercise the

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Some principles of English mercantile legislation pre-date both the passage of the Navigation Act 1651 and the settlement of England's early foreign possessions. A 1381 Act passed under King Richard II provided "that, to increase the navy of England, no goods or merchandises shall be either exported

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by the Navigation Act 1660, and further developed and tightened by the Navigation Acts of 1663, 1673, and 1696. Upon this basis during the 18th century, the Acts were modified by subsequent amendments, changes, and the addition of enforcement mechanisms and staff. Additionally, a major change in the

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were a long series of English laws that developed, promoted, and regulated English ships, shipping, trade, and commerce with other countries and with its own colonies. The laws also regulated England's fisheries and restricted foreign—including Scottish and Irish—participation in its colonial trade.

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etc., the act relaxed the 1660 act's restrictions on foreigners, allowing up to half the crew, if on English ships, and dropped all duties on these products for the next ten years. It also allowed foreign residents and foreigners to participate in this trade if imported to England in English ships.

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and the first Navigation Act the following October. These acts formed the first definitive expression of England's commercial policy. They represent the first attempt to establish a legitimate control of commercial and colonial affairs, and the instructions indicate the beginnings of a policy which

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Previously, most of the customs collection and enforcement in the colonies was performed by the governor or his appointees, commonly known as the "naval officer," but evasion, corruption and indifference were common. The 1696 act now required all current governors and officers to take an oath that

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noted that this law also included "security being given here, and certificates from thence, that the said goods be really exported thither, and for the only use of the said plantations". He concluded: "Hereby the foundation was laid for the navigation acts afterward, which may be justly termed the

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Walton concludes that the political friction caused by the Acts was more serious than the negative economic impact, especially since the merchants most affected were politically the most active. The Navigation Acts were also partially responsible for an increase in piracy during the late 17th and

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of Dutch shipping on the high seas during wars in which the Dutch Republic was neutral. This more or less gave the Dutch freedom to conduct their "smuggling" unhindered as long as they were not caught red-handed in territorial waters controlled by England. These provisions were reconfirmed in the

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The act specified seven colonial products, known as "enumerated" commodities or items, that were to be shipped from the colonies only to England or other English colonies. These items were tropical or semi-tropical produce that could not be grown in the mother country, but were of higher economic

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ended the impasse. The Dutch failed to have the Act repealed or amended, but it seems to have had relatively little influence on their trade. The Act offered England only limited solace. It could not limit the deterioration of England's overseas trading position, except in the cases where England

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to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650, to advance and regulate the nation's trade. The instructions to the named commissioners included consideration of both domestic and foreign trade, the trading companies, manufacturers, free ports, customs, excise, statistics, coinage and

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of 24 October 1621 prohibited the Virginia colony to export tobacco and other commodities to foreign countries. The London Company lost its charter in 1624; the same year a proclamation, followed by Orders in Council, prohibited the use of foreign ships for the Virginia tobacco trade. These early

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The acts were resented in Ireland and damaged its economy, as they permitted the importation of English goods into Ireland tariff-free and simultaneously imposed tariffs on Irish exports travelling in the opposite direction. Other clauses completely prohibited the exportation of certain goods to

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The Act banned foreign ships from transporting goods from Asia, Africa or America to England or its colonies; only ships with an English owner, master and a majority English crew would be accepted. It allowed European ships to import their own products, but banned foreign ships from transporting

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petitioned Parliament for the prohibition of imports of Turkish goods "...from Holland and other places but directly from the places of their growth." Baltic traders added their voices to this chorus. In 1650 the Standing Council for Trade and the Council of State of the Commonwealth prepared a

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With the establishment of overseas colonies a distinct colonial policy began to develop, and the principles embodied in the early Navigation and Trade Acts also had some more immediate precedents in the provisions of the charters granted to the London and Plymouth Company, in the various royal

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1764 became one source of resentment among merchants in the American colonies towards Great Britain. This, in turn, helped push the American colonies to rebel in the late 18th century, even though the consensus view among modern economic historians and economists is that the "costs imposed on

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Since the colonies previously had passed much of their own legislation and appointments, the act included several sections to tighten English control over the colonies generally. The act mandated that all colonial positions of trust in the courts or related to the treasury must be native born

1634:, became effective over in the next few years, due to its far reaching provisions; the act is short-titled the Plantation Trade Act 1695. It contains new restrictions on colonial trade, and several different administrative provisions to strengthen enforcement and consolidate the earlier acts. 225:

granted to the Cabots by Henry VII in 1498 stipulated that the commerce resulting from their discoveries must be with England (specifically Bristol). Henry VIII established a second principle by statute: that such a vessel must be English-built and a majority of the crew must be English-born.

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which sought to keep all the benefits of trade inside their respective Empires, and to minimize the loss of gold and silver, or profits, to foreigners through purchases and trade. The system would develop with the colonies supplying raw materials for British industry, and in exchange for this

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The obvious solution seemed to be to seal off the English markets to these unwanted imports. A precedent was the Act the Greenland Company had obtained from Parliament in 1645 prohibiting the import of whale products into England, except in ships owned by that company. This principle was now

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Acts may have significantly assisted in the growth of London as a major entry port for American colonial wares at the expense of Dutch cities. The maintenance of a certain level of merchant shipping and of trade generally also facilitated a rapid increase in the size and quality of the

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on 27 July 1661. The act broadened and strengthened restrictions under Cromwell's earlier act. Colonial imports and exports were now restricted to ships "as doe truly and without fraud belong onely to the people of England ... or are of the built of and belonging to" any of the

808:. It also emphatically defines "Englishmen" under the Navigation Acts: "Whereas it is required by the that in sundry cases the Master and three-fourths of the Mariners are to be English, it is to be understood that any of His Majesty's Subjects of England, Ireland, and His 1646:

from the plantations. The deadline for the registration of ships was extended by the Registering of Ships Act 1697 (9 Will 3 c. 42) In a significant tightening of the navigation enforcement system, section 6 of the act establishes that violations are to be tried

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points out that the political issue is what would have been the future impact of the Acts after 1776 as the colonial economy matured and was blocked by the Acts from serious competition with British manufacturers. In 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the

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agreement as an alternative to a full political union. This again was unacceptable to the English, who would be unable to compete on such a level playing field, and was seen by them as a deliberate affront. The Act is often mentioned as a major cause of the

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companies held the monopoly on trade with their plantation; this meant that the commerce developed was to be England's. The Crown's purpose was to restrict to England the future commerce with America; it is well shown in the patent granted by Charles I to

