Torosaurus - Knowledge (XXG)

980:

1831, however, they originate at the rear edge of the orbit. Likewise, there is a variation in the form of the nose horn. YPM 1831 and, to a lesser extent, YPM 1830 have a straight, upright nasal horn, but MOR 981, ANSP 15192, and especially MOR 1122 possess a low bump at most. The frill differs too, as ANSP 15192 and YPM 1830 have a shield curving upwards at the rear, but the frill of YPM 1831 is nearly flat, though this could be an artefact of restoration. The frill of YPM 1831 is also heart-shaped, with a clear midline notch, whereas the rear edge of the other specimens is straight. The frill proportions are quite variable. With YPM 1831, the length-width ratio is 1.26, but MOR 981 has a shield 2.28 times longer than it is wide. The number of triangular osteoderms is difficult to assess, as most fossils seem to have lost them. MOR 981 and MOR 1122 have ten and twelve epiparietals, respectively. YPM 1831 has been restored with a fontanelle in the skull roof, which is possibly authentic. Farke also concluded that the degree of variability did not exceed that shown by related genera.

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alter the rate or degree of such remodelling and may generate the illusion of old bone tissue. Longrich foresaw that Scanella and Horner would respond to his second test of their hypothesis by claiming that its results were caused by individual variation. According to Longrich, the importance of this factor was limited however: e.g. the size difference between ANSP 15192 and YPM 1831 had better been explained by

1654: 140: 1770: 1024: 560: 4694: 1948: 2396:*Hicks, J.F., Johnson, K.R., Obradovich, J. D., Miggins, D.P., and Tauxe, L. 2003. Magnetostratigraphyof Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) to lower Eocene strata of the Denver Basin, Colorado. In K.R. Johnson, R.G. Raynolds and M.L. Reynolds (eds), Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Laramide Strata in the Denver Basin, Pt. II., Rocky Mountain Geology 38: 1-27. 2123:

Longrich also suggested some additional objections to the "toromorph" hypothesis. There are no transitional forms known regarding the number of epiparietals. Also, it is hard to see how their number could have increased, as they occupied the full frill edge and would, in a metaplastic growth process,

1972:

frills were muscle attachment sites was rejected by them because the bone at these points did not show the rugose surface typical for such an attachment. For the difference in the number of epoccipitals, they offered two additional explanations. The osteoderm tips of old individuals might have eroded

1939:

specimens have frills with a deeply veined surface, indicating considerable age. The bone of their frills would have to be rejuvenated and then become granulated again in order for hole formation to begin, which Farke considered to be an unlikely sequence. Finally, Farke pointed out that specimen YPM

979:

specimens are rather variable. The orbital "brow" horns are sometimes large and curved to the front, as with MOR 981, or sometimes short and straight, as shown by MOR 1122 and ANSP 15191. Also, the position of these horns differs, as they are often located directly on top of the eye socket. With YPM

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fossils. To better test the prediction, Longrich proposed a list of twenty-four external skull traits, by which specimens could be checked regarding their level of skull element fusion and their maturation. Thirty-six specimens were investigated upon applying these criteria. It transpired that the

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Scannella and Horner's conclusions have not been unanimously accepted. Several experts, though admitting the possibility that the "toromorph" hypothesis is correct, have denied that this is probable. The hypothesis was directly challenged by a 2011 paper by Andrew Farke and a 2012 paper by Nicholas

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differed from its relatives in retaining a relative young bone structure until old age. On the other hand, bone remodelling is not a reliable estimator of maturity in view of experimental studies demonstrating that differences in the mechanical strain conditions of various bones can significantly

1955:

The same year, Scanella and Horner responded to some of Farke's critique. They admitted that USNM 2412, in view of its pathologies, was not an ideal candidate for a transitional form, but stressed that, apart from swellings, the holes in its frill were also bordered by granular and thinning bone.

1926:

in ceratopsians does not increase when the frill grows. Even though the number of episquamosals is often variable, there seems to be no relation with size because some juveniles already show the maximum number. Apparently, this is a matter of individual variation, not ontogeny. Likewise, with

1864:

subadults. Of these, they claimed that the bone structure indicated a fully mature age, with the size difference being the apparent result of individual variation. A third possible objection was the seeming lack of transitional forms between individuals with and without parietal holes. These

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specimens, measuring 7.5 to 9 m (25 to 30 ft) long and weighing 4 to 6 t (8,800 to 13,200 lb). Due to the elongated frill, the skull length is especially considerable. Hatcher estimated the skull of YPM 1830 at 2.2 m (7.2 ft) and that of YPM 1831 at 2.35 m

504:

frill holes. During maturation, the skull frill would have been greatly lengthened and holes would have appeared in it. In 2011, 2012, and 2013, however, studies of external features of known specimens have claimed that morphological differences between the two genera preclude their

1875:, as an example of precisely such a transitional form. The problematic traits of this genus would simply reflect its being in the first stages of transforming into a "toromorph". A last problem was offered by the number of osteoderms on the frill edge. With 925:

had pointed out that the new skulls described by him were even longer on average than Hatcher's original two. MOR 1122 has a length of 2.52 m (8.3 ft) and MOR 981 has a length of 2.77 m (9.1 ft). The well preserved skull of the

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specimens were very old. However, there were two exceptions. The small individual ANSP 15192 was a relatively young adult, as shown by the lack of fusion of the snout bones. The youngest specimen was YPM 1831, with an unfused snout, epijugal, and

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period, between 68 and 66 million years ago, though it is possible that the species range might extend to as far back as 69 million years ago. Fossils have been discovered across the Western Interior of North America, from as far north as

1993:

evolution. The oldest specimen that can be dated, MOR 1122, has twelve epiparietals, while the younger MOR 981 possesses ten, seeming to indicate an evolutionary sequence in which the number of epiparietals gradually decreased.

447:, but is distinguished by an elongated frill with large oval shaped openings, long squamosal bones of the frill with a trough on their upper surface, and the presence of five or more pairs of hornlets on the back of the frill. 2084:. Furthermore, it had lost all of its frill osteoderms because they apparently had not been fused yet, while the frill edge had the external appearance of growing, young bone. On the other hand, Longrich found that ten of the 513:

subadults, different skull proportions independent of maturation, and hole formation at an adult stage not being part of a normal ceratopsian maturation sequence. Consequently, it is still heavily debated whether

1805:. A characteristic of metaplastic bone is that it can lengthen and shorten over time, extending and resorbing to form new shapes. Significant development is seen even in those skulls already identified as 2120:

holes are surrounded by thin bone. Longrich concluded that the hypothesis failed regarding the third prediction. Being refuted in two of the three predictions, the hypothesis should be rejected.

1848:

fossils were quite common, whereas in fact they are fairly rare. They explained this by a high mortality of subadults and the possibility that old animals preferentially lived on heights where

1891:). This was explained by the assumption that the number of epoccipitals increased during maturation. Also, it was pointed out that both number and position of the osteoderms are variable with 1821:

individuals grew longer frills. Horner made this part of a larger argument that, in general, many purported dinosaur species might have been growth stages of other known species. With old

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simply have increased their size and the remainder of the frill. The proposed splitting of osteoderms by erosion has only been established with episquamosals, never with epiparietals.

