Torsion siege engine

1130:

techniques and supplies to test the legitimacy of individual design specifications and their effectiveness of their power. Kelly DeVries and Serafina Cuomo claim torsion engines needed to be about 150 m (490 ft) or closer to their target to be effective, though this is based on literary evidence, too. Athenaeus Mechanicus cites a three-span catapult that could propel a shot 700 yd (640 m). Josephus cites an engine that could hurl a stone ball 400 yd (370 m) or more, and Marsden claims that most engines were probably effective up to the distance cited by Josephus, with more powerful machines capable of going farther. Of the projectiles used, exceptionally large ones have been mentioned in accounts, but "most Hellenistic projectiles found in the Near East weigh less than 15 kg (33 lb) and most dating to the Roman period weigh less than 5 kg (11 lb)."

754:

animal sinew and hair, either women's and horse. Heron and Vegetius consider sinew to be better, but Vitruvius cites women's hair as preferable. The preferred type of sinews came from the feet of deer (assumedly achilles tendons because they were longest) and the necks of oxen (strong from constant yoking). How it was made into a rope is not known, though J.G. Landels argues it was likely frayed on the ends, then woven together. The ropes, either hair or sinew were treated with olive oil and animal grease/fat to preserve its elasticity. Landels additionally argues that the energy-storing capacity of sinew is much greater than a wooden beam or bow, especially considering that wood's performance in tension devices is severely affected by temperatures above 77 °F (25 °C), which was not uncommon in a Mediterranean climate.

220: 175:, and dates to c. 338 - 326 BC. It lists the building's inventory that included torsion catapults and its components such as hair springs, catapult bases, and bolts. The transition from tension machines to torsion machines is a mystery, though E.W. Marsden speculates that a reasonable transition would involve the recognition of the properties of sinew in previously existing tension devices and other bows. Torsion based weaponry offered much greater efficiency over tension based weaponry. Traditional historiography puts the speculative date of the invention of two-armed torsion machines during the reign of Philip II of Macedon circa 340 BC, which is not unreasonable given the earliest surviving evidence of siege engines stated above. 1741:"The force with which these weapons threw stones and darts was such that a single projectile ran through a row of men, and the momentum of the stone hurled by the engine carried away battlements and knocked off corners of towers. There is in fact no body of men so strong that it cannot be laid low to the last rank by the impact of these huge stones...Getting in the line of fire, one of the men standing near Josephus on the rampart had his head knocked off by a stone, his skull being flung like a pebble from a sling more than 600 m (2,000 ft); and when a pregnant woman on leaving her house at daybreak was struck in the belly, the unborn child was carried away 100 m (330 ft)." 574:

stability, the addition of a padded heel block to stop the recoil of the machine, the development of formulae to determine the appropriate engine size (see Construction & Measurements below), and a ratcheting trigger mechanism that made it quicker to fire the machine. Marsden suggests that all of these initial developments occurred in fairly rapid succession, potentially over the span of just a few decades, because the deficiencies in design were fairly obvious problems. Thereon, a gradual refinement over the succeeding centuries provided the adjustments given in the chart below. Marsden's description of torsion machine development follows the general course that

1134:

the force of the tension provided by the skein could potentially damage the wooden frame. The solution was to place washers inside the holes of the frame through which the skein was threaded. This prevented damage to the skein, increased the structural integrity of the frame, and allowed engineers to precisely adjust tension levels using evenly spaced holes on the outer rim of the washers. The skein itself could be made out of human or animal hair, but it was most commonly made out of animal sinew, which Heron cites specifically. Life of the sinew has been estimated to be about eight to ten years, which made them expensive to maintain.

2026:

instances where torsion engines are identifiable, it is never certain which specific type of machine is being cited. Some scholars argue this abundance of terms indicates that torsion devices were in widespread use during the Middle Ages, though others argue that it is this very confusion about machine terminology that proves the few ancient texts that survived in the Latin West did not provide adequate information for the continuation of ancient torsion machines. The list below provides terms that have been found in reference to torsion engines in the ancient and medieval eras, but their specific definitions are largely inconclusive.

422:... anyone consulting Bradbury’s Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare (2004) will find mangonels described as stone-throwing catapults powered by the torsion effect of twisted ropes... But the truth is that there is no evidence for its medieval existence at all. Of course, it is hard to prove that something was not there (as opposed to proving that something was), but this is not a new finding: a considerable body of learned research dating back to the 19th century had reached that conclusion. But it has not stopped the transmission of the myth to the present day. 137: 532: 428:

weapon and siege equipment. Taking into consideration the constraints under which the monastic artists were working, and their purpose (which was not, of course, to provide a scientifically precise depiction of a particular siege), such illustrations are often remarkably accurate. Not once, however, is there an illustration of the onager. Unless there was some extraordinary global conspiracy to deny the existence of such weapons, one can only conclude that they were unknown to medieval clerics.