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olive oil. In the trade with America and the West Indies, the Dutch kept up a flourishing "smuggling" trade, thanks to the preference of English planters for Dutch import goods and the better deal the Dutch offered in the sugar trade. The Dutch colony of

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notes that timber was not one of the "enumerated commodities" included in the Acts, and so New Englanders could continue the wine islands commerce in timber that began around 1642 without upsetting England. By the 1660s, the wine islands region, namely

439:) showed the supremacy of the Commonwealth navy in home waters. However, farther afield the Dutch predominated and were able to close down English commerce in the Baltic and the Mediterranean. Both countries held each other in a stifling embrace. 1323:

the English had to abandon the Baltic trade and allowed foreign ships to enter the coasting and plantation trade. Following the war, which ended disastrously for England, the Dutch obtained the right to ship commodities produced in their German

380:. It authorized the Commonwealth to regulate England's international trade, as well as the trade with its colonies. It reinforced long-standing principles of national policy that English trade and fisheries should be carried in English vessels. 154:

and other Dutch competitive advantages in European and world trade. Within a few years, English merchants had practically been overwhelmed in the Baltic and North sea trade, as well as trade with the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean and the

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says that although the net burden imposed by the Acts was small in size, their overall impact on the shape and growth rate of the economy was significant since the Acts differentially affected different groups, helping some and hurting others.

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The English were well aware of their inferior competitive trading position. Three acts of the Rump Parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the historical development of England's commercial and colonial programs. These include the first

285: 1493:, the act opened their trade with Sweden, Denmark, and Norway to foreigners and English alike. It also allowed any Englishman to be admitted into the Eastland Company on paying a minor fee. The act was a mortal blow to Eastland's 4461: 3303: 3281: 800:) for royal expenses. These acts of revenue, previously established under the Commonwealth, were similarly reauthorized with the restoration. The 1660 customs act was tightened by the Customs Act 1662 3967: 1489:

Colonial ships and crews engaged in this trade had to pay a low duty, with foreign ships paying a high duty. To promote the eastern trade then monopolized by the chartered and poorly performing

4890: 4115: 1979:. The Navigation Acts required all of a colony's imports to be either bought from Britain or resold by British merchants in Britain, regardless of the price obtainable elsewhere. In the 1772 1666:

With this act the government did start to institute admiralty courts and staff them in more and new places; this established "a more general obedience to the Acts of Trade and Navigation."

3711: 3625: 258:, except in English-built ships; they later prohibited the importation of French wine, wool, and silk from France. More generally and significantly on 23 January 1647, they passed the 4920: 4731: 3686: 3658: 2267:"1498 – The letters patent of King Henry the Seventh Granted unto Iohn Cabot and his Three Sonnes, Lewis, Sebastian and Santius for the Discouerie of New and Unknowen Lands; March 5" 2246: 665:, or other dyeing woods. Previously only tobacco export had been restricted to England. Additional enumerated items would be included in subsequent navigation acts, for example the 3974: 4994: 3296: 677:

in any of the said places" (i.e. lands, islands, plantations, or territories belonging to the King in Asia, Africa, or America), upon pain of forfeiting all goods and chattels.

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found that 89 percent of economists and historians would generally agree that the "costs imposed on colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small."

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and the best means of promoting their welfare and rendering them useful to England. This act's statesmanlike and comprehensive instructions were followed by the October act

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by Dutch merchants. English direct trade was crowded out by a sudden influx of commodities from the Levant, Mediterranean and the Spanish and Portuguese empires, and the

2310: 427:, and though there were others, it was only part of a larger English policy to engage in war after the negotiations had failed. The English naval victories in 1653 (the 1208:

included salt intended for the New England and Newfoundland fisheries, wine from Madeira and the Azores, and provisions, servants and horses from Scotland and Ireland.

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patents later bestowed by Charles I and Charles II, as well as in the early regulations concerning the tobacco trade, the first profitable colonial export. An

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Thomas, Robert P. (1965). "A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy of Colonial Welfare: Some Preliminary Findings".

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Overall, the Acts formed the basis for English (and later) British overseas trade for nearly 200 years, but with the development and gradual acceptance of

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early 18th centuries: merchants and colonial officials would buy goods captured by pirates below market value, and colonial governors such as New York's

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dominated commerce and trade. The act also closed a significant loophole in the enumerated goods trade as a result of the active inter-colonial trade.

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was passed in November 1644. In 1645, both to conciliate the colonies and to encourage English shipping, the Long Parliament prohibited the shipment of

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The Acts generally prohibited the use of foreign ships, required the employment of English and colonial mariners for 75% of the crews, including

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Other acts relating to trade were passed in the same session of Parliament and reiterated previous acts. These include the Exportation Act 1660

262:; it enacted that for three years no export duty be levied on goods intended for the colonies, provided they were forwarded in English vessels. 4989: 4963: 4953: 4505: 4500: 4490: 4475: 4410: 3907: 3842: 3644: 2744:

An Act for enlarging the Time for Registering of Ships pursuant to the Act for preventing Frauds and regulating Abuses in the Plantation Trade.

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very purpose of the Acts in the 1760s—that of generating a colonial revenue, rather than only regulating the Empire's trade—would help lead to

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Ordinance granting privileges for the encouragement of Adventurers to plantations in Virginia, Bermudas, Barbados, and other places of America

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1733, which led to extensive smuggling because no effective means of enforcement was provided until the 1760s. Stricter enforcement under the

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28 August 1649 Act prohibiting the importation of any Wines of the Growth of France, and all manufacturers of wool and silk made in France.

908: 4847: 4763: 4616: 2445:, in Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642–1660, ed. C H Firth and R S Rait (London, 1911), pp. 559–562. British History Online . 1659:

who weren't directly under royal control to post a bond to comply; this was considered by the Board of Trade and issued on 26 May 1697.

4793: 4444: 4432: 4388: 3902: 3607: 3528: 119:, products to countries other than Britain and those countries' colonies, and mandated that imports be sourced only through Britain. 4905: 4808: 4753: 4532: 4515: 4485: 4250: 4100: 3763: 3758: 2522: 2412: 1770: 809: 281: 70: 4741: 4520: 3800: 2747:

A collection of the public general statutes passed in the ... year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, p. 385 (1867)

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was minimal; the cost was about £4 per £1,000 of income per year. The average personal income was about £100 per year. However,

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value and used in English competitive manufacturing. The initial products included sugar, tobacco, cotton wool, indigo, ginger,

4895: 4842: 4703: 4648: 4480: 4383: 3862: 3810: 3736: 2192: 2053: 652:. Additionally, ships' crews now had to be 75% English, rather than just a majority, and ship captains were required to post a 2307: 2049:, for example, forbade any exports of wool from Ireland (and from the American colonies) so as to maximise the English trade. 1800:

instead. The law was widely flouted, but efforts by the British to prevent smuggling created hostility and contributed to the

1751: 5019: 4915: 4820: 4726: 4579: 4427: 4415: 4336: 3822: 1708: 2190:(March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". 1723: 243:

before their departure to bring same into England ... and to forbid all trade with foreign vessels, except upon necessity."