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frill, far from piercing thinning bone, were surrounded by thick swellings. Farke further concluded that several facts were difficult to reconcile with the proposed development of a

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specimens would be very old. According to Longrich, this last point had not yet been established. Admittedly, in 2011, Horner had published a histological study showing that all

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The end phase would have consisted of an enormously large and flat frill as exemplified by specimen YPM 1831 (A), its size shown by comparison to ANSP 15192 (B), an early adult

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1831, despite its enormous size, was apparently not yet fully-grown, as shown by its unfused sutures and smooth bone texture. Thus, it seemed to represent an authentic

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specimens. Longrich concluded that the test of the second prediction refuted the hypothesis. The third prediction was that transitional forms could be found between

4811: 2699: 1935:, the purported location of incipient holes, to be muscle attachment sites. There would be no consistent relation between holes and a granular bone structure. Many 3143: 1968:

specimens showing the precise combination of veined, granular, and young striated bone that Farke had considered to be improbable. The idea that the thin areas on

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skull frills, which are surrounded by mature granular bone, suggesting that these developed to offset the weight that would otherwise have been added as maturing

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in the form of circular or transversely ovalur openings. The parietal bone is about 20% wider than it is long. Farke identified a single trait in which

3426: 3370: 4798: 937:. The frill is extremely long in comparison to the remainder of the skull. The rear edge of the frill bears ten or more epiperietals, or triangular 964: 1883:, there are ten or twelve, a midline epiparietal being absent. Also the number of episquamosals on the side edge of the frill differs (five with 1869:

are always perfectly shaped, not like incipient perforations. To counter it, they pointed to specimen USNM 2412, the holotype of the contentious

2762:"Anatomy and Taxonomic Status of the Chasmosaurine Ceratopsid Nedoceratops hatcheri from the Upper Cretaceous Lance Formation of Wyoming, U.S.A" 4900: 4885: 1825:

individuals, the frill would have begun to lengthen considerably, causing it to flatten and widen at its rear edge. At the same time, parietal

2278:, is a "toromorph" as well. This issue has been complicated by the lack of good fossil material, as most specimens consist of isolated bones. 4905: 4131: 2482: 1927:

Ceratopia in general, the formation of holes in the frill is not related to age, as even the youngest individuals often possess the parietal

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parietal. Scanella and Horner concluded that only future finds could solve this problem. They suggested that this taxon, which extends the

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because of elongated squamosals, indicating a long frill. The number of epiparietals and the size, location, or even existence of parietal

2038:, their fossils should be found in the same locations. In fact, their geographical ranges do not perfectly coincide. In the very north, no 3418: 2070:

specimens investigated possessed a subadult bone structure, but the sample had been too small to allow for a valid generalisation to all

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Scott D. Sampson; Mark A. Loewen; Andrew A. Farke; Eric M. Roberts; Catherine A. Forster; Joshua A. Smith & Alan A. Titus (2010).

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during life in such a way that each osteoderm gave the impression of two being present. In this way, the normal number of five or six

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fusion typically took place in a certain sequence, providing additional information about their age. Indeed, by these criteria, most

995:

specimens are similar in that they lack a truly long nasal horn and a horizontal arterial groove at the front base of said horn, but

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Principal Component Analysis and linear regression between shape and size performed on skulls (A) and squamosals (B), showing that

1809:, Horner observed, "where the horn orientation is backwards in juveniles and forward in adults". Approximately 50% of all subadult 1702:

differs from other chasmosaurines in the retention as an adult of a juvenile trait. Adults retain the short squamosals, a case of

4711: 2378: 614:. Much of the confusion over etymology of the name results from the fact that Marsh never explicitly explained it in his papers. 961:. Its squamosal bore a conspicuous ridge on the edge with the parietal combined with a deep longitudinal trough parallel to it. 1782: 3410: 437:

possessed the largest skulls of any known land animal, with the frilled skull reaching 2.77 metres (9.1 ft) in length.

2231:, the last two species showing an overlapping in their proportions. This is even true when the frill shape is disregarded. 1031: 4895: 4875: 2108:, as the strongest proof of a transitional phase. However, he pointed out that these structures differed in position. The 2707: 911:

specimen possessed a partial skull that would have been 2.9 m (9.5 ft) long in life. This was again doubted by

608:, "window-like" holes, in the elongated frill, which have traditionally served to distinguish it from the solid frill of 4687: 1778: 2116:

holes are fully surrounded by the parietal. Furthermore, the depressions are bordered by much thicker bone, while the

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Scanella and Horner recognised that not all data were easily explained by their hypothesis. For these, they advanced

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analysis showed that both genera were chasmosaurines. Recent analyses invariably show a close relationship between

3010:, and new material from the Javelina Formation (Maastrichtian) of Texas. Journal of Paleontology 82(6): 1127–1138. 941:. A midline triangular osteoderm is absent. Likewise, no osteoderm straddles the parietal-squamosal boundary. The 4880: 2434: 3544: 3446: 541: 2255:

were separate taxa, though allowing for the possibility of anagenesis, i.e. the several taxa forming a single

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specimen nicknamed "Adam", first put on display in 2023, is the largest known at 3 m (9.8 ft) long.

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as an aged or diseased individual of its own genus. Scannella and Horner argued for its identification with

815: 762: 2499: 4738: 2299: 1833: 853:

referred considerable additional material to this species. Research has not yet been published on whether

4837: 4721: 3571: 2630: 2354: 774: 549: 312: 4693: 2192: 2136:

squamosal is also, independent from absolute size, much more elongated. Longrich pointed out that when

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increased this to 2.4 m (7.9 ft) and 2.57 m (8.4 ft), respectively. Based on this,

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Scannella, J.B. & Horner, J.R., 2011, "‘Nedoceratops’: An Example of a Transitional Morphology",

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has a squamosal that is thickened at the inner side and concave at the outer surface, while the

1895:. This is shown through specimen MOR 2923, which has six epiparietals, but lacks a midline one. 4842: 3100:

Farke, A. A. "Cranial osteology and phylogenetic relationships of the chasmosaurine ceratopsid

597: 509:. The main problems are a lack of good transitional forms, the apparent existence of authentic 4824: 4816: 4630: 4568: 4531: 4005: 3892: 3310: 3209: 2984:

Sullivan, R. M., A. C. Boere, and S. G. Lucas. 2005. Redescription of the ceratopsid dinosaur

2809: 2791: 2581: 2478: 2166: 2081: 2030:. Longrich argued that the "toromorph" hypothesis implied three such predictions. Firstly, if 873: 537: 4829: 1813:

skulls have two thin areas in the frill that correspond with the placement of the "holes" in

4660: 4458: 4283: 3985: 3680: 3379: 3300: 3290: 3199: 3189: 2799: 2781: 2736: 2682: 2603: 2571: 2561: 2430: 2144:

specimens are combined to create a single growth sequence, as Scanella and Horner had done,

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squamosal is concave at the inner side and flat on top. Transitional forms are unknown. The

2047: 1802: 1785:, published research on the growth patterns in thirty-eight skull specimens (twenty-nine of 1749: 1229: 983:

Farke stressed that, apart from the frill, no systematic differences could be found between

4776: 4554: 4506: 4465: 4401: 4304: 4255: 3957: 3881: 3836: 3710: 3696: 3655: 3529: 3513: 2643: 2464: 2156:. Longrich admitted that the fact that Horner, in his histological study, could only find 2149: 1616: 1334: 809: 782: 710: 419: 380: 48: 3118: 3286: 3185: 3170:"New Horned Dinosaurs from Utah Provide Evidence for Intracontinental Dinosaur Endimism" 2777: 2557: 2426: 1997: 522:

or a separate genus, though most researchers currently favor the latter interpretation.

4561: 4520: 4451: 4438: 4409: 4394: 4364: 4325: 4311: 4228: 4189: 4068: 3978: 3943: 3936: 3816: 3766: 3689: 3669: 3305: 3270: 3204: 3169: 2804: 2761: 2576: 2531: 2169:, the former possibly being a young adult female and the latter being a subadult male. 2019: 1739: 1703: 1625: 1605: 1347: 1086: 1074: 917: 831: 405: 292: 279: 237: 3119:"This Torosaurus skeleton is the largest horned dinosaur ever discovered in the world" 2172: 4859: 4639: 4618: 4588: 4579: 4479: 4373: 4318: 4297: 4269: 4262: 4248: 4241: 4047: 4036: 4029: 3971: 3964: 3950: 3908: 3843: 3809: 3780: 3733: 3364:

Mallon, Jordan C; Holmes, Robert B; Bamforth, Emily L; Schumann, Dirk (May 7, 2022).