465:, whereas the mangonel was a torsion catapult. Even disregarding definition, sometimes when the original source specifically used the word "mangonel," it was translated as a torsion weapon such as the ballista instead, which was the case with an 1866 Latin translation of a Welsh text. This further adds to the confusion in terminology since "ballista" was used in medieval times as well, but probably only as a general term for stone throwing machines. For example 1753:"...at the Salerian Gate a Goth of goodly statue and a capable warrior, wearing a corselet and having a helmet on his head, a man who was of no mean station in the Gothic nation...was hit by a missile from an engine which was on a tower at this left. And passing through the corselet and the body of the man, the missile sank more than half its length into the tree, and pinning him to the spot where it entered the tree, it suspended him there a corpse." 316: 338: 836:

reduce the durability of the machine. Finally, being able to accurately determine the diameter of the frame's holes prevented the sinews and fibers of the skein from being damaged by the wood of the frame. Once these initial measurements were made, corollary formulae could be used to determine the dimensions of the rest of the machines. A couple of examples below serve to illustrate this:

1724:"As a matter of fact, the catapult was invented at this time in Syracuse, for the greatest technical minds from all over had been assembled in one place...The Syracusans killed many of their enemies by shooting them from the land with catapults that shot sharp-pointed missiles. In fact this piece of artillery caused great consternation, since it had not been known before this time." 434:

maintain and use the machine. When the mangonel appeared in Europe from the east (initially in the Byzantine world), it was a traction-propelled stone thrower. Torsion power went out of use for some seven centuries before returning in the guise of the bolt-throwing springald, deployed not as an offensive, wallbreaking siege engine, but to defend those walls against human assailants.

398:(mangonel) appeared, there is virtually no evidence at all, whether textual or artistic, of torsion engines used in warfare. The last historical texts specifying a torsion engine, aside from bolt throwers such as the springald, date no later than the 6th century. Illustrations of an onager do not reappear until the 15th century. With the exception of bolt throwers such as the 78: 36: 507:

complicated, and far more dangerous to operate than swing-beam engines, given the pent-up stresses within the coil and then violent stop of the arm against a component of the framework when fired. Traction trebuchets, by comparison, were capable of a much higher rate of fire and were far simpler to construct, use and maintain.

326: 1133:

The obvious disadvantage to any device powered primarily by animal tissue is that they had the potential to deteriorate rapidly and be severely affected by changing weather. Another issue was that the rough surface of the wooden frames could easily damage the sinew of the skein, and on the other hand

522:

is a newer modern term that is not found in contemporary sources, which can lead to further confusion. For some, the mangonel is not a specific type of siege weapon but a general term for any pre-cannon stone throwing artillery. Onagers have been called onager mangonels and traction trebuchets called

389:

It was only in 1910 that Rudolph Schneider pointed out that medieval Latin texts are completely devoid of any description of the torsion mechanism. He proposed that all medieval terms for artillery actually referred to the trebuchet, and that the knowledge to build torsion engines had been lost since

1137:

What is known is that they were used to provide covering fire while the attacking army was assaulting a fortification, filling in a ditch, and bringing other siege engines up to walls. Jim Bradbury goes so far as to claim torsion engines were only useful against personnel, primarily because medieval

568:

In early designs, machines were made with square wooden frames with holes drilled in the top and bottom through which a skein was threaded, wrapped around wooden levers that spanned the holes, enabling the adjustment of tension. The problem with this design is that when increasing the tension of the

1146:

Archaeological evidence for catapults, especially torsion devices, is rare. It is easy to see how stones from stone-throwers could survive, but organic sinews and wooden frames quickly deteriorate if left unattended. Usual remains include the all-important washers, as well as other metal supporting

456:

from the 6th to 12th centuries, between the disappearance of the onager and the arrival of the counterweight trebuchet. However many historians have argued for the continued use of onagers into medieval times by wading into terminological thickets. For example at the end of the 19th century, Gustav

835:

is the weight of the stone. The reason for the development of these formulas is to maximize the potential energy of the skein. If it was too long, the machine could not be used at its full capacity. Furthermore, if it was too short, the skein produced a high amount of internal friction that would

753:

Only a few specific designs of torsion catapults are known from ancient and medieval history. The materials used are just as vague, other than stating wood or metal were used as building materials. The skein that comprised the spring, on the other hand, has been cited specifically as made of both

427:

In the enormous quantity of surviving illuminated manuscripts, the illustrations have always given us valuable clues about warfare. In all this mass of illustrations, there are numerous depictions of manually operated stone throwers, then of trebuchets and, finally, of bombards and other types of

385:

concurred that torsion catapults were not used in medieval times, but only owing to their greater complexity, and believed that they were superior to "such a clumsy engine as the medieval trebuchet." Others such as General Köhler disagreed and argued that torsion machines were used throughout the

2025:

There is controversy over the terminology used to describe siege engines of every kind, including torsion machines. It is frustrating to scholars because the manuscripts are both vague in their descriptions of the machines and inconsistent in their usage of the terms. Additionally, in those few

284:

began to replace the more complicated two-armed devices. The Greeks and Romans, with advanced methods of military supply and armament, were able to readily produce the many pieces needed to build a ballista. In the later 4th and 5th centuries as these administrative structures began to change,

433:

There is no evidence whatever for the continuation of the onager in Byzantium beyond the end of the 6th century, while its absence in the ‘barbarian’ successor kingdoms can be shown, negatively, by the absence of any reference and, logically, from the decline in the expertise needed to build,

393:

Some historians such as Randall Rogers and Bernard Bachrach have argued that the lack of evidence regarding torsion siege engines does not provide enough proof that they were not used, considering that the narrative accounts of these machines almost always do not provide enough information to

1129:

No definitive results have been obtained through documentation or experiment that can accurately verify claims made in manuscripts concerning the range and damaging capabilities of torsion machines. The only way to do so would be to construct a whole range of full-scale devices using period