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Ransom, Roger L. (1968). "British Policy and Colonial Growth: Some Implications of the Burden from the Navigation Acts".

1804:. The Molasses Act was the first of the Sugar Acts. The Act was set to expire in 1763, but in 1764 it was renewed as the 5024: 4900: 4721: 4584: 4562: 4542: 4471: 4393: 4270: 4260: 4255: 3927: 3892: 3748: 3523: 2022: 1910: 1338: 1203:, though those places were little involved in colonial trade. The mercantile purpose of the act was to make England the 649: 640: 544: 443: 239:

in 1639, by which the patentee was "to oblige the masters of vessels, freighted with productions of the colony, to give

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An Act for the incouragement of the Greeneland and Eastland Trades, and for the better secureing the Plantation Trade.

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An Act for the incouragement of the Greeneland and Eastland Trades, and for the better secureing the Plantation Trade

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As early as 1641 some English merchants urged that these rules be embodied in an act of Parliament, and during the

105: 1697: 4567: 4405: 4341: 4331: 4326: 3937: 3557: 3432: 3319: 2948: 2900: 1986:, colonists attacked and burned a British navy ship enforcing the Navigation Acts off the coast of Rhode Island. 1737: 1319:

The specifically anti-Dutch aspects of the early acts were in full force for a relatively short time. During the

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offered a loophole (through intercolonial trade) wide enough to drive a shipload of Virginian tobacco through.

3832: 2501: 2678: 1915: 4240: 3827: 3778: 3545: 3223: 3161: 3091: 2977: 1719: 1043:, which bans the export of wool and wool-processing materials, and the Tobacco Planting and Sowing Act 1660 164: 93: 2247:"The story of the Jones Act: America's 'expression of sovereignty' that's piling pressure on offshore wind" 1332:, it conceded the principle of "free ships make free goods" which provided freedom from molestation by the 792:, which established how the customs duties would be collected by the government, as well as for subsidies ( 4925: 3056: 2766: 2662: 2345:

Ordinance to prevent the importation by foreigners of whale oil, fins or gills, commonly called whalebone.

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An Act for prohibiting the Exportation of Wooll, Woolfells, Fullers Earth, or any kinde of Scouring Earth.

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An historical and chronological deduction of the origin of commerce: from the earliest accounts...Vol.2

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The Navigation Acts, while enriching Britain, caused resentment in the colonies and contributed to the

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the Trade Act 1672. The act was intended to increase English capability and production in the northern

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An Act for prohibiting the Exportation of Wooll Woolfells Fullers Earth or any kinde of Scouring Earth

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Charles II, 1660: An Act to prevent Fraudes and Concealments of His Majestyes Customes and Subsidyes.

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The major impetus for the first Navigation Act was the ruinous deterioration of English trade in the

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to England as if these were Dutch goods. Even more importantly, as England accepted the concept of

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October 1651: An Act for increase of Shipping, and Encouragement of the Navigation of this Nation.

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still separate, passage of the English act lead to the passage of a similar navigation act by the

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Following the 1696 act, the Acts of Trade and Navigation were generally obeyed, except for the

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An Act to prevent the planting of Tobacco in England, and for regulateing the Plantation Trade

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Chapter III – The Commercial Policy of England Toward the American Colonies: the Acts of Trade

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An Act to prevent the planting of Tobacco in England, and for regulateing the Plantation Trade

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Conflicts of Empires. Spain, the Low Countries and the struggle for world supremacy 1585–1713

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Walton, Gary M. (1971). "The New Economic History and the Burdens of the Navigation Acts".

1851:

An Act to amend the Laws in force for the Encouragement of British Shipping and Navigation.

391:

Passage of the act was a reaction to the failure of the English diplomatic mission (led by

159:. Even the trade with English colonies (partly still in the hands of the royalists, as the 131:

guaranteed market, the colonies would purchase manufactured goods from or through Britain.

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to the American colonies, forcing the colonists to buy the more expensive sugar from the

970:

An Act for Prohibiting the Planting Setting or Sowing of Tobaccho in England and Ireland.

192:

general policy designed to impede the flow of Mediterranean and colonial commodities via

2992: 2583:

An Act for Prohibiting the Planting Setting or Sowing of Tobaccho in England and Ireland

2391:, Chapter II, Control of Trade and Plantations During the Interregnum, p. 24 (1908) 784:

Passage of the Navigation Act 1660 act was immediately followed by the Customs Act 1660

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Loschky, David J. (1973). "Studies of the Navigation Acts: New Economic Non-History?".

2377:

August 1650: An Act for the Advancing and Regulating of the Trade of this Commonwealth.

2187: 674: 657:

of ships of war to seize non-English ships and deliver them to the Court of Admiralty.

448: 411:

had made some cautious overtures to Cromwell to counter the monarchical aspirations of

392: 385: 276: 222: 188: 168: 147: 143: 2432:. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press. p. 120. 2266: 4978: 4510: 4290: 4068: 4020: 4000: 3912: 3359: 3213: 3151: 2930: 2231: 2046: 1980: 1942: 1494: 172: 370:

An Act for increase of Shipping, and Encouragement of the Navigation of this Nation,

337:

An Act for increase of Shipping, and Encouragement of the Navigation of this Nation.

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The English Navigation Laws: A Seventeenth-Century Experiment in Social Engineering

1947: 1874: 1789: 1643: 1572: 1273: 1131: 993: 877: 742: 719:

An Act to prevent Fraudes and Concealments of His Majestyes Customes and Subsidyes.

556: 347: 204: 127: 3060: 3023:(1997). "England's Mercantilist Response to Dutch World Trade Primacy, 1647–74". 2981: 2904: 2855: 2331: 4319: 4167: 4142: 4135: 3956: 3783: 3636: 2332:

British Committees, Commissions, and Councils of Trade and Plantations 1622–1675

1686: 1639: 1470: 1462: 468:

Like all laws of the Commonwealth period, the 1651 act was declared void on the

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British Committees, Commissions and Councils of Trade and Plantations 1622–1675

1308:

An act tightening colonial trade legislation, and sometimes referred to as the

3995: 3538: 3197: 3135: 2631: 2215: 2011: 1964: 1333: 1325: 1204: 666: 419: 366: 123: 2790:, The American Historical Review Vol. 9, No. 4 (Jul., 1904), pp. 725–734 2557:

An Act for preventing Frauds and regulating Abuses in His Majesties Customes.