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Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages

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remains and imperfect sampling. Longrich therefore concluded that the hypothesis was

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epiparietals could have doubled to ten or twelve, precisely the amount seen with the

1853: 1679: 1610: 1583: 1378: 1310: 1260: 1196: 1148: 1047: 942: 907: 714: 709:

was specimen YPM 1831, which is an even larger skull. Both fossils were found in the

593: 415: 90: 52: 3006:

Hunt, Rebecca K. and Thomas M. Lehman. 2008. Attributes of the ceratopsian dinosaur

2934:

New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 49th Field Conference, Las Cruces County II

2615: 2450: 2408:"Forelimb posture in neoceratopsian dinosaurs: implications for gait and locomotion" 921:, and concluded its skull had been reconstructed as too long. Furthermore, in 2006, 400:(meaning "perforated lizard", in reference to the large openings in its frill) is a 17: 4653: 4604: 4597: 4513: 4486: 4472: 4380: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4290: 4276: 4168: 4155: 4086: 4075: 4060: 4022: 4014: 3996: 3901: 3867: 3850: 3802: 3795: 3751: 3556: 3504: 2944:

C.W. Gilmore, 1946, "Reptilian fauna of the North Horn Formation of central Utah",

2196: 2003: 1901: 1871: 1653: 1571: 1426: 1277: 1179: 1124: 1100: 1061: 819: 754: 742: 730: 726: 635: 424: 321: 266: 221: 139: 2353:, EM P16.1. (at Eastend Historical Museum in Saskatchewan) and UALVP 1646 (at the 1956:

Taking all the evidence into consideration, they thought it much more likely that

3384: 3365: 3295: 3194: 2786: 2686: 2607: 2566: 901:

was seen as having the longest skull of any known land animal. In 1998, however,

536:, a pair of ceratopsian skulls with elongated frills bearing holes were found by 4770: 4646: 4540: 4423: 4387: 4210: 3922: 3787: 2027: 1923: 1659: 1638: 1443: 1361: 1023: 610: 559: 532: 492: 443: 65: 31: 2838:? Geometric Morphometric Evidence of Late Maastrichtian Ceratopsid Dinosaurs", 2088:

skulls investigated had attained the same level of maturation as the most aged

1718:, concluded that this situation could be best explained by the hypothesis that 4332: 4182: 3915: 3703: 3637: 3624: 3583: 3462: 3271:"Extreme Cranial Ontogeny in the Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Pachycephalosaurus" 2600:"Morph-osaurs: How shape-shifting dinosaurs deceived us – life – 28 July 2010" 2326:

species. Farke's 2013 morphometric study was inconclusive on this point, with

2023: 1986: 1947: 1595: 1575: 938: 790: 500:

specimens still immature and showing signs of a first development of distinct

408: 253: 110: 75: 2946:

United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey Professional Paper

2795: 2540:: Ontogeny in chasmosaurine ceratopsids as a case study in dinosaur taxonomy" 1879:, there are typically five epiparietals, including a midline osteoderm. With 1761:

holotype YPM 1822) would have gotten longer frills with holes as shown by B,

1690:. The only discernible difference between them was the form of the frill. No 2153: 1683: 1629: 1043: 969: 688: 483: 459:, thanks to having a short nose horn. Three species have been named so far: 172: 115: 59: 4761: 3314: 3213: 2813: 2585: 2361:, this indicating that it is a valid taxon. The same study also noted that 777:

1122 (from 2001). Fragmentary remains that could possibly be identified as

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Lehman, T.M., 1998, "A gigantic skull and skeleton of the horned dinosaur

4755: 4217: 4203: 4196: 3759: 3495: 3486: 3427:

Chart showing Triceratops/Torosaur growth and development (New Scientist)

2673:

Marsh, 1889 (Ceratopsidae: Chasmosaurinae): synonymy through ontogeny ."

2544: 2235:

proved, except for size, not to be a plausible transitional form between

1951:

Specimen ANSP 15192 might, according to Longrich, be a young female adult

1829:

would have appeared, resulting in the typical chasmosaurine frill shape.

1707: 1591: 734: 699: 411: 205: 192: 105: 100: 85: 80: 70: 2152:

because their squamosals were more elongated than could be explained by

2018:

In 2012, Longrich investigated the problem by applying the principle of

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from the Upper Cretaceous McRae Formation, Sierra County, New Mexico",

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specimens reduced the reliability of these results, but concluded that

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subadults was suggestive, but offered the alternative explanation that

1849: 1769: 1715: 1687: 999:

fossils with the same combination of traits are not uncommon. In 2008,

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Scannella J., 2009, "And then there was one: synonymy consequences of

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Lucas, S.G., Mack, G.H., Estep, G.W., 1998, "The Ceratopsian dinosaur

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by the first prediction. Secondly, the hypothesis predicted that all

1985:

specimens, having been found in older layers, might, in a process of

1844:, which they called the "toromorph phase", it would be expected that 1579: 769:

P97.6.1 (a skull lacking the snout), and two partial skulls from the

761:

in 1944), MPM VP6841 (a partial skeleton with a skull mounted at the

182: 4732: 1801:. Horner stressed that the frill of ceratopsian skulls consisted of 3343:

Horner, J.R., Lamm, E-T., 2011, "Ontogeny of the parietal frill of

3248:"New Analyses Of Dinosaur Growth May Wipe Out One-third Of Species" 3074:, a giant horned dinosaur from the Late Campanian of New Mexico", 2171: 1996: 1946: 1768: 1748: 1652: 1030: 1022: 963: 872: 786: 643: 579: 558: 428: 401: 2911:(Dinosauria: Ceratopsidae) specimens from Texas and New Mexico", 4790: 3400:. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, pp. xiv-346 2148:

specimens ANSP 15192 and YPM 1831 were outliers relative to the

1587: 857:

should be regarded as a new genus or, as has been suggested for

823: 738: 687:

is "sword" in Latin, in reference to the elongated shape of the

4736: 4153: 3622: 3473: 3435: 1578:(Greek: "horned faces"), a group of herbivorous dinosaurs with 797:

specimens are uncommon in the fossil record, with specimens of

2892:

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia

3431: 2290:

are unknown. Researchers have claimed that distinct juvenile

2180:, independent of size, occupied a different morphospace than 1860:

specimens, which seems to suggest the existence of authentic

818:

in 1946, based on specimen USNM 15583 (a frill fragment from

486:

combined with an investigation of frill shape concluded that

2322:, might represent a separate chasmosaurine genus or a third 2259:

line of descent, given the lack of good stratigraphic data.

2223:

skulls throughout maturation retained a different form from

2435:

10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0450:FPINDI>2.0.CO;2

2112:

depressions are partly located on the squamosal, while the

1604:

has, with its long frill, traditionally been classified in

749:. Those that can be identified with some certainty include 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 666:

Another species was subsequently regarded as identical to

441:

is thought to have been the same size as the contemporary

3144:"Largest dinosaur skull ever found on display in Denmark" 2831:

Maiorino L., Farke A.A., Kotsakis T., Piras P.,2013, "Is

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maturation has raised the question of whether the second

1628:

because of its short frill. However, in the 1990s, exact

1608:. It was seen as a late member of a line descending from 3349:

Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences Paris série D

2219:

skulls correlated with maturation. They concluded that

2100:. Longrich considered the claim that the thin areas on 915:

who, in 2011, named this exemplar as a separate genus,

2857:

O.C. Marsh, 1891, "Notice of new vertebrate fossils",

1931:. Farke explained the thin bone areas on the frill of 3106:

Horns and Beaks: Ceratopsian and Ornithopod Dinosaurs

2310:

on their proximity to an adult with a characteristic

2243:. Farke and Maiorino admitted that the low number of 1899:

Longrich. In 2011, Farke redescribed the problematic

1793:) from the Hell Creek formation. They concluded that 1686:, two closely related chasmosaurines shared the same 933:

In 2006, Farke established some diagnostic traits of

604:, which means "to perforate". The allusion is to the 3023:, Monographs of the United States Geological Survey 2968:, Maestrichtian dinosaurs from Trans-Pecos, Texas", 2042:

fossils have been found, while from the south, only

1910:. Farke pointed out that the irregular holes in the 1624:

which, well into the 1980s, was seen as a member of

351: 328: 4745: 4629: 4587: 4578: 4530: 4496: 4437: 4363: 4227: 4166: 4085: 4046: 4004: 3995: 3891: 3865: 3826: 3731: 3679: 3635: 3582: 3555: 3528: 3040:, Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Natural History 773:reported in 2002: MOR 981 (discovered in 1998) and 578:is frequently translated as "bull lizard" from the 1706:. In 2009, John Scannella, investigating dinosaur 1694:juveniles are known, but a considerable number of 1663:, conventionally considered a distinct genus from 475:is no longer considered a valid species, however. 2266:specimens might represent a "toromorph" phase of 3038:A revision of the Ceratopsia or horned dinosaurs 3019:Hatcher, J.B., Marsh O.C. and Lull, R.S., 1907, 2890:from South Dakota and a revision of the genus:, 1620:. It was thus placed in a different branch from 563:Marsh's original illustrations of the skulls of 455:It instead resembled the earlier and more basal 2886:Colbert, E.H. and J.D. Bump, 1947, "A skull of 2827: 2825: 2823: 1730:specimens would be fully mature individuals of 1670:A debate has sparked over the possibility that 548:. Hatcher's employer, paleontologist Professor 3163: 3161: 2845:(11): e81608. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081608 2203:(shape space) describing the variation of the 2046:is known. However, this situation could be an 1964:than a genus of its own. They also pointed to 3447: 2988:(Gilmore, 1946) and a revision of the genus. 8: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3088: 2853: 2851: 2345:argued that two specimens found in Canada's 2007:as an ontogenetic transitional form between 705:, which is a partial skull. The holotype of 3002: 3000: 2998: 2530:Longrich, N. R. & Field, D. J. (2012). 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 592:, but is much more likely derived from the 4871:Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of North America 4733: 4584: 4443: 4233: 4174: 4163: 4150: 4052: 4001: 3873: 3743: 3739: 3647: 3643: 3632: 3619: 3561: 3534: 3525: 3470: 3454: 3440: 3432: 3108:. Indiana Univ. Press (Bloomington), 2006. 3057:from New Mexico: Journal of Paleontology, 2877:. Princeton Univ. Press (Princeton), 1996. 2294:have been excavated from a bonebed in the 1726:were growth stages of a single genus. The 861:, the mature growth stage of a species of 138: 38: 3383: 3371:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 3304: 3294: 3203: 3193: 2859:The American Journal of Science, series 3 2803: 2785: 2575: 2565: 1856:. A second problem was the size range of 1840:were the normal last maturation phase of 1753:According to the "toromorph" hypothesis, 888:are all large, comparable to the largest 3347:: a preliminary histological analysis", 3269:Horner, John R; Goodwin, Mark B (2009). 3146:. Wisconsin State Journal. June 13, 2023 2665:Scannella, J. and Horner, J.R. (2010). " 2357:), are subadults and can be referred to 2199:research, a statistical analysis of the 2022:. From any valid scientific hypothesis, 490:probably represented the mature form of 4911:Multispecific non-avian dinosaur genera 3104:", pp. 235-257. In K. Carpenter (ed.). 2755: 2753: 2700:"New Study Says Torosaurus=Triceratops" 2473:. Princeton University Press. pp. 2389: 530:In 1891, two years after the naming of 451:also lacked the long nose horn seen in 3334:(12): DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0028705 2639: 2628: 2470:The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs 2760:Farke, Andrew A. (January 20, 2011). 2406:Paul, G.S.; Christiansen, P. (2000). 1960:represented a diseased individual of 1797:indeed represents the mature form of 793:. Paleontologists have observed that 482:was disputed. A study of fossil bone 7: 3250:. Sciencedaily.com. October 31, 2009 2338:and not well separated from either. 2062:specimens would be adults, while no 4891:Taxa named by Othniel Charles Marsh 2104:frills were precursors of parietal 1746:, the latter name having priority. 1418: 1394: 1353: 1326: 1302: 1252: 1245: 1221: 1171: 1164: 1140: 1116: 1092: 1067: 1057: 1015:, possessed a midline epiparietal. 677: 653: 628: 149:Denver Museum of Nature and Science 3232:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 2913:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 2675:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 2026:can be derived by which it can be 25: 2706:. Smithsonian.com. Archived from 2302:, basing their identification as 975:Farke pointed out that the known 4717: 4716: 4692: 4686: 4136: 4130: 2379:Timeline of ceratopsian research 945:is thin and pierced by parietal 159: 2330:morphospace falling in between 968:Mounted skeleton (MPM VP6841), 753:15192 (a smaller individual in 2907:Farke, A., 2002, "A review of 2729:Horner, Jack (November 2011). 1989:, represent an early stage of 1981:specimens. Alternatively, the 826:). In 1976, it was renamed to 621:species have been identified: 1: 4901:Ceratopsians of North America 4886:Fossil taxa described in 1891 3070:Nicholas R. Longrich, 2011, " 2498:Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2012). 2365:indeed lived during the Late 717:. Similar specimens found in 4906:Late Cretaceous ceratopsians 3296:10.1371/journal.pone.0007626 3195:10.1371/journal.pone.0012292 2787:10.1371/journal.pone.0016196 2687:10.1080/02724634.2010.483632 2608:10.1080/02724634.2010.483632 2567:10.1371/journal.pone.0032623 2318:range southwards of that of 2050:of the relative scarcity of 1922:. In general, the number of 1582:-like beaks that thrived in 884:The individuals referred to 807:was originally described as 745:have since been referred to 646:, in reference to the frill. 496:, with the bones of typical 362:(Gilmore, 1946) Lawson, 1976 1698:juveniles have been found. 414:that lived during the late 147:Specimen nicknamed "Tiny", 4927: 3385:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlab120 2001:Scanella & Horner saw 1836:. One problem was that if 801:being much more abundant. 789:and the San Juan Basin of 29: 27:Extinct genus of dinosaurs 4706: 4684: 4446: 4236: 4177: 4162: 4149: 4127: 4055: 3876: 3746: 3742: 3650: 3646: 3631: 3618: 3564: 3537: 3524: 3469: 1440: 1423: 1416: 1399: 1392: 1375: 1358: 1351: 1331: 1324: 1307: 1300: 1274: 1257: 1250: 1243: 1226: 1219: 1193: 1176: 1169: 1162: 1145: 1138: 1121: 1114: 1097: 1090: 1072: 1065: 478:In 2010, the validity of 376: 369: 348: 343: 327: 320: 156:Scientific classification 154: 146: 137: 41: 3055:Pentaceratops sternbergi 2732:Shape-shifting Dinosaurs 2282:was largely referred to 2262:The hypothesis that the 1783:Montana State University 1781:, Scannella's mentor at 893:(7.7 ft). In 1933, 845:and somewhat older than 642:means "the wide one" in 30:Not to be confused with 3663:Micropachycephalosaurus 3072:Titanoceratops ouranous 2990:Journal of Paleontology 2970:Journal of Paleontology 1646:Possible synonymy with 816:Charles Whitney Gilmore 781:have been found in the 763:Milwaukee Public Museum 2638:Cite journal requires 2300:Big Bend National Park 2188: 2015: 1952: 1777:In 2010, Scanella and 1774: 1766: 1674:might be identical to 1667: 1657:A mounted specimen of 1566:In 1891, Marsh placed 1042:Below is a ceratopsid 1039: 1028: 972: 881: 571: 4838:Paleobiology Database 3123:museumofevolution.com 2355:University of Alberta 2175: 2000: 1950: 1772: 1752: 1656: 1050:conducted by Sampson 1048:phylogenetic analysis 1034: 1026: 967: 876: 562: 550:Othniel Charles Marsh 526:Discovery and species 4896:Ornithischian genera 4876:Maastrichtian genera 3398:The Horned Dinosaurs 2986:Torosaurus utahensis 2960:D.A. Lawson, 1976, " 2875:The Horned Dinosaurs 2710:on November 13, 2013 2509:Winter 2011 Appendix 2276:Torosaurus utahensis 2241:Triceratops horridus 2209:Triceratops horridus 2182:Triceratops horridus 2044:Torosaurus utahensis 1887:, six or seven with 1834:auxiliary hypotheses 1712:Hell Creek Formation 955:Triceratops horridus 843:Torosaurus utahensis 828:Torosaurus utahensis 805:Torosaurus utahensis 771:Hell Creek Formation 759:Edwin Harris Colbert 588:or the Spanish word 457:Triceratops horridus 453:Triceratops prorsus. 18:Torosaurus utahensis 3828:Archaeoceratopsidae 3396:Dodson, P. (1996). 