573:

or rims which enabled greater control over the machine's tension and the maximization of its power without sacrificing the integrity of the frame. Further design modifications that became standard include combining the two separate spring frames into a single unit to increase durability and

506:

The best arguments for the continued use of torsion artillery in Europe after the sixth century are the continued use of classical terms and the lack of conclusive evidence that they were not used; but neither of these arguments is particularly strong. Such engines were less powerful, more

234:

The Romans obtained their knowledge of artillery from the Greeks. In ancient Roman tradition, women were supposed to have given up their hair for use in catapults, which has a later example in Carthage in 148-146 BC. Torsion artillery, especially ballistae came into heavy usage during the

569:

skein, turning the lever became nigh impossible because of the friction caused by the contact made between the wood of the lever and the wood of the frame. This problem was solved simply with the addition of metal washers inserted in the holes of the frames and fastened either with

178:

The machines quickly spread throughout the ancient Mediterranean, with schools and contests emerging at the end of the 4th century BC that promoted the refinement of machine design. They were so popular in ancient Greece and Rome that competitions were often held. Students from

386:

Middle Ages. The torsion mangonel myth is particularly appealing for many historians due to its potential as an argument for the continuity of classical technologies and scientific knowledge into the Early Middle Ages, which they use to refute the concept of medieval decline.

469:

referred to the mangonel as a type of ballista, by which he meant they both threw stones. There are also references to Arabs, Saxons, and Franks using ballistae but it is never specified whether or not these were torsion machines. It is stated that during the siege of

3507: 1810: 1822: 390:

classical times. In 1941, Kalervo Huuri argued that the onager remained in use in the Mediterranean region, but not ballistas, until the 7th century when "its employment became obscured in the terminology as the traction trebuchet came into use."

517:

In modern times the mangonel is often confused with the onager due to the torsion mangonel myth. Modern military historians came up with the term "traction trebuchet" to distinguish it from previous torsion machines such as the onager. However

3272:, 36 #2, Supplement: Snapshots of a Discipline: Selected Proceedings from the Conference on Critical Problems and Research Frontiers in the History of Technology, Madison, Wisconsin, October 30-November 3, 1991 (April 1995): S83-100. 523:"beam-sling mangonel machines". From a practical perspective, mangonel has been used to describe anything from a torsion engine like the onager, to a traction trebuchet, to a counterweight trebuchet depending on the user's bias. 3500: 256:

By 100 AD, the Romans had begun to permanently mount artillery, whereas previously machines had traveled largely disassembled in carts. Romans made the Greek ballista more portable, calling the hand-held version

3493: 361:(late 5th-10th centuries AD). These artillery weapons were only used in the West until the 6-8th centuries, when they were replaced by the traction trebuchet, more commonly known as the 3364: 762:

Two general formulas were used in determining the size of the machine and the projectile it throws. The first is to determine the length of the bolt for a sharp-thrower, given as

825: 219: 418:

at the siege of Montreuil-Bellay in 1147, yet judging from the description of the siege, the weapon they used was a traction trebuchet rather than a torsion catapult.

1704:

The literary examples of torsion machines are too numerous to cite here. Below are a few well-known examples to provide a general perspective held by contemporaries.

167:. Though simple torsion devices could have been developed earlier, the first extant evidence of a torsion siege engine comes from the Chalcotheca, the arsenal on the 273:. Between 100 and 300 AD, every Roman legion had a battery of ten onagers and 55 cheiroballistae hauled by teams of mules. After this, there were legionaries called 148:

Preceding the development of torsion siege engines were tension siege engines that had existed since at least the beginning of the 4th century BC, most notably the

3328: 381:

and metal support pieces were too difficult to obtain in comparison to the materials needed for tension and counterweight machines. In the early 20th century,

394:

definitively identify the type of device being described, even with illustrations. However by the 9th century, when the first Western European reference to a

2009: 578:

lays out, but the Greek writer does not give any dates, either. Marsden's chart below gives his best approximations of the dates of machine development.

373:

adjusted this framework by arguing that onagers went out of use in medieval times, but were directly replaced by the counterweight trebuchet. Dufour and

410:. This does not mean torsion machines were completely forgotten since classical texts describing them were circulated in medieval times. For example, 195:

were highly sought after by military leaders for their catapult construction. Torsion machines in particular were used heavily in military campaigns.

57: 44: 1147:

pieces, such as counterplates and trigger mechanisms. Still, the first major evidence of ancient or medieval catapults was found in 1912 in

411: 3362: 1816: 301:

provides his description of torsion devices. All use the term ballistae and provide descriptions similar to those of their predecessors.

297:" are our first and most descriptive sources on torsion machines, all writing in the 4th century AD. A little later, in the 6th century, 3448: 286: 285:

simpler devices became preferable because the technical skills needed to produce more complex machines were no longer as common.

486:. Even in this instance it is never stated that the machine was torsion, as was the case with uses of other terminology such as 1977: 1950: 1889: 1783: 3475: 3470: 3436: 1188:

NOTE: This list is not meant to be comprehensive. It is meant to show the widespread use of catapults in the Western world.

199:, for example, used torsion engines during his campaigns in 219-218 BC, including 150 sharp-throwers and 25 stone-throwers. 3207:

Die Entwickelung des Kriegwesens und der Kriegfürung in der Ritterseit von Mitte des II. Jahrhundert bis du Hussitenkriegen

3398: 3326: 1163:

The sites below contained stone projectiles ranging in size from 10-90 minas (c. 4.5–39 kg (9.9–86.0 lb)).