2255:

England reserved coastwise trade to English vessel owners as far back as 1381

1473:), as well as in the eastern Baltic and North Sea trade, where the Dutch and 92:

While based on earlier precedents, they were first enacted in 1651 under the

3882: 3403: 2036:, was the dominant trading partner in timber with the New England colonies. 1951: 1805: 1485: 1481: 1454: 1396: 1188: 1118: 1046: 1038: 980: 864: 803: 787: 729: 630: 527: 400: 255: 208: 2045:

Britain or even elsewhere, resulting in the collapse of those markets. The

1632:

An Act for preventing Frauds and regulating Abuses in the Plantation Trade

1549:

An Act for preventing Frauds and regulating Abuses in the Plantation Trade

4638: 3377: 1946:

philosophy. The Navigation Acts were passed under the economic theory of

797: 2765:

Hugh Edward Egerton, A short history of British colonial policy (1897),

212:

colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small."

108:, and significant changes in the implementation of the Acts themselves. 4930: 3506: 3205: 3143: 3112: 2787: 2317:, in Emory R. Johnson, T. W. Van Metre, G. G. Huebner, D. S. Hanchett, 2223: 2033: 1711: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1466: 1067:, Scottish ships, merchants, and mariners enjoyed the same privileges. 793: 197: 193: 139: 2969: 517:

An Act for the Encourageing and increasing of Shipping and Navigation.

221:

or imported, but only in ships belonging to the King's subjects." The

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An Act for the Encourageing and increasing of Shipping and Navigation

597: 452: 156: 3104: 2943: 1940:

The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849 under the influence of a

150:. The end of the embargoes in 1647 unleashed the full power of the 4665: 4537: 1196: 1954:

eventually served this purpose (towards the end of the century).

669:

was added in 1672, after drinking chocolate became the fashion.

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You can help by providing page numbers for existing citations.

28: 2920:

The Commercial Policy of England toward the American Colonies

2319:

History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States

1461:

became enforceable at various dates in that year; the act is

115:

ships. The Acts prohibited colonies from exporting specific,

2756:

Brackets annexed to the original act in a separate schedule.

252:

Ordinance for Free Trade with the plantations in New England

3072:

American Canopy: Trees, Forests, and the Making of a Nation

1993:

argues that the impact of the Acts on the economies of the

3004:

The Effect of the Navigation Acts on the Thirteen Colonies

1312:, is the Tobacco Planting and Plantation Trade Act 1670 ( 3048:

The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, Vol. 3

2182: 2180: 2052:"Free trade or a Speedy Revolution" was a slogan of the 3159:

Sawers, Larry (1992). "The Navigation Acts revisited".

2620:

Charles II, 1663: An Act for the Encouragement of Trade

2430:

The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution: 1640–1661

403:

seeking a political union of the Commonwealth with the

2132:

Revolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political History

2860:. Salem MA: Marine Research Society. pp. 16–17. 4879: 4696: 4595: 4460: 4453: 4369: 4299: 4226: 4201: 4049: 4038: 3983: 3850: 3841: 3720: 3674: 3579: 3489: 3464: 3431: 3387: 3347: 2321:– Vol. 1, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915. 1931: 1924: 1898: 1893: 1883: 1873: 1868: 1855: 1845: 1808:, which caused further unrest among the colonists. 1792:levied heavy duties on the trade of sugar from the 1613: 1606: 1594: 1589: 1581: 1571: 1566: 1553: 1543: 1440: 1433: 1421: 1416: 1408: 1403: 1390: 1380: 1299: 1287: 1282: 1272: 1267: 1254: 1244: 1174: 1167: 1155: 1150: 1140: 1130: 1125: 1112: 1102: 1026: 1019: 1007: 1002: 992: 987: 974: 964: 938: 924: 917: 899: 894: 886: 876: 871: 858: 848: 822: 775: 768: 756: 751: 741: 736: 723: 713: 687: 615: 608: 596: 586: 581: 565: 555: 550: 534: 521: 511: 356: 346: 341: 331: 2929: 2014:who openly admitted they intended to turn pirate. 1649:in any of His Majesties Courts att Westminster or 4644:Glasgow International Financial Services District 2854:Dow, George Francis; Edmonds, John Henry (1923). 167:had not yet imposed its authority throughout the 99:The system was re-enacted and broadened with the 2788:The Navigation Acts as Applied to European Trade 2502:The American colonies in the seventeenth century 447:herself was the principal consumer, such as the 183:, carried in Dutch ships and for Dutch account. 3062:A History of the Law of Shipping and Navigation 2983:The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution 2857:The Pirates of the New England Coast, 1630-1730 2456:History of the Commonwealth of England Vol. 3. 1642:, or those employed by the navy for importing 1221:Tobacco Planting and Plantation Trade Act 1670 3652: 3297: 8: 4995:1849 disestablishments in the United Kingdom 2098: 2096: 2094: 1821: 1519: 1356: 1220: 1078: 812:are to be accounted English and no others." 574:various, 1 December 1660 to 1 September 1661 487: 286:prohibiting trade with pro-royalist colonies 138:, and the associated lifting of the Spanish 2278: 2276: 2274: 4457: 4046: 3847: 3659: 3645: 3637: 3304: 3290: 3282: 2994:A Short History of British Colonial Policy 2303: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2086:The Development of British Immigration Law 1820: 1518: 1355: 1219: 1077: 935: 819: 684: 486: 309: 5045:Repealed Great Britain Acts of Parliament 3339:, and other legal issues relating to the 2205: 1771:Learn how and when to remove this message 1480:To promote whaling and production of its 71:Learn how and when to remove this message 464:Post-Restoration Navigation Acts to 1696 405:Republic of the Seven United Netherlands 250:, movement began in that direction. The 5040:Laws leading to the American Revolution 5000:Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain 3953:2020 Withdrawal from the European Union 3893:Second Industrial Revolution 1860s–1914 2944:"The last years of the Navigation Acts" 2077: 5050:United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1849 2882: 2870: 2841: 2829: 2817: 2706: 2690: 2674: 2028: 2017: 1998: 1990: 280:exchange, and fisheries, but also the 5030:Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1712 3027:. Hambledon Press. pp. 305–318. 1933:Text of statute as originally enacted 1615:Text of statute as originally enacted 1442:Text of statute as originally enacted 1193:An Act for the Encouragement of Trade 1176:Text of statute as originally enacted 1108:An Act for the Encouragement of Trade 1028:Text of statute as originally enacted 926:Text of statute as originally enacted 777:Text of statute as originally enacted 673:trade or occupation of a merchant or 617:Text of statute as originally enacted 7: 4959: 4676:London Platinum and Palladium Market 2658: 1709:adding citations to reliable sources 940:Tobacco Planting and Sowing Act 1660 909:Repeal of Obsolete Statutes Act 1856 639:, was passed on 13 September by the 372:was passed on 9 October 1651 by the 18:Tobacco Planting and Sowing Act 1660 2997:. London: London, Methuen & co. 2287:Colonial Self-Government, 1652–1689 3237:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1971.tb00192.x 3175:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1992.tb01301.x 3074:. New York: Scribner. p. 24. 3051:. New York: The Macmillan company. 1911:Duties on Foreign Vessels Act 1824 136:aftermath of the Eighty Years' War 25: 5010:Economic history of Great Britain 4906:Confederation of British Industry 4101:Expansion plans for Milton Keynes 3764:Department for Business and Trade 3759:Competition and Markets Authority 3065:. Great Britain: Thomas Burnside. 3011:Harper, Lawrence Averell (1939). 3002:Harper, Lawrence Averell (1959). 2504:(3 vol 1904–07), pp. 207–209 4958: 4949: 4948: 3801:Office for Budget Responsibility 3621: 3620: 3313: 2109:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 278. 2106:A dictionary of American history 1839:Parliament of the United Kingdom 1832: 1685: 1530: 1367: 1231: 1089: 951: 835: 700: 498: 318: 163:was in its final stages and the 33: 3737:Governor of the Bank of England 3608:Taxation without representation 2632:"Alexander del Mar (1836–1926)" 2488:Israel (1997), pp. 310–311 2428:Pestana, Carla Gardina (2004). 2193:The Journal of Economic History 1696:needs additional citations for 5035:History of English colonialism 4916:Federation of Small Businesses 2523:The Second Navigation Act 1660 1: 4990:1651 in the Thirteen Colonies 4686:Alternative Investment Market 4666:London Interbank Offered Rate 4622:List of UK building societies 3668:Economy of the United Kingdom 3529:Administration of Justice Act 2991:Egerton, Hugh Edward (1897). 2936:. New York, Harper & Row. 2928:Craven, Wesley Frank (1968). 2923:. New York: Columbia College. 2407:. Cambridge UP. p. 299. 1601:Statute Law Revision Act 1867 1428:Statute Law Revision Act 1863 1294:Statute Law Revision Act 1950 89:Acts of Trade and Navigation, 4901:British Chambers of Commerce 4896:British Bankers' Association 3524:Massachusetts Government Act 2023:Economic History Association 1971:Effects on American colonies 1339:Treaty of Westminster (1674) 545:English overseas possessions 451:wine trade and the trade in 444:Treaty of Westminster (1654) 5005:Economic history of England 3789:Chancellor of the Exchequer 3769:Financial Conduct Authority 3185:Journal of Economic History 3123:Journal of Economic History 2799:Reeves 1792, pp. 89–91 2404:The Rump Parliament 1648–53 2245:Ferry, Tim (30 June 2024). 2066:Merchant Marine Act of 1920 763:Customs Law Repeal Act 1825 603:Customs Law Repeal Act 1825 5066: 4936:UK Payments Administration 3888:New Imperialism 1830s–1945 3712:Government-owned companies 3399:Royal Proclamation of 1763 2932:The Colonies in Transition 2808:Israel (1997), pp. 317–318 2174:Israel (1997), pp. 309–310 2156:Israel (1997), pp. 305–309 2103:Purvis, Thomas L. (1997). 2056:in the late 18th century. 1818:United Kingdom legislation 1516:United Kingdom legislation 1353:United Kingdom legislation 1217:United Kingdom legislation 1162:Finance (1909-10) Act 1910 1075:United Kingdom legislation 1014:Finance (1909-10) Act 1910 933:United Kingdom legislation 817:United Kingdom legislation 682:United Kingdom legislation 484:United Kingdom legislation 307:United Kingdom legislation 300: 4944: 4011:National champions policy 4006:Recessions and recoveries 3923:1979 Winter of Discontent 3858:1659–1849 Navigation Acts 3833:UK Trade & Investment 3742:Monetary Policy Committee 3616: 3558:Proclamation of Rebellion 3330: 3198:10.1017/S0022050700058460 3136:10.1017/S0022050700073149 2949:English Historical Review 2535:Navigation Act 1660, text 2216:10.1017/S0022050700040602 1906:Trade with India Act 1797 1831: 1826: 1677:Navigation Acts 1696–1760 1529: 1524: 1366: 1361: 1230: 1225: 1088: 1083: 950: 945: 834: 829: 699: 694: 497: 492: 365:The Navigation Act 1651, 317: 312: 187:generalized. In 1648 the 3948:2009 bank rescue package 3943:2008 bank rescue package 3908:1929–39 Great Depression 3779:HM Revenue & Customs 3687:Employee-owned companies 3570:Taxation of Colonies Act 3278:, British History online 3272:, British History online 3266:, British History online 3260:, British History online 3254:, British History online 2978:Dickerson, Oliver Morton 2962:10.1093/ehr/xxv.xcix.480 2458:H. Colburn. pp. 372–382. 