3287:2009PLoSO...4.7626H 3230:cranial ontogeny", 3186:2010PLoSO...512292S 3076:Cretaceous Research 2778:2011PLoSO...616196F 2558:2012PLoSO...732623L 2427:2000Pbio...26..450P 2351:Scollard Formations 2213:Triceratops prorsus 2191:In 2013, Farke and 2186:Triceratops prorsus 1765:specimen ANSP 15192 1759:Triceratops prorsus 953:differed from both 841:in 2005 left it as 552:, coined the genus 427:to as far south as 4548:Crittendenceratops 4498:Albertaceratopsini 3419:Dinosaurier Web - 3036:Lull, R.S., 1933, 2296:Javelina Formation 2189: 2034:were identical to 2016: 1953: 1775: 1767: 1668: 1040: 1029: 973: 895:Richard Swann Lull 882: 572: 518:truly is an adult 4853: 4852: 4825:Open Tree of Life 4739:Taxon identifiers 4730: 4729: 4702: 4701: 4682: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4674: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4631:Pachyrhinosaurini 4569:Yehuecauhceratops 4532:Nasutoceratopsini 4433: 4432: 4145: 4144: 4125: 4124: 4121: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4113: 4112: 4109: 4108: 4105: 4104: 4006:Protoceratopsidae 3893:Leptoceratopsidae 3861: 3860: 3727: 3726: 3614: 3613: 3610: 3609: 3606: 3605: 3602: 3601: 2704:Dinosaur Tracking 2602:. New Scientist. 2484:978-0-691-13720-9 2193:Leonardo Maiorino 2167:sexual dimorphism 2082:occipital condyle 1563: 1562: 1554: 1553: 1545: 1544: 1536: 1535: 1527: 1526: 1518: 1517: 1509: 1508: 1500: 1499: 1491: 1490: 1482: 1481: 1473: 1472: 1464: 1463: 1455: 1454: 1289: 1288: 1208: 1207: 1027:Specimen MOR 1122 1011:, but similar to 913:Nicholas Longrich 682: 662: 658: 633: 538:John Bell Hatcher 393: 392: 387: 363: 316: 16:(Redirected from 4918: 4881:Hell Creek fauna 4846: 4845: 4833: 4832: 4820: 4819: 4807: 4806: 4794: 4793: 4781: 4780: 4779: 4766: 4765: 4764: 4734: 4720: 4719: 4697: 4696: 4690: 4661:Pachyrhinosaurus 4585: 4459:Machairoceratops 4444: 4284:Coahuilaceratops 4234: 4175: 4164: 4151: 4140: 4135: 4134: 4053: 4002: 3986:Zhuchengceratops 3874: 3744: 3740: 3681:Chaoyangsauridae 3648: 3644: 3633: 3620: 3562: 3535: 3526: 3519: 3518: 3471: 3456: 3449: 3442: 3433: 3390: 3389: 3387: 3361: 3355: 3341: 3335: 3325: 3319: 3318: 3308: 3298: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3244: 3238: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3207: 3197: 3165: 3156: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3140: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3115: 3109: 3102:Torosaurus latus 3098: 3083: 3068: 3062: 3051: 3045: 3034: 3028: 3017: 3011: 3004: 2993: 2982: 2976: 2958: 2952: 2942: 2936: 2926: 2920: 2905: 2899: 2884: 2878: 2871: 2865: 2855: 2846: 2829: 2818: 2817: 2807: 2789: 2757: 2748: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2695: 2689: 2681:(4): 1157–1168. 2669:Marsh, 1891, is 2663: 2648: 2647: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2579: 2569: 2527: 2512: 2511: 2506: 2495: 2489: 2488: 2461: 2455: 2454: 2412: 2403: 2397: 2394: 2341:In 2022, Mallon 2336:Torosaurus latus 2264:Torosaurus latus 2221:Torosaurus latus 1983:Torosaurus latus 1803:metaplastic bone 1763:Torosaurus latus 1419: 1395: 1354: 1327: 1303: 1253: 1246: 1230:Coahuilaceratops 1222: 1172: 1165: 1141: 1117: 1093: 1068: 1058: 680: 660: 656: 631: 567:and its synonym 544:in southeastern 461:Torosaurus latus 385: 361: 353: 333:Torosaurus latus 330: 311: 304: 291: 278: 265: 252: 236: 220: 164: 163: 142: 132: 62: 47:Temporal range: 39: 21: 4926: 4925: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4856: 4855: 4854: 4849: 4841: 4836: 4828: 4823: 4815: 4810: 4802: 4797: 4789: 4784: 4775: 4774: 4769: 4760: 4759: 4754: 4741: 4731: 4726: 4698: 4691: 4666: 4625: 4574: 4555:Furcatoceratops 4526: 4507:Albertaceratops 4492: 4466:Menefeeceratops 4429: 4402:Tatankaceratops 4359: 4305:Mercuriceratops 4256:Arrhinoceratops 4223: 4171: 4158: 4141: 4129: 4101: 4081: 4042: 3991: 3958:Montanoceratops 3887: 3882:Graciliceratops 3870: 3857: 3837:Archaeoceratops 3822: 3736: 3723: 3711:Xuanhuaceratops 3697:Hualianceratops 3675: 3656:Albalophosaurus 3640: 3627: 3598: 3578: 3551: 3545:Avemetatarsalia 3530:Avemetatarsalia 3520: 3514:Marginocephalia 3476: 3475: 3465: 3460: 3407: 3393: 3363: 3362: 3358: 3342: 3338: 3326: 3322: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3253: 3251: 3246: 3245: 3241: 3225: 3221: 3167: 3166: 3159: 3149: 3147: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3127: 3125: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3099: 3086: 3069: 3065: 3052: 3048: 3035: 3031: 3018: 3014: 3005: 2996: 2983: 2979: 2959: 2955: 2943: 2939: 2927: 2923: 2906: 2902: 2885: 2881: 2872: 2868: 2856: 2849: 2830: 2821: 2759: 2758: 2751: 2741: 2739: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2713: 2711: 2698:Switek, Brian. 2697: 2696: 2692: 2664: 2651: 2637: 2627: 2620: 2618: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2529: 2528: 2515: 2504: 2497: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2463: 2462: 2458: 2410: 2405: 2404: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2375: 2150:regression line 1651: 1617:Arrhinoceratops 1564: 1555: 1546: 1537: 1528: 1519: 1510: 1501: 1492: 1483: 1474: 1465: 1456: 1335:Arrhinoceratops 1290: 1209: 1035:Restoration of 1021: 1003:concluded that 905:claimed that a 877:Restoration of 871: 836:Robert Sullivan 810:Arrhinoceratops 711:Lance Formation 678: 654: 629: 542:Niobrara County 528: 420:Late Cretaceous 404:of herbivorous 381:Arrhinoceratops 360: 339: 336: 310: 302: 289: 276: 263: 250: 234: 218: 158: 133: 131: 130: 129: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 57: 56: 49:Late Cretaceous 45: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4924: 4922: 4914: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4866:Chasmosaurines 4858: 4857: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4847: 4834: 4821: 4808: 4795: 4782: 4767: 4751: 4749: 4743: 4742: 4737: 4728: 4727: 4725: 4724: 4714: 4707: 4704: 4703: 4700: 4699: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4672: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4665: 4664: 4657: 4650: 4643: 4635: 4633: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4623: 4615: 4608: 4601: 4593: 4591: 4582: 4576: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4565: 4562:Nasutoceratops 4558: 4551: 4544: 4536: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4524: 4521:Medusaceratops 4517: 4510: 4502: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4491: 4490: 4483: 4476: 4469: 4462: 4455: 4452:Diabloceratops 4447: 4441: 4439:Centrosaurinae 4435: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4427: 4420: 4413: 4410:Titanoceratops 4406: 4398: 4395:Regaliceratops 4391: 4384: 4377: 4369: 4367: 4365:Triceratopsini 4361: 4360: 4358: 4357: 4350: 4343: 4336: 4329: 4326:Sierraceratops 4322: 4315: 4312:Navajoceratops 4308: 4301: 4294: 4287: 4280: 4273: 4266: 4259: 4252: 4245: 4237: 4231: 4229:Chasmosaurinae 4225: 4224: 4222: 4221: 4214: 4207: 4200: 4193: 4190:Brachyceratops 4186: 4178: 4172: 4167: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4147: 4146: 4143: 4142: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4119: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4111: 4110: 4107: 4106: 4103: 4102: 4100: 4099: 4098: 4097: 4091: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4080: 4079: 4072: 4069:Turanoceratops 4065: 4056: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4040: 4033: 4026: 4019: 4010: 4008: 3999: 3993: 3992: 3990: 3989: 3982: 3979:Unescoceratops 3975: 3968: 3961: 3954: 3947: 3944:Ischioceratops 3940: 3937:Gryphoceratops 3933: 3926: 3919: 3912: 3905: 3897: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3886: 3885: 3877: 3871: 3866: 3863: 3862: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3855: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3820: 3817:Sasayamagnomus 3813: 3806: 3799: 3792: 3784: 3777: 3770: 3767:Auroraceratops 3763: 3756: 3747: 3737: 3732: 3729: 3728: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3721: 3714: 3707: 3700: 3693: 3690:Chaoyangsaurus 3685: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3670:Psittacosaurus 3666: 3659: 3651: 3641: 3636: 3629: 3628: 3623: 3616: 3615: 3612: 3611: 3608: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3600: 3599: 3597: 3596: 3595: 3594: 3588: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3576: 3575: 3574: 3565: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3550: 3549: 3548: 3547: 3538: 3532: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3516: 3507: 3498: 3489: 3483: 3474: 3467: 3466: 3461: 3459: 3458: 3451: 3444: 3436: 3430: 3429: 3424: 3416: 3406: 3405:External links 3403: 3402: 3401: 3392: 3391: 3378:(1): 157–171. 