369:

claimed that the onager was the dominant medieval artillery until the arrival of gunpowder. In the mid-19th century,

3697: 253:

that “Meus est ballista pugnus, cubitus catapulta est mihi” (“The ballista is my fist, the catapult is my elbow").

136: 3528: 1151:. It was not until 1968-1969 that new catapult finds were discovered at Gornea and Orşova, then again in 1972 in 536: 131: 3184:

Hacker, Barton C. “Greek Catapults and Catapult Technology: Science, Technology, and War in the Ancient World.”

345:- the sling version improved on the bucket by increasing arm length without burdening the arm with extra weight 3393: 1773: 3485: 741:

all-metal frames, arch-shaped sighting device, an even larger angle between the extreme positions of the arms

3138:, edited by Ivy A. Corfis and Michael Wolfe, pp. 131–176. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 1995. 1981: 49: 3100: 1852: 1913: 1871: 1846: 531: 406:

in the Muslim world, torsion machines had largely disappeared by the 6th century and were replaced by the

370: 3465: 1767: 310: 281: 266: 82: 777: 1937: 1970: 1118: 377:

argued that torsion machines were abandoned because the requisite supplies needed to build the sinew

290: 102: 3191:

Huuri, Kalervo. “Zur Geschichte de mittelalterlichen Geschützwesens aus orientalischen Quellen,” in

2300: 3309: 1883: 575: 382: 196: 164: 153: 106: 98: 3666: 3350: 1960: 1931: 1828: 1793: 495: 407: 270: 228: 1987: 1789: 3282:

Tarver, W.T.S. “The Traction Trebuchet: A Reconstruction of an Early Medieval Siege Engine.”

1954: 570: 452:

was used as a general medieval catch-all for stone throwing artillery, which probably meant a

358: 294: 101:

to launch projectiles. They were initially developed by the ancient Macedonians, specifically

3314: 3656: 3579: 1901: 1713: 774:

is the length of the bolt to be thrown. The second formula is for a stone thrower, given as

499: 466: 240: 208: 204: 200: 160: 3636: 3610: 3452: 3440: 3368: 3332: 3235:

Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons: A Fully Illustrated Guide to Siege Weapons and Tactics

498:, used to indicate small stone-throwing engines, or "cum cornu" ("with horns") in 1143 by 491: 479: 354: 342: 330: 236: 203:

confiscated 120 large catapults, 281 small catapults, 75 ballistae, and a great number of

3412: 3381: 1994:, Germany. Reconstructions made by the German engineer Erwin Schramm (1856-1935) in 1912. 3671: 2315: 1964: 1732: 378: 3446: 1907: 1895: 315: 3691: 3676: 3631: 3554: 2281: 2013: 366: 262: 224: 3417: 3289:

Thompson, E.A. “Early Germanic Warfare.” Past and Present, 14 (November 1958): 2-29.

1858: 3646: 2586: 555: 374: 258: 149: 94: 3434: 3338: 3134:

Chevedden, Paul E. “Artillery in Late Antiquity: Prelude to the Middle Ages,” in

2996:

Bradbury, 251,254; Hacker, 41; Nossov, 133, 155; Ammianus, 23.4.1-7; Tarver, 143.

2593: 3480: 2811:, 266-269; Nossov, 139-140. Similar tables can also be found in Rihill, 290-292. 1997: 1148: 1111: 337: 274: 141: 110: 3429: 3304: 3661: 3600: 17: 3615: 3574: 3559: 2157: 545: 399: 298: 168: 114: 2003: 444:

Contributing to the torsion mangonel myth is the muddled usage of the term

35: 1770:

from the anonymous Romance of Alexander, c. 14th century, MS Bodleian 264.

831:

is the diameter of the hole in the frame where the skein was threaded and

770:

is the diameter of the hole in the frame where the skein was threaded and

77: 3641: 3605: 3595: 3564: 3549: 2103: 1991: 1728: 1599: 550: 540: 415: 362: 350: 319: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3651: 462: 458: 249: 244: 1877: 1102: 277:

whose exclusive purpose was to produce, move, and maintain catapults.

265:. They also made use of a one armed torsion stone-projector named the 2296: 2292: 2082: 192: 188: 172: 3383:

On Artillery (Belopoiika/Belopoeica/βελοποιικά, Greek & German)

27:

Type of artillery relying on a twisting force to launch projectiles

3569: 1152: 530: 475: 471: 365:. The myth of the torsion mangonel began in the 18th century when 336: 324: 314: 218: 180: 135: 76: 3120:

Bachrach, Bernard S. “Medieval Siege Warfare: A Reconnaissance.”

3228:

Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe, 300-1500

2277: 1693:

4 x c. 40 mm (1.6 in) (diameter estimated from frame)

325: 184: 3489: 3340:

On Machines (Περὶ μηχανημάτων, Greek & Latin, partial text)

1138:

torsion devices were not powerful enough to batter down walls.

349:

A common misconception about torsion siege engines such as the

3164:

Mémoire sur l’artillerie des anciens et sur celle de Moyen Âge

3081:

The myth of the mangonel: torsion artillery in the Middle Ages

2794:, 25-26; Nossov, 136-137; Landels, 120-121; Reinschmidt, 1247. 601:

pair of simple spring-frames and wrapped-above-torsion-springs

29: 117:

artillery in the 14th century rendered them mostly obsolete.