2454:Godwin, William (1827). 536:Territorial extent 4116:List of counties by GVA 3898:1873–79 Long Depression 3863:Agricultural Revolution 3828:UK Statistics Authority 3546:Conciliatory Resolution 3224:Economic History Review 3162:Economic History Review 3092:Economic History Review 2942:Clapham, J. H. (1910). 2786:Dudley Odell McGovney, 2777:Reeves 1792, p. 90 1916:Shipping, etc. Act 1845 165:Commonwealth of England 42:This article cites its 4926:Institute of Directors 4891:Business organisations 4816:Science and technology 4709:International students 4421:Working Time Directive 3794:Debt Management Office 3554:(March and April 1775) 3473:ministries (1766–1770) 2283:Charles McLean Andrews 1630:. c. 22), long-titled 1321:Second Anglo-Dutch War 1061:Parliament of Scotland 87:, or more broadly the 5020:English admiralty law 4921:Industry trade groups 4681:London Stock Exchange 4671:London Metal Exchange 4438:Trades Union Congress 4131:East London Tech City 3975:Cost-of-living crisis 3913:1948–52 Marshall Plan 3868:Industrial Revolution 3070:Rutkow, Eric (2012). 2479:Israel (1997), p. 316 2401:Blair Worden (1977). 2165:Israel (1997), p. 309 2129:Francis D. Cogliano, 1657:proprietary governors 1537:Parliament of England 1503:Stop of the Exchequer 1457:. c. 7), long-titled 1374:Parliament of England 1343:Third Anglo-Dutch War 1238:Parliament of England 1191:. c. 7), long-titled 1096:Parliament of England 958:Parliament of England 842:Parliament of England 707:Parliament of England 643:and confirmed by the 641:Convention Parliament 505:Parliament of England 425:First Anglo-Dutch War 325:Parliament of England 303:First Anglo-Dutch War 301:Further information: 216:Historical precedents 142:on trade between the 5015:Economic nationalism 4715:Entertainment & 3938:Late-2000s recession 3933:1992 Black Wednesday 3873:Financial Revolution 3702:FTSE Fledgling Index 3587:Rights of Englishmen 2387:Charles M. Andrews, 2330:Charles M. Andrews, 2313:25 June 2016 at the 1705:improve this article 1469:(more accurately in 824:Exportation Act 1660 416:William II of Orange 5025:English nationalism 4411:Equal opportunities 4016:Economic liberalism 3918:1974 Three-Day Week 3903:1926 general strike 3707:FTSE SmallCap Index 3433:Rockingham ministry 3341:American Revolution 3333:Royal Proclamations 3324:American Revolution 3276:Navigation Act 1696 3270:Navigation Act 1673 3264:Navigation Act 1663 3258:Navigation Act 1660 3252:Navigation Act 1651 2709:, pp. 316–317. 2498:Herbert Levi Osgood 2289:, p. 10 (1904) 2088:(1986), p. 91. 1977:American Revolution 1823: 1822:Navigation Act 1849 1802:American Revolution 1798:British West Indies 1624:Navigation Act 1696 1521: 1520:Navigation Act 1696 1512:Navigation Act 1696 1451:Navigation Act 1673 1358: 1357:Navigation Act 1673 1349:Navigation Act 1673 1310:Navigation Act 1670 1222: 1185:Navigation Act 1663 1080: 1079:Navigation Act 1663 1071:Navigation Act 1663 650:English possessions 645:Cavalier Parliament 626:Navigation Act 1660 591:Navigation Act 1651 489: 488:Navigation Act 1660 480:Navigation Act 1660 429:Battles of Portland 297:Navigation Act 1651 277:Commission of Trade 4826:Telecommunications 3991:Economic geography 3592:Writ of assistance 3580:Other legal issues 3389:Grenville ministry 3337:Acts of Parliament 3043:Osgood, Herbert L. 2915:Beer, George Louis 2467:Anderson, (1762), 1958:Effects on Britain 1794:French West Indies 1314:22 & 23 Cha. 2 1261:22 & 23 Cha. 2 1201:Berwick-upon-Tweed 541:Kingdom of England 291:English Civil Wars 152:Amsterdam Entrepôt 113:East India Company 4972: 4971: 4875: 4874: 4654:Lloyd's of London 4365: 4364: 4337:Industrialisation 4251:Industrialisation 4034: 4033: 3963:COVID-19 pandemic 3883:1815–46 Corn Laws 3634: 3633: 3081:978-1-4391-9354-9 3034:978-1-85285-161-3 2525:, via Archive.org 2116:978-1-57718-099-9 2040:Effect on Ireland 2010:would commission 1995:Thirteen Colonies 1989:Historian Robert 1938: 1937: 1894:Other legislation 1862:12 & 13 Vict. 1827:Act of Parliament 1784:Molasses Act 1733 1781: 1780: 1773: 1755: 1720:"Navigation Acts" 1628:7 & 8 Will. 3 1620: 1619: 1590:Other legislation 1560:7 & 8 Will. 3 1525:Act of Parliament 1447: 1446: 1417:Other legislation 1362:Act of Parliament 1306: 1305: 1283:Other legislation 1226:Act of Parliament 1181: 1180: 1151:Other legislation 1084:Act of Parliament 1065:Act of Union 1707 1033: 1032: 1003:Other legislation 946:Act of Parliament 931: 930: 895:Other legislation 830:Act of Parliament 782: 781: 752:Other legislation 747:13 September 1660 695:Act of Parliament 622: 621: 582:Other legislation 561:13 September 1660 493:Act of Parliament 409:States of Holland 397:Walter Strickland 363: 362: 313:Act of Parliament 161:English Civil War 81: 80: 73: 48:does not provide 16:(Redirected from 5057: 4962: 4961: 4952: 4951: 4911:Co-operatives UK 4501:Hydroelectricity 4476:Renewable energy 4458: 4342:Renewable energy 4323: 4271:Renewable energy 4059:Atlantic Gateway 4047: 3878:Panic of 1796–97 3848: 3661: 3654: 3647: 3638: 3624: 3623: 3597:Admiralty courts 3552:Restraining Acts 3322:relating to the 3318: 3317: 3306: 3299: 3292: 3283: 3240: 3217: 3178: 3155: 3116: 3085: 3066: 3052: 3038: 3016: 3007: 2998: 2987: 2973: 2938:On North America 2937: 2935: 2924: 2910: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2833: 2827: 2821: 2815: 2809: 2806: 2800: 2797: 2791: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2754: 2748: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2720:pp. 521–522 2716: 2710: 2704: 2698: 2688: 2682: 2672: 2666: 2656: 2650: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2628: 2622: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2579: 2573: 2565: 2559: 2554: 2548: 2543: 2537: 2532: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2511: 2505: 2495: 2489: 2486: 2480: 2477: 2471: 2469:pp. 415–416 2465: 2459: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2398: 2392: 2385: 2379: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2328: 2322: 2305: 2290: 2280: 2269: 2264: 2258: 2257: 2251:rechargenews.com 2242: 2236: 2235: 2209: 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4463: 4449: 4371: 4361: 4317: 4295: 4222: 4204: 4197: 4042: 4040: 4030: 4026:Nationalisation 3979: 3837: 3732:Bank of England 3724: 3722: 3716: 3670: 3665: 3635: 3630: 3612: 3575: 3566:(December 1775) 3564:Prohibitory Act 3548:(February 1775) 3519:Boston Port Act 3493: 3485: 3472: 3460: 3449:Declaratory Act 3435: 3427: 3391: 3383: 3355:Navigation Acts 3343: 3326: 3312: 3310: 3248: 3243: 3220: 3181: 3158: 3119: 3105:10.2307/2593707 3088: 3082: 3069: 3055: 3041: 3035: 3019: 3010: 3001: 2990: 2976: 2956:(99): 480–501. 