3356: 3336: 3320: 3261: 3239: 3219: 3157: 3135: 3110: 3084: 3063: 3046: 3029: 3021:The Ceratopsia 3012: 2994: 2977: 2953: 2937: 2921: 2900: 2879: 2866: 2847: 2819: 2749: 2721: 2690: 2649: 2640:|journal= 2591: 2513: 2490: 2483: 2456: 2421:(3): 450–465. 2398: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2382: 2381: 2374: 2371: 1757:subadults (A, 1740:junior synonym 1704:paedomorphosis 1650: 1644: 1626:Centrosaurinae 1606:Chasmosaurinae 1561: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1534: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1458: 1457: 1453: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1422: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1398: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1357: 1352: 1350: 1348:Triceratopsini 1344: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1330: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1282: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1256: 1251: 1249: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1225: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1206: 1205: 1202: 1201: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1175: 1170: 1168: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1144: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1120: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1087:Chasmosaurinae 1083: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1075:Centrosaurinae 1071: 1066: 1064: 1056: 1020: 1019:Classification 1017: 1007:, contrary to 918:Titanoceratops 870: 867: 832:Douglas Lawson 693: 692: 664: 663: 647: 527: 524: 391: 390: 389: 388: 374: 373: 367: 366: 365: 364: 346: 345: 344:Other species 341: 340: 337: 325: 324: 318: 317: 300: 296: 295: 293:Triceratopsini 287: 283: 282: 280:Chasmosaurinae 274: 270: 269: 261: 257: 256: 248: 241: 240: 238:Neornithischia 232: 225: 224: 216: 209: 208: 203: 196: 195: 190: 186: 185: 180: 176: 175: 170: 166: 165: 152: 151: 144: 143: 135: 134: 126: 125: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 63: 46: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4923: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4844: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4787: 4783: 4778: 4772: 4768: 4763: 4757: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4735: 4723: 4715: 4713: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4695: 4689: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4656: 4655: 4651: 4649: 4648: 4644: 4642: 4641: 4640:Achelousaurus 4637: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4628: 4621: 4620: 4619:Styracosaurus 4616: 4614: 4613: 4609: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4600: 4599: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4589:Centrosaurini 4586: 4583: 4581: 4580:Eucentrosaura 4577: 4571: 4570: 4566: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4557: 4556: 4552: 4550: 4549: 4545: 4543: 4542: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4509: 4508: 4504: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4482: 4481: 4480:Wendiceratops 4477: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4468: 4467: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4449: 4448: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4426: 4425: 4421: 4419: 4418: 4414: 4412: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4399: 4397: 4396: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4385: 4383: 4382: 4378: 4376: 4375: 4374:Eotriceratops 4371: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4342: 4341: 4337: 4335: 4334: 4330: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4321: 4320: 4319:Pentaceratops 4316: 4314: 4313: 4309: 4307: 4306: 4302: 4300: 4299: 4298:Kosmoceratops 4295: 4293: 4292: 4288: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4279: 4278: 4274: 4272: 4271: 4270:Bravoceratops 4267: 4265: 4264: 4263:Bisticeratops 4260: 4258: 4257: 4253: 4251: 4250: 4249:Anchiceratops 4246: 4244: 4243: 4242:Agujaceratops 4239: 4238: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4213: 4212: 4208: 4206: 4205: 4201: 4199: 4198: 4194: 4192: 4191: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4179: 4176: 4173: 4170: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4152: 4148: 4139: 4133: 4095: 4094: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4073: 4071: 4070: 4066: 4063: 4062: 4058: 4057: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4048:Ceratopsoidea 4045: 4039: 4038: 4037:Protoceratops 4034: 4032: 4031: 4030:Breviceratops 4027: 4025: 4024: 4020: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3981: 3980: 3976: 3974: 3973: 3972:Udanoceratops 3969: 3967: 3966: 3965:Prenoceratops 3962: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3953: 3952: 3951:Leptoceratops 3948: 3946: 3945: 3941: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3918: 3917: 3913: 3911: 3910: 3909:Bainoceratops 3906: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3879: 3878: 3875: 3872: 3869: 3864: 3853: 3852: 3848: 3846: 3845: 3844:Helioceratops 3841: 3839: 3838: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3812: 3811: 3810:Mosaiceratops 3807: 3805: 3804: 3800: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3790: 3789: 3785: 3783: 3782: 3781:Koreaceratops 3778: 3776: 3775: 3771: 3769: 3768: 3764: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3748: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3734:Neoceratopsia 3730: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3706: 3705: 3701: 3699: 3698: 3694: 3692: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3667: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3592: 3591: 3590: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3581: 3573: 3569: 3568: 3567: 3566: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3542: 3541: 3540: 3539: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3515: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3484: 3482: 3478: 3477: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3457: 3452: 3450: 3445: 3443: 3438: 3437: 3434: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3415: 3414: 3409: 3408: 3404: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3372: 3367: 3360: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3346: 3340: 3337: 3333: 3330: 3324: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3281:(10): e7626. 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3262: 3249: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3229: 3223: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3180:(9): e12292. 3179: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3145: 3139: 3136: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3050: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3033: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3016: 3013: 3009: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2981: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2962:Tyrannosaurus 2957: 2954: 2950: 2947: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2931: 2925: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2883: 2880: 2876: 2870: 2867: 2863: 2860: 2854: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2772:(1): e16196. 2771: 2767: 2763: 2756: 2754: 2750: 2738: 2734: 2733: 2725: 2722: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2632: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2595: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2552:(2): e32623. 