3516:

Ancient mechanical artillery and hand-held missile weapons

3254:

Rihill, Tracey. “On Artillery Towers and Catapult Sizes.”

1594:

1 x 60 mm (2.4 in) (mystery bracing also found)

269:. The earliest extant evidence of the carroballista is on 3141:

Cuomo, Serafina. “The Sinews of War: Ancient Catapults.”

657:

increased angle between the extreme positions of the arms

643:

increased angle between the extreme positions of the arms

3157:

Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of their Impact

3075:. Berlin: Verlag der Aakademie der Wissenschaften, 1919. 1273:

1 x 100 mm (3.9 in) (est. from counter-plate)

402:

which saw action from the 13th to 14th centuries or the

2468: 2466: 1259:

1 x 94 mm (3.7 in) (est. from frame remains)

3467:

On Architecture (De Architectura, Latin & English)

3371:

On Artillery (Belopoiika/Belopoeica/βελοποιικά, Greek)

3113:

Baatz, Dietwulf. “Recent Finds of Ancient Artillery.”

1813:

behind fortifications, Trajan's Column, 1st century AD

1203:

Washer amt. & avg. diameter: millimeters (inches)

482:, seven Danes were impaled at once with a bolt from a 3400:

The Wars of Justinian (Ὑπέρ τῶν πολέμων λόγοι, Greek)

3395:

The Wars of Justinian (Ὑπέρ τῶν πολέμων λόγοι, Greek)

780: 3316:

On Military Matters (De Gestae, Latin & English)

3209:, Vol. 3. Breslau: Verlag von Wilhelm Koebner, 1890. 3145:, New Series, 303 #5659 (February 6, 2004): 771-772. 357:

is their continued usage after the beginning of the

3624: 3588: 3542: 3521: 3335:

On Machines (Περὶ μηχανημάτων, Greek & English)