2941: 2927: 2913: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2889: 2881: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2853: 2852: 2848: 2840: 2836: 2828: 2824: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2794: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2764: 2760: 2755: 2751: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2718:Anderson 1787, 2717: 2713: 2705: 2701: 2689: 2685: 2673: 2669: 2657: 2653: 2643: 2639: 2630: 2629: 2625: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2580: 2576: 2566: 2562: 2555: 2551: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2529: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2478: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2386: 2382: 2375: 2371: 2364:Anderson 1787, 2363: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2342: 2338: 2329: 2325: 2315:Wayback Machine 2306: 2293: 2281: 2272: 2265: 2261: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2207:10.1.1.482.4975 2188:Whaples, Robert 2186: 2185: 2178: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2144:Reeves (1792), 2143: 2139: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2102: 2101: 2092: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2062: 2042: 1973: 1960: 1927: 1920: 1899:Repeals/revokes 1841: 1833: 1819: 1816: 1786: 1777: 1766: 1760: 1757: 1714: 1712: 1702: 1690: 1679: 1673: 1609: 1539: 1531: 1517: 1514: 1508: 1436: 1376: 1368: 1354: 1351: 1302: 1240: 1232: 1218: 1170: 1098: 1090: 1076: 1073: 1044: 1036: 1022: 960: 952: 939: 934: 920: 913: 844: 836: 823: 818: 801: 785: 771: 709: 701: 688: 683: 628: 611: 587:Repeals/revokes 577: 535: 507: 499: 485: 482: 466: 458:New Netherlands 378:Oliver Cromwell 374:Rump Parliament 359: 358:Status: Revoked 327: 319: 308: 305: 299: 248:Long Parliament 218: 85:Navigation Acts 77: 66: 60: 57: 54: 50:page references 38: 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5063: 5061: 5053: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4977: 4976: 4970: 4969: 4967: 4966: 4956: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4887: 4885: 4877: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4860: 4850: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4813: 4812: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4788: 4787: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4761: 4759:Legal services 4756: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4713: 4712: 4711: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4688: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4657: 4656: 4646: 4641: 4639:Euronext.liffe 4636: 4631: 4626: 4625: 4624: 4619: 4609: 4603: 4601: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4574: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4552: 4551: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4525: 4524: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4468: 4466: 4455: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4447: 4442: 4441: 4440: 4430: 4425: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4403: 4402: 4401: 4391: 4386: 4384:Businesspeople 4381: 4375: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4311: 4305: 4303: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4232: 4230: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4209: 4207: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4178:Thames Gateway 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4139: 4138: 4133: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4072: 4071: 4061: 4055: 4053: 4044: 4036: 4035: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3977: 3972: 3971: 3970: 3960: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3854: 3852: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3819: 3818: 3813: 3806:Pound sterling 3803: 3798: 3797: 3796: 3791: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3745: 3744: 3739: 3728: 3726: 3718: 3717: 3715: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3697:FTSE 250 Index 3694: 3692:FTSE 100 Index 3689: 3684: 3678: 3676: 3672: 3671: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3656: 3649: 3641: 3632: 3631: 3629: 3628: 3617: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3605: 3602:Parson's Cause 3599: 3594: 3589: 3583: 3581: 3577: 3576: 3574: 3573: 3567: 3561: 3555: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3541: 3536: 3534:Quartering Act 3531: 3526: 3521: 3510: 3504: 3497: 3495: 3491:North ministry 3487: 3486: 3484: 3483: 3480:Townshend Acts 3476: 3474: 3462: 3461: 3459: 3458: 3452: 3446: 3439: 3437: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3425: 3419: 3416:Quartering Act 3413: 3407: 3401: 3395: 3393: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3344: 3331: 3328: 3327: 3311: 3309: 3308: 3301: 3294: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3273: 3267: 3261: 3255: 3247: 3246:External links 3244: 3242: 3241: 3231:(4): 533–542. 3218: 3192:(4): 615–638. 3179: 3169:(2): 262–284. 3156: 3117: 3099:(4): 689–691. 3086: 3080: 3067: 3053: 3039: 3033: 3017: 3008: 2999: 2988: 2974: 2939: 2925: 2911: 2901:Anderson, Adam 2896: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2887: 2875: 2863: 2846: 2834: 2822: 2810: 2801: 2792: 2779: 2770: 2758: 2749: 2735: 2732:pp. 81–91 2730:.Reeves 1792, 2723: 2711: 2699: 2683: 2667: 2651: 2637: 2623: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2574: 2560: 2549: 2538: 2527: 2515: 2506: 2490: 2481: 2472: 2460: 2447: 2435: 2420: 2413: 2393: 2380: 2369: 2357: 2348: 2336: 2323: 2291: 2270: 2259: 2237: 2200:(1): 139–154. 2176: 2167: 2158: 2149: 2137: 2122: 2115: 2090: 2076: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2068: 2061: 2058: 2041: 2038: 1972: 1969: 1959: 1956: 1936: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1921: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1889:1 January 1850 1887: 1881: 1880: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1866: 1865: 1859: 1853: 1852: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1829: 1828: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1778: 1693: 1691: 1684: 1678: 1675: 1622:The so-called 1618: 1617: 1611: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1598: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1578: 1575: 1569: 1568: 1564: 1563: 1557: 1551: 1550: 1547: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1527: 1526: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1449:The so-called 1445: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1419: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1405: 1401: 1400: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1372: 1364: 1363: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1304: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1296: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1280: 1279: 1276: 1270: 1269: 1265: 1264: 1258: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1228: 1227: 1216: 1179: 1178: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1128: 1127: 1123: 1122: 1116: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1100: 1099: 1094: 1086: 1085: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1031: 1030: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1005: 1004: 1000: 999: 996: 990: 989: 985: 984: 978: 972: 971: 968: 962: 961: 956: 948: 947: 943: 942: 932: 929: 928: 922: 921: 918: 915: 914: 912: 911: 905: 903: 897: 896: 892: 891: 888: 884: 883: 880: 874: 873: 869: 868: 862: 856: 855: 852: 846: 845: 840: 832: 831: 827: 826: 816: 780: 779: 773: 772: 769: 766: 765: 760: 754: 753: 749: 748: 745: 739: 738: 734: 733: 727: 721: 720: 717: 711: 710: 705: 697: 696: 692: 691: 681: 635:, long-titled 620: 619: 613: 612: 609: 606: 605: 600: 594: 593: 588: 584: 583: 579: 578: 576: 575: 571: 569: 563: 562: 559: 553: 552: 548: 547: 538: 532: 531: 525: 519: 518: 515: 509: 508: 503: 495: 494: 483: 481: 478: 465: 462: 393:Oliver St John 361: 360: 357: 354: 353: 352:9 October 1651 350: 344: 343: 339: 338: 335: 329: 328: 323: 315: 314: 306: 298: 295: 223:letters patent 217: 214: 200:into England. 