2551: 2547: 2546: 2541: 2539: 2535: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2503: 2502: 2494: 2491: 2486: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2471: 2466: 2460: 2457: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2402: 2399: 2393: 2390: 2384: 2380: 2377: 2376: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2367:Maastrichtian 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2260: 2258: 2257:chronospecies 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2168: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2020:falsification 2014: 2010: 2006: 2005: 1999: 1995: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1949: 1945: 1943: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1903: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1854:fossilization 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1771: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1751: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1680:Maastrichtian 1677: 1673: 1666: 1662: 1661: 1655: 1649: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1618: 1613: 1612: 1611:Anchiceratops 1607: 1603: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1584:North America 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1559: 1558: 1550: 1549: 1541: 1540: 1532: 1531: 1523: 1522: 1514: 1513: 1505: 1504: 1496: 1495: 1487: 1486: 1478: 1477: 1469: 1468: 1460: 1459: 1451: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1445: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1421: 1420: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1409: 1406: 1405: 1404: 1397: 1396: 1390: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1379:Eotriceratops 1373: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1356: 1355: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1336: 1329: 1328: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1311:Anchiceratops 1305: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1285: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1272: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1261:Kosmoceratops 1255: 1254: 1248: 1247: 1241: 1240: 1237: 1236: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1224: 1223: 1217: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1197:Pentaceratops 1191: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1174: 1173: 1167: 1166: 1160: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1149:Agujaceratops 1143: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1119: 1118: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1102: 1095: 1094: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1070: 1069: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1055: 1053: 1049: 1046:based on the 1045: 1038: 1033: 1025: 1018: 1016: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 981: 978: 971: 966: 962: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 943:parietal bone 940: 936: 931: 929: 924: 920: 919: 914: 910: 909: 908:Pentaceratops 904: 903:Thomas Lehman 900: 896: 891: 887: 880: 875: 868: 866: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 811: 806: 802: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 757:uncovered by 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 715:Maastrichtian 712: 708: 704: 701: 698:was based on 697: 690: 686: 676: 673: 672: 671: 669: 651: 648: 645: 641: 637: 627: 624: 623: 622: 620: 615: 613: 612: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 586: 581: 577: 570: 566: 561: 557: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 534: 525: 523: 521: 517: 512: 508: 503: 499: 495: 494: 489: 485: 481: 476: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 445: 440: 436: 432: 430: 426: 421: 417: 416:Maastrichtian 413: 410: 407: 406:chasmosaurine 403: 399: 398: 386:Gilmore, 1946 384: 382: 378: 377: 375: 372: 368: 358: 357: 350: 349: 347: 342: 335: 334: 326: 323: 319: 314: 309: 308: 301: 298: 297: 294: 288: 285: 284: 281: 275: 272: 271: 268: 262: 259: 258: 255: 249: 246: 243: 242: 239: 233: 230: 227: 226: 223: 217: 214: 211: 210: 207: 204: 201: 198: 197: 194: 191: 188: 187: 184: 181: 178: 177: 174: 171: 168: 167: 162: 157: 153: 150: 145: 141: 136: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 61: 54: 53:Maastrichtian 50: 44: 40: 37: 33: 19: 4746: 4659: 4654:Stellasaurus 4652: 4645: 4638: 4617: 4610: 4605:Coronosaurus 4603: 4598:Centrosaurus 4596: 4567: 4560: 4553: 4546: 4539: 4519: 4514:Lokiceratops 4512: 4505: 4487:Xenoceratops 4485: 4478: 4473:Sinoceratops 4471: 4464: 4457: 4450: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4408: 4400: 4393: 4386: 4381:Nedoceratops 4379: 4372: 4354:Vagaceratops 4352: 4347:Utahceratops 4345: 4340:Terminocavus 4338: 4331: 4324: 4317: 4310: 4303: 4296: 4291:Judiceratops 4289: 4282: 4277:Chasmosaurus 4275: 4268: 4261: 4254: 4247: 4240: 4216: 4209: 4202: 4195: 4188: 4181: 4169:Ceratopsidae 4156:Ceratopsidae 4087:Ceratopsidae 4076:Zuniceratops 4074: 4067: 4061:Ajkaceratops 4059: 4035: 4028: 4023:Bagaceratops 4021: 4015:Ajkaceratops 4013: 3997:Coronosauria 3984: 3977: 3970: 3963: 3956: 3949: 3942: 3935: 3928: 3921: 3914: 3907: 3902:Asiaceratops 3900: 3880: 3868:Euceratopsia 3851:Yamaceratops 3849: 3842: 3835: 3815: 3808: 3803:Microceratus 3801: 3796:Liaoceratops 3794: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3765: 3758: 3752:Ajkaceratops 3750: 3716: 3709: 3702: 3695: 3688: 3668: 3661: 3654: 3572:Ornithischia 3557:Ornithischia 3509: 3505:Ornithischia 3500: 3491: 3420: 3412: 3411:Kids Zone - 3397: 3375: 3369: 3359: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3331: 3328: 3323: 3278: 3274: 3264: 3252:. Retrieved 3242: 3234: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3177: 3173: 3148:. Retrieved 3138: 3126:. Retrieved 3122: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3061:(5): 894-906 3058: 3054: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3032: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3007: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2975:(1): 158-164 2972: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2956: 2948: 2945: 2940: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2874: 2869: 2861: 2858: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2832: 2769: 2765: 2742:November 20, 2740:. Retrieved 2731: 2724: 2712:. Retrieved 2708:the original 2703: 2693: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2631:cite journal 2619:. Retrieved 2594: 2549: 2543: 2537: 2533: 2508: 2500: 2493: 2469: 2459: 2418: 2415:Paleobiology 2414: 2401: 2392: 2362: 2358: 2342: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2328:T. utahensis 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2280:T. utahensis 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2261: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2233:Nedoceratops 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2217:Nedoceratops 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2197:morphometric 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2161: 2157: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2122: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2056:corroborated 2051: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2017: 2012: 2008: 2004:Nedoceratops 2002: 1990: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1958:Nedoceratops 1957: 1954: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924:epoccipitals 1919: 1915: 1912:Nedoceratops 1911: 1907: 1902:Nedoceratops 1900: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872:Nedoceratops 1870: 1866: 1861: 1857: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1831: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1776: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1743: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1675: 1671: 1669: 1664: 1658: 1647: 1637: 1633: 1621: 1615: 1609: 1601: 1600: 1572:Ceratopsidae 1567: 1565: 1442: 1441: 1427:Nedoceratops 1425: 1424: 1402: 1401: 1400: 1377: 1376: 1360: 1359: 1333: 1332: 1309: 1308: 1278:Vagaceratops 1276: 1275: 1259: 1258: 1228: 1227: 1195: 1194: 1180:Utahceratops 1178: 1177: 1147: 1146: 1125:Mojoceratops 1123: 1122: 1101:Chasmosaurus 1099: 1098: 1073: 1062:Ceratopsidae 1051: 1041: 1037:T. utahensis 1036: 1012: 1008: 1005:T. utahensis 1004: 996: 992: 988: 984: 982: 976: 974: 959:T. utahensis 958: 954: 950: 946: 934: 932: 927: 923:Andrew Farke 916: 906: 898: 889: 885: 883: 878: 862: 858: 855:T. utahensis 854: 851:Rebecca Hunt 846: 842: 838: 834:. Review by 827: 820:Emery County 808: 804: 803: 798: 794: 778: 755:South Dakota 746: 743:Saskatchewan 731:North Dakota 727:South Dakota 713:of the late 706: 702: 695: 694: 684: 674: 667: 665: 661:Lawson, 1976 650:T. utahensis 649: 639: 636:type species 625: 618: 616: 609: 605: 601: 589: 583: 575: 573: 568: 564: 553: 531: 529: 519: 515: 510: 501: 497: 491: 487: 479: 477: 472: 469:T. utahensis 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 442: 438: 434: 433: 425:Saskatchewan 396: 395: 394: 379: 356:T. utahensis 355: 354: 332: 331: 322:Type species 306: 305: 267:Ceratopsidae 244: 228: 222:Ornithischia 212: 199: 42: 36: 4771:Wikispecies 4647:Einiosaurus 4541:Avaceratops 4424:Triceratops 4388:Ojoceratops 4211:Monoclonius 3923:Ferrisaurus 3788:Kulceratops 3345:Triceratops 3228:Triceratops 2992:79:564-582. 2873:Dodson, P. 2836:Triceratops 2671:Triceratops 2538:Triceratops 2465:Paul, G. S. 2332:Triceratops 2324:Triceratops 2320:Triceratops 2268:Triceratops 2253:Triceratops 2225:T. horridus 2201:morphospace 2162:Triceratops 2158:Triceratops 2142:Triceratops 2130:Triceratops 2110:Triceratops 2102:Triceratops 2098:Triceratops 2086:Triceratops 2072:Triceratops 2068:Triceratops 2064:Triceratops 2036:Triceratops 2024:predictions 2009:Triceratops 1991:Triceratops 1975:Triceratops 1970:Triceratops 1966:Triceratops 1962:Triceratops 1937:Triceratops 1933:Triceratops 1916:Triceratops 1908:Triceratops 1893:Triceratops 1885:Triceratops 1877:Triceratops 1842:Triceratops 1823:Triceratops 1819:Triceratops 1811:Triceratops 1807:Triceratops 1799:Triceratops 1787:Triceratops 1779:Jack Horner 1755:Triceratops 1744:Triceratops 1738:would be a 1732:Triceratops 1720:Triceratops 1700:Triceratops 1696:Triceratops 1676:Triceratops 1660:Triceratops 1648:Triceratops 1639:Triceratops 1622:Triceratops 1590:during the 1444:Triceratops 1362:Ojoceratops 1013:Triceratops 997:Triceratops 989:Triceratops 890:Triceratops 869:Description 863:Triceratops 849:. In 2008, 799:Triceratops 681:, 1891 657:, 1946 632:, 1891 611:Triceratops 533:Triceratops 520:Triceratops 498:Triceratops 493:Triceratops 444:Triceratops 418:age of the 409:ceratopsian 383:? utahensis 338:Marsh, 1891 273:Subfamily: 58:68–66 32:Torvosaurus 4860:Categories 4777:Torosaurus 4747:Torosaurus 4710:See also: 4417:Torosaurus 4333:Spiclypeus 4183:Agathaumas 4096:see below↓ 3916:Cerasinops 3704:Stenopelix 3638:Ceratopsia 3625:Ceratopsia 3593:see below↓ 3584:Ceratopsia 3496:Dinosauria 3463:Ceratopsia 3421:Torosaurus 3413:Torosaurus 3044:(3): 1-175 3008:Torosaurus 2966:Torosaurus 2930:Torosaurus 2909:Torosaurus 2888:Torosaurus 2833:Torosaurus 2737:TEDX Talks 2667:Torosaurus 2534:Torosaurus 2385:References 2363:Torosaurus 2359:Torosaurus 2316:Torosaurus 2312:Torosaurus 2304:Torosaurus 2292:Torosaurus 2284:Torosaurus 2272:Torosaurus 2249:Torosaurus 2245:Torosaurus 2237:Torosaurus 2229:T. prorsus 2205:Torosaurus 2195:published 2178:Torosaurus 2146:Torosaurus 2138:Torosaurus 2134:Torosaurus 2126:Torosaurus 2118:Torosaurus 2114:Torosaurus 2094:Torosaurus 2090:Torosaurus 2077:Torosaurus 2060:Torosaurus 2052:Torosaurus 2040:Torosaurus 2032:Torosaurus 2013:Torosaurus 1987:anagenesis 1979:Torosaurus 1944:subadult. 1942:Torosaurus 1920:Torosaurus 1889:Torosaurus 1881:Torosaurus 1862:Torosaurus 1858:Torosaurus 1852:prevented 1846:Torosaurus 1838:Torosaurus 1815:Torosaurus 1795:Torosaurus 1791:Torosaurus 1789:, nine of 1736:Torosaurus 1728:Torosaurus 1724:Torosaurus 1692:Torosaurus 1672:Torosaurus 1665:Torosaurus 1634:Torosaurus 1602:Torosaurus 1596:Cretaceous 1576:Ceratopsia 1574:family of 1568:Torosaurus 1403:Torosaurus 993:Torosaurus 985:Torosaurus 977:Torosaurus 939:osteoderms 935:Torosaurus 928:Torosaurus 899:Torosaurus 886:Torosaurus 795:Torosaurus 791:New Mexico 785:Region of 779:Torosaurus 747:Torosaurus 707:T. gladius 675:T. gladius 619:Torosaurus 576:Torosaurus 569:T. gladius 556:for them. 554:Torosaurus 516:Torosaurus 511:Torosaurus 502:Torosaurus 488:Torosaurus 480:Torosaurus 473:T. gladius 465:T. gladius 449:Torosaurus 439:Torosaurus 435:Torosaurus 397:Torosaurus 307:Torosaurus 254:Ceratopsia 206:Dinosauria 43:Torosaurus 3479:Kingdom: 3354:: 439–452 3254:August 3, 3082:: 264-276 2951:-C: 29-53 2864:: 265-269 2796:1932-6203 2621:August 3, 2347:Frenchman 2308:utahensis 2288:fenestrae 2274:species, 2154:allometry 2106:fenestrae 1929:fenestrae 1867:fenestrae 1827:fenestrae 1684:Laramidia 1678:. In the 1630:cladistic 1598:Periods. 1054:in 2010: 1044:cladogram 970:Milwaukee 947:fenestrae 812:utahensis 689:squamosal 606:fenestrae 574:The name 484:histology 179:Kingdom: 173:Eukaryota 4756:Wikidata 4722:Category 4712:Timeline 4218:Polyonax 4204:Dysganus 4197:Ceratops 3760:Aquilops 3487:Chordata 3485:Phylum: 3481:Animalia 3329:PLoS ONE 3315:19859556 3275:PLOS ONE 3214:20877459 3174:PLOS ONE 3128:June 20, 2898:: 93–106 2840:PLoS ONE 2814:21283763 2766:PLOS ONE 2714:March 2, 2616:86767957 2586:22393425 2545:PLoS ONE 2467:(2010). 2451:85280946 2373:See also 2048:artefact 1904:hatcheri 1708:ontogeny 1592:Jurassic 1009:T. latus 951:T. latus 879:T. latus 859:T. latus 847:T. latus 783:Big Bend 735:Colorado 703:YPM 1830 700:holotype 696:T. latus 668:T. latus 626:T. latus 565:T. latus 507:synonymy 412:dinosaur 371:Synonyms 260:Family: 193:Chordata 189:Phylum: 183:Animalia 169:Domain: 4830:4947038 4817:1345351 4804:4823149 4791:4531570 4612:Spinops 3930:Gremlin 3718:Yinlong 3306:2762616 3283:Bibcode 3205:2929175 3182:Bibcode 3150:July 1, 3027:: 1-198 2805:3024410 2774:Bibcode 2577:3290593 2554:Bibcode 2536:is not 2475:265–267 2443:2666120 2423:Bibcode 1918:into a 1850:erosion 1716:Montana 1710:in the 1688:habitat 1682:age of 1570:in the 723:Montana 719:Wyoming 685:Gladius 655:Gilmore 546:Wyoming 299:Genus: 286:Tribe: 127:↓ 4762:Q14491 3313: 3303: 3237:: 177A 3212: 3202: 2812: 2802: 2794: 2614: 2584: 2574: 2481: 2449: 2441: 2343:et al. 2215:, and 2028:tested 1580:parrot 1052:et al. 991:. All 839:et al. 741:, and 602:toreo) 585:taurus 467:, and 315:, 1891 4843:38861 4812:IRMNG 3510:Clade 3501:Clade 3492:Clade 3176:. 5. 2919:: 52A 2612:S2CID 2505:(PDF) 2447:S2CID 2439:JSTOR 2411:(PDF) 787:Texas 679:Marsh 644:Latin 640:Latus 630:Marsh 598:τορέω 596:verb 594:Greek 582:noun 580:Latin 429:Texas 402:genus 313:Marsh 245:Clade 229:Clade 213:Clade 200:Clade 4799:GBIF 3570:see 3543:see 3311:PMID 3256:2010 3210:PMID 3152:2023 3130:2023 2964:and 2810:PMID 2792:ISSN 2744:2012 2716:2011 2644:help 2623:2010 2582:PMID 2479:ISBN 2349:and 2334:and 2306:cf. 2251:and 2239:and 2227:and 2140:and 2096:and 2011:and 1722:and 1636:and 1594:and 1588:Asia 1586:and 1001:Hunt 987:and 957:and 824:Utah 751:ANSP 739:Utah 617:Two 590:toro 66:PreꞒ 4786:EoL 3774:Beg 3380:doi 3376:195 3301:PMC 3291:doi 3200:PMC 3190:doi 2949:210 2800:PMC 2782:doi 2683:doi 2604:doi 2572:PMC 2562:doi 2431:doi 2298:of 2184:or 1742:of 1714:of 1614:or 830:by 814:by 775:MOR 767:SMM 765:), 638:). 540:in 55:), 4862:: 4840:: 4827:: 4814:: 4801:: 4788:: 4773:: 4758:: 3512:: 3503:: 3494:: 3374:. 3368:. 3352:10 3309:. 3299:. 3289:. 3277:. 3273:. 3235:29 3208:. 3198:. 3188:. 3172:. 3160:^ 3121:. 3087:^ 3080:32 3078:, 3059:72 3025:49 2997:^ 2973:50 2917:22 2915:, 2896:99 2894:, 2862:42 2850:^ 2822:^ 2808:. 2798:. 2790:. 2780:. 2768:. 2764:. 2752:^ 2735:. 2702:. 2679:30 2677:, 2652:^ 2635:: 2633:}} 2629:{{ 2610:. 2580:. 2570:. 2560:. 2548:. 2542:. 2516:^ 2507:. 2477:. 2445:. 2437:. 2429:. 2419:26 2417:. 2413:. 2369:. 2211:, 2207:, 1734:. 1642:. 865:. 822:, 737:, 733:, 729:, 725:, 721:, 683:. 670:: 659:) 471:. 463:, 431:. 359:? 247:: 231:: 215:: 202:: 116:Pg 60:Ma 4622:? 4405:? 4064:? 4018:? 3854:? 3791:? 3755:? 3455:e 3448:t 3441:v 3388:. 3382:: 3332:6 3317:. 3293:: 3285:: 3279:4 3258:. 3216:. 3192:: 3184:: 3178:5 3154:. 3132:. 3042:3 2843:8 2816:. 2784:: 2776:: 2770:6 2746:. 2718:. 2685:: 2646:) 2642:( 2625:. 2606:: 2588:. 2564:: 2556:: 2550:7 2532:" 2487:. 2453:. 2433:: 2425:: 691:. 652:( 634:( 600:( 352:† 329:† 303:† 290:† 277:† 264:† 251:† 235:† 219:† 121:N 111:K 106:J 101:T 96:P 91:C 86:D 81:S 76:O 71:Ꞓ 51:( 34:. 20:)

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