3049:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2

549:(to the left in the foreground) and a large, early 1934:at the Stratford Armouries, Warwickshire, England. 1343:1 x 35 mm (1.4 in) (ratchet found, too) 819: 3221:Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development 3216:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. 1990:. Arsenal of ancient mechanical artillery in the 3089:A History of the Early Medieval Siege c.450-1200 2745:Heron, W 110; Vegetius, IV.9; Vitruvius, X.11.2. 1624:c. 80 mm (3.1 in) (cast in one piece) 3131:. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 1992. 3016:Humphrey, J.W., J.P. Olson, and A.N. Sherwood. 685:built according to formula for stone-projectors 504: 420: 144:artillery tower equipped with torsion ballistae 3268:Roland, Alex. “Science, Technology, and War.” 3251:. Yardley, PA: Wesholme Publishing, LLC, 2007. 3193:Societas Orientalia Fennica, Studia Orientalia 3073:Philons Belopoiika (viertes Buch der Mechanik) 3033:Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises 1831:from the Amparius catatpult, cited in Schramm. 3501: 3455:On Military Matters (De Re Militari, English) 3443:On Military Matters (De Re Militari, English) 3244:, New Series, 304 #5675 (May 28, 2004): 1247. 3240:Reinschmidt, Kenneth F. “Catapults of Yore.” 3202:. Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books, 1983. 3181:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, Ltd, 1990, 2003. 1155:, with more frequent discoveries thereafter. 1104:, and 1 dactyl = 1.93 cm (0.76 in) 8: 2790:Philon, 53-54; Vitruvius, X.10-11; Marsden, 3431:On Military Matters (De Re Militari, Latin) 2302:; Vegetius, De Re Militari, IV.9; Marsden, 671:built according to formula for arrow-firers 3508: 3494: 3486: 3472:On Architecture (De Architectura, English) 3419:The Wars of Justinian (De Bellis, English) 3414:The Wars of Justinian (De Bellis, English) 3409:The Wars of Justinian (De Bellis, English) 3279:. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1910. 3263:Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century 3256:The Annual of the British School at Athens 3043:. Cambridge University Press. p. 218. 2054:ballista fulminalis ("lightning ballista") 3159:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2007. 1121:= 60 mina = 26 kg (57 lb) 1114:, and 1 mina = 437 g (15.4 oz) 807: 803: 779: 3482:On Architecture (De Architectura, Latin) 3477:On Architecture (De Architectura, Latin) 3311:On Military Matters (De Gestae, English) 3265:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. 3018:Greek and Roman Technology: A Sourcebook 2028: 1190: 838: 580: 60:of all important aspects of the article. 2565: 2187: 559:(mounted on the wall in the background) 3306:On Military Matters (De Gestae, Latin) 3237:. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press, 2005. 3155:DeVries, Kelly & Robert D. Smith. 3026:Artillery in and around the Latin East 2911:Nossov, 153; Landels, 123; Hacker, 45. 2864: 2637: 2625: 2613: 2553: 2541: 2529: 2517: 2505: 2484: 2472: 2439: 2418: 2397: 461:was a traction trebuchet, invented by 56:Please consider expanding the lead to 3230:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. 3057:Science and Civilization in China 5-6 1720:, 14.42.1, 43.3., 50.4, c. 30 - 60 BC 7: 3172:Artillery in the Era of the Crusades 3166:. Paris: Ab. Cherbuliez et Ce,1840). 2842:Marsden, Historical Development, 88. 412:Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou 1819:, mounted on wall, Trajan's Column. 2089:carroballista (see cheiroballista) 1018:2.41 m (7 ft 11 in) 956:1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) 939:1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) 905:0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) 25: 3152:. Ontario: Broadview Press, 1992. 3041:Science and Civilization in China 2211:, 56-57; Rihill, 79; Nossov, 133. 1825:hauled by horse, Trajan's Column. 1638:130 mm (5.1 in) (lost) 1176:>200 balls in Tel Dor (Israel) 1167:5,600 balls in Carthage (Tunisia) 1035:2.76 m (9 ft 1 in) 1001:2.19 m (7 ft 2 in) 984:1.91 m (6 ft 3 in) 973:1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) 953:2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) 936:2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) 922:1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) 902:1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) 888:0.8 m (2 ft 7 in) 820:{\displaystyle d=(1.1)100m^{1/3}} 3286:, 36 #1 (January 1995): 136-167. 3223:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969. 3214:Engineering in the Ancient World 3124:, 58 #1 (January 1994): 119-133. 3035:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. 3012:(see also External Links below) 2135:cheiroballista ("hand ballista") 2060:palintonos ("fold back spring") 1940:at Felsenburg Neurathen, Saxony. 1179:c. 200 balls in Salamis (Cyprus) 919:1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) 885:1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) 333:(4th-6th century torsion weapon) 85:, a type of torsion siege engine 34: 3277:Die Artillerie des Mittelalters 3122:The Journal of Military History 2876:Landels, 112; Nossov, 142, 147. 2071:pararia (lit. "the equalizer") 48:may be too short to adequately 2496:Bradbury, 256-257; Hacker, 43. 2170:euthytonos ("straight-spring") 2149:manuballista ("hand ballista") 1988:Polybolos & cheiroballista 1497:3 x 160 mm (6.3 in) 1385:4 x 136 mm (5.4 in) 1170:961 balls in Pergamum (Turkey) 793: 787: 696:Modified Mark IVa, arrow firer 159:that was probably invented in 58:provide an accessible overview 1: 3188:, 9 #1 (January 1968): 34-50. 3136:The Medieval City under Siege 2951:Rihill, 295-296; Baatz, 1-17. 2388:Dufour, 97,99; Bonaparte, 26. 