189:Levant Company 179:via the Dutch 148:Dutch Republic 144:Spanish Empire 79: 78: 41: 39: 32: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5062: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4965: 4957: 4955: 4947: 4946: 4943: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4884:organisations 4878: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4855: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4818: 4817: 4814: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4765: 4764:Manufacturing 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4707: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4695: 4687: 4684: 4683: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4655: 4652: 4651: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4617:List of banks 4615: 4614: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4594: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4534: 4531: 4530: 4529: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4511:North Sea oil 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4478: 4477: 4473: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4443: 4439: 4436: 4435: 4434: 4433:Trades unions 4431: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4404: 4400: 4397: 4396: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4368: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4225: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4200: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4070: 4069:Big City Plan 4067: 4066: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4045: 4037: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4021:Privatisation 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 4001:Gold standard 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3988: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3973: 3969: 3966: 3965: 3964: 3961: 3958: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3928:1986 Big Bang 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3853: 3851:Chronological 3849: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3808: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3786: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3734: 3733: 3730: 3729: 3727: 3719: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3682:Co-operatives 3680: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3650: 3648: 3643: 3642: 3639: 3627: 3619: 3618: 3615: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3571: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3560:(August 1775) 3559: 3556: 3553: 3550: 3547: 3544: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3513:Coercive Acts 3511: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3481: 3478: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3444: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3423: 3420: 3417: 3414: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3367: 3364: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3307: 3302: 3300: 3295: 3293: 3288: 3287: 3284: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3262: 3259: 3256: 3253: 3250: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3225: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3186: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3163: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3130:(3): 427–35. 3129: 3125: 3124: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3087: 3083: 3077: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3063: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3021:Israel, J. I. 3018: 3014: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2989: 2985: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2926: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2897: 2892: 2884: 2883:Rutkow (2012) 2879: 2876: 2872: 2871:Sawers (1992) 2867: 2864: 2859: 2858: 2850: 2847: 2843: 2842:Walton (1971) 2838: 2835: 2831: 2830:Ransom (1968) 2826: 2823: 2819: 2818:Thomas (1965) 2814: 2811: 2805: 2802: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2780: 2774: 2771: 2768: 2762: 2759: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2745: 2739: 2736: 2733: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2715: 2712: 2708: 2707:Israel (1997) 2703: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2691:Reeves (1792) 2687: 2684: 2680: 2679:p. 208ff 2676: 2675:Osgood (1907) 2671: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2647: 2641: 2638: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2616: 2613: 2610: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2595:Reeves 1792, 2592: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2542: 2539: 2536: 2531: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2516: 2513:Craven, p. 35 2510: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2491: 2485: 2482: 2476: 2473: 2470: 2464: 2461: 2457: 2451: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2436: 2431: 2424: 2421: 2416: 2414:9780521292139 2410: 2406: 2405: 2397: 2394: 2390: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2361: 2358: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2327: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2309: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2275: 2271: 2268: 2263: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2238: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2194: 2189: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2171: 2168: 2162: 2159: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2141: 2138: 2134: 2133: 2126: 2123: 2118: 2112: 2108: 2107: 2099: 2097: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2081: 2078: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2063: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2047:Wool Act 1699 2039: 2037: 2035: 2030: 2029:Rutkow (2012) 2026: 2024: 2019: 2018:Sawers (1992) 2015: 2013: 2009: 2003: 2000: 1999:Ransom (1968) 1996: 1992: 1991:Thomas (1965) 1987: 1985: 1983: 1978: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1934: 1930: 1923: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1830: 1825: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1783: 1775: 1772: 1764: 1753: 1750: 1746: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1732: 1729: 1725: 1722: – 1721: 1717: 1716:Find sources: 1710: 1706: 1700: 1699: 1694:This section 1692: 1688: 1683: 1682: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1664: 1660: 1658: 1652: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1616: 1612: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1577:10 April 1696 1576: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1528: 1523: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1498: 1496: 1495:royal charter 1492: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1467:whale fishery 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1443: 1439: 1432: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1365: 1360: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1281: 1278:22 April 1671 1277: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1229: 1224: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1177: 1173: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1087: 1082: 1070: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1048: 1040: 1029: 1025: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1001: 997: 995: 991: 986: 982: 979: 977: 973: 969: 967: 963: 959: 949: 944: 937: 927: 923: 916: 910: 907: 906: 904: 902: 898: 893: 889: 885: 881: 879: 875: 870: 866: 863: 861: 857: 853: 851: 847: 843: 833: 828: 821: 815: 813: 811: 805: 799: 795: 789: 778: 774: 767: 764: 761: 759: 755: 750: 746: 744: 740: 735: 731: 728: 726: 722: 718: 716: 712: 708: 698: 693: 686: 680: 678: 676: 670: 668: 664: 658: 655: 651: 646: 642: 638: 632: 627: 618: 614: 607: 604: 601: 599: 595: 592: 589: 585: 580: 573: 572: 570: 568: 564: 560: 558: 554: 549: 546: 542: 539: 533: 529: 526: 524: 520: 516: 514: 510: 506: 496: 491: 479: 477: 475: 471: 463: 461: 459: 454: 450: 445: 440: 438: 434: 430: 426: 421: 417: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 389: 387: 381: 379: 375: 371: 368: 355: 351: 349: 345: 340: 336: 334: 330: 326: 316: 311: 304: 296: 294: 292: 287: 283: 278: 272: 271:of Britain." 270: 265: 264:Adam Anderson 261: 257: 253: 249: 244: 242: 238: 233: 227: 224: 215: 213: 210: 206: 201: 199: 195: 190: 184: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 132: 129: 125: 120: 118: 114: 109: 107: 102: 97: 95: 90: 86: 75: 72: 64: 52: 51: 45: 40: 31: 30: 27: 19: 4833:Supermarkets 4799:Construction 4794:Architecture 4629:Canary Wharf 4462:Resource and 4445:Unemployment 4416:Minimum wage 4379:Billionaires 4276:Silicon Glen 4148:M11 Corridor 3857: 3451:(March 1766) 3445:(March 1766) 3410:Currency Act 3372:Molasses Act 3354: 3320:British laws 3228: 3222: 3189: 3183: 3166: 3160: 3127: 3121: 3096: 3090: 3071: 3061: 3057:Reeves, John 3047: 3024: 3012: 3003: 2993: 2982: 2953: 2947: 2931: 2919: 2905: 2878: 2866: 2856: 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