2361:Landels, 132; Chevedden, 137. 2130:petrobolos ("stone thrower") 2124:chatcotonus ("bronze spring") 2035:fonevola ("volatile spring"?) 1800:, et prudentiis regum, 1326.] 1679:1 x 44 mm (1.7 in) 1665:1 x 41 mm (1.6 in) 1610:1 x 84 mm (3.3 in) 1580:2 x 79 mm (3.1 in) 1566:1 x 45 mm (1.8 in) 1552:1 x 72 mm (2.8 in) 1538:2 x 94 mm (3.7 in) 1524:2 x 75 mm (3.0 in) 1483:2 x 54 mm (2.1 in) 1469:2 x 59 mm (2.3 in) 1455:2 x 54 mm (2.1 in) 1441:2 x 56 mm (2.2 in) 1427:1 x 34 mm (1.3 in) 1413:2 x 75 mm (3.0 in) 1399:4 x 61 mm (2.4 in) 1371:3 x 83 mm (3.3 in) 1357:2 x 84 mm (3.3 in) 1329:4 x 89 mm (3.5 in) 1315:4 x 73 mm (2.9 in) 1301:4 x 84 mm (3.3 in) 1287:1 x 38 mm (1.5 in) 1245:1 x 94 mm (3.7 in) 1231:1 x 88 mm (3.5 in) 1217:4 x 81 mm (3.2 in) 3195:9.3 (1941): pp. 50–220. 3150:Medieval Military Technology 2370:Chevedden, 138-139, 152-158. 2141:polybolos ("multi-thrower") 2100:catapulta ("shield breaker") 2068:lithobolos ("stone thrower") 1798:De nobilitatibus, sapientiis 1786:from BL Royal 19 D I, f.111. 1173:353 balls in Rhodes (Greece) 3170:Fulton, Michael S. (2018), 3099:. Accessed April 28, 2013. 3051:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. 3024:Fulton, Michael S. (2016), 2049:palestra ("stake caster"?) 2038:oxybolos ("sharp thrower") 2000:in the Hecht Museum, Haifa. 1334:Elginhaugh (United Kingdom) 1083:48.6 cm (19.1 in) 1066:38.4 cm (15.1 in) 1049:36.3 cm (14.3 in) 1032:30.7 cm (12.1 in) 1015:26.8 cm (10.6 in) 967:88.4 cm (34.8 in) 950:54.6 cm (21.5 in) 916:48.8 cm (19.2 in) 882:36.4 cm (14.3 in) 3714: 3589:Crew-served stone-throwers 3543:Crew-served arrow-throwers 3020:. London: Routledge, 1998. 2938:Nossov, 137-142; Marsden, 2902:Johnson, 79; DeVries, 132. 2198:, 5,16,66; Chevedden, 134. 2032:algarradas ("bull headed") 1780:by Roberto Valturio, 1455. 1086:4.37 m (14.3 ft) 1069:3.46 m (11.4 ft) 1052:3.27 m (10.7 ft) 998:24.3 cm (9.6 in) 981:21.2 cm (8.3 in) 964:13.6 cm (5.4 in) 865:22.1 cm (8.7 in) 845:Diameter of torsion spring 654:Mark IIIb, stone-projector 478:pitted his forces against 457:Köhler contended that the 308: 261:and the cart-mounted type 129: 3529:Greek and Roman artillery 3352:De Rebus Bellicis (Latin) 3200:Late Roman Fortifications 2833:Cuomo, 771; DeVries, 131. 2116:mangonellus (see mangana) 947:8.4 cm (3.3 in) 930:8.3 cm (3.3 in) 913:7.5 cm (3.0 in) 879:5.6 cm (2.2 in) 862:3.4 cm (1.3 in) 682:Mark IVb, stone-projector 239:and was so common by the 132:Greek and Roman artillery 113:until the development of 3065:Medieval Siege Weapons 1 3055:Needham, Joseph (1994), 3047:Needham, Joseph (1986). 3039:Needham, Joseph (2004). 2233:DeVries & Smith, 42. 1092:7.3 m (24 ft) 1089:14.6 m (48 ft) 1075:5.8 m (19 ft) 1072:11.5 m (38 ft) 1058:5.4 m (18 ft) 1055:10.9 m (36 ft) 1041:4.6 m (15 ft) 1007:3.6 m (12 ft) 990:3.2 m (10 ft) 961:123 cm (48 in) 848:Height of torsion spring 842:Length/Weight of Missile 724:Mark Vb, stone-projector 615:spring-frames with holes 375:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte 3249:The Catapult: A History 3177:Gravett, Christophers. 3063:Nicolle, David (2002), 2266:Historical Developments 2146:cum cornu ("with horn") 2046:funa (thong of a sling) 1142:Archaeological evidence 1101:is measured in dactyls 1038:9.2 m (30 ft) 1004:7.3 m (24 ft) 987:6.4 m (21 ft) 970:3.4 m (11 ft) 944:77 cm (30 in) 933:54 cm (21 in) 927:77 cm (30 in) 910:69 cm (27 in) 899:39 cm (15 in) 896:6 cm (2.4 in) 893:54 cm (21 in) 876:54 cm (21 in) 859:31 cm (12 in) 537:ancient Greek artillery 383:Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey 280:In later antiquity the 109:, and used through the 3284:Technology and Culture 3270:Technology and Culture 3258:, 101 (2006): 379-383. 3186:Technology and Culture 3179:Medieval Siege Warfare 3087:Purton, Peter (2009), 3079:Purton, Peter (2006), 2940:Historical Development 2891:Historical Development 2853:Historical Development 2822:Historical Development 2805:Historical Development 2792:Historical Development 2734:Historical Development 2708:Historical Development 2695:Historical Development 2675:, 19-20; DeVries, 129. 2673:Historical Development 2651:Historical Development 2591:Bella Parisiacae urbis 2451:Huuri, 51-63, 212-214. 2332:Historical Development 2304:Historical Development 2244:Historical Development 2222:Historical Development 2209:Historical Development 2196:Historical Development 2127:mangonon (see mangana) 1656:Volubilis #1 (Morocco) 1024:4 m (13 ft) 821: 640:Mark IIIa, arrow-firer 560: 515: 442: 371:Guillaume Henri Dufour 346: 334: 322: 231: 145: 140:Modern depiction of a 86: 3071:Philon of Byzantium. 2960:Humphrey, et al., 566 2885:Heron, W83; Marsden, 2855:, 91-92; Johnson, 79. 2176:ziyar, qaws al-ziyar 1747:The Wars of Justinian 1676:c. 2nd-3rd century AD 1662:c. 2nd-3rd century AD 1278:Bath (United Kingdom) 1021:8 m (26 ft) 822: 668:Mark IVa, arrow-firer 663:b/t 334 & 331 BC 626:Mark III, arrow-firer 534: 340: 328: 318: 311:Torsion mangonel myth 293:, and the anonymous " 222: 154:Heron of Alexandria's 139: 80: 3534:Torsion siege engine 3321:Athenaeus Mechanicus 3299:Ammianus Marcellinus 3233:Nossov, Konstantin. 1734:The Wars of the Jews 778: 710:Mark Va, arrow-firer 612:Mark II, arrow-firer 291:Ammianus Marcellinus 103:Philip II of Macedon 91:torsion siege engine 3376:Philon of Byzantium 3357:Heron of Alexandria 3275:Schneider, Rudolf. 3162:Dufour, Guillaume. 3091:, The Boydell Press 3067:, Osprey Publishing 2920:Bradbury, 250, 255. 2887:Technical Treatises 2809:Technical Treatises 2714:, 270; Nossov, 148. 2712:Technical Treatises 2379:Chevedden, 160-162. 2173:onager ("wild ass") 2092:machina ("machine") 2012:at Trebuchet Park, 1529:Mahdia #1 (Tunisia) 1446:Gornea #1 (Romania) 598:Mark I, arrow-firer 576:Heron of Alexandria 305:Medieval continuity 197:Philip V of Macedon 165:Dionysius the Elder 107:Alexander the Great 3667:Repeating crossbow 3451:2016-03-03 at the 3439:2020-04-21 at the 3367:2012-06-02 at the 3331:2014-02-22 at the 3226:Nicholson, Helen. 3198:Johnson, Stephen. 3129:The Medieval Siege 2889:, 24-25; Marsden, 2807:, 44-47; Marsden, 2299:, XI.1-99,597-647 1926:One-Armed Machines 1886:range of movement. 1866:Two-Armed Machines 1841:One-Armed Machines 1794:Walter de Milemete 1714:Diodorus of Sicily 1348:Ephyra #1 (Greece) 1306:Cremona #1 (Italy) 1236:Azaila #1 (Spain) 1222:Auerberg (Germany) 817: 561: 520:traction trebuchet 454:traction trebuchet 408:traction trebuchet 347: 335: 323: 232: 207:after he captured 146: 87: 3698:Ancient artillery 3685: 3684: 3625:Hand-held weapons 3345:De rebus bellicis 3261:Rogers, Randall. 3117:, 9 (1978): 1-17. 3108:Secondary sources 2893:, 17; Rihill, 76. 2430:Schneider, 10-16. 2180: 2179: 2057:fundibula (sling) 1955:Caerphilly Castle 1945:Two-Armed Machine 1700:Literary evidence 1697: 1696: 1690:c. 1st century AD 1621:c. 4th century AD 1607:c. 4th century AD 1600:Pityous (Georgia) 1591:c. 2nd century BC 1585:Pergamon (Turkey) 1292:Caminreal (Spain) 1159:Stone projectiles 1096: 1095: 751: 750: 535:Reproductions of 512:Michael S. Fulton 496:Willam the Breton 474:in 885-886, when 359:Early Middle Ages 295:De rebus bellicis 191:, and especially 75: 74: 16:(Redirected from 3705: 3510: 3503: 3496: 3487: 3247:Rihill, Tracey. 3174: 3148:DeVries, Kelly. 3101:Book X, §10 3092: 3083: 3068: 3059: 3044: 3028: 2997: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2979: 2976: 2970: 2967: 2961: 2958: 2952: 2949: 2943: 2936: 2930: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2903: 2900: 2894: 2883: 2877: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2856: 2849: 2843: 2840: 2834: 2831: 2825: 2818: 2812: 2801: 2795: 2788: 2782: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2764: 2761: 2755: 2752: 2746: 2743: 2737: 2730: 2724: 2721: 2715: 2704: 2698: 2691: 2685: 2682: 2676: 2669: 2663: 2660: 2654: 2647: 2641: 2635: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2602: 2596: 2595:; Bradbury, 252. 2584: 2578: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2533: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2509: 2508:, p. 10-11. 2503: 2497: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2461: 2460:Rogers, 254-273. 2458: 2452: 2449: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2386: 2380: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2362: 2359: 2353: 2350: 2344: 2343:DeVries, 130-131 2341: 2335: 2328: 2322: 2313: 2307: 2290: 2284: 2275: 2269: 2262: 2256: 2253: 2247: 2240: 2234: 2231: 2225: 2218: 2212: 2205: 2199: 2192: 2029: 1684:Xanten (Germany) 1643:Tanais (Ukraine) 1629:Sounion (Greece) 1571:Orşova (Romania) 1208:Ampurias (Spain) 1191: 1184:Catapult remains 839: 826: 824: 823: 818: 816: 815: 811: 629:usage of washers 587:Main Improvement 581: 513: 500:Jacques de Vitry 467:Otto of Freising 440: 247:remarked in the 241:Second Punic War 201:Scipio Africanus 70: 67: 61: 38: 30: 21: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3703: 3702: 3688: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3637:Cheiroballistra 3620: 3584: 3538: 3517: 3514: 3453:Wayback Machine 3441:Wayback Machine 3369:Wayback Machine 3333:Wayback Machine 3296: 3169: 3127:Bradbury, Jim. 3097:On Architecture 3086: 3078: 3062: 3054: 3038: 3023: 3008:Primary Sources 3005: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2946: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2884: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2863: 2859: 2850: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2828: 2819: 2815: 2802: 2798: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2740: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2718: 2710:, 43; Marsden, 2705: 2701: 2692: 2688: 2683: 2679: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2648: 2644: 2636: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2599: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2568:, p. 9-10. 2564: 2560: 2552: 2548: 2540: 2536: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2483: 2479: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2409:Köhler, 139-211 2408: 2404: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2329: 2325: 2314: 2310: 2291: 2287: 2276: 2272: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2241: 2237: 2232: 2228: 2219: 2215: 2206: 2202: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2023: 1923: 1838: 1807: 1764: 1759: 1710: 1702: 1488:Hatra #1 (Iraq) 1186: 1161: 1144: 1127: 1110:is measured in 799: 776: 775: 760: 744:Trajan's Column 566: 529: 514: 511: 492:William of Tyre 480:Charles the Fat 441: 438: 430: 429: 424: 423: 313: 307: 271:Trajan's Column 237:First Punic War 229:Trajan's Column 217: 134: 128: 123: 71: 65: 62: 55: 43:This article's 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3711: 3709: 3701: 3700: 3690: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3592: 3590: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3539: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3525: 3523: 3519: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3512: 3505: 3498: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3457: 3456: 3444: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3401: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3378: 3377: 3373: 3372: 3359: 3358: 3354: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3341: 3336: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3295: 3294:External links 3292: 3291: 3290: 3287: 3280: 3273: 3266: 3259: 3252: 3245: 3238: 3231: 3224: 3219:Marsden, E.W. 3217: 3212:Landels, J.G. 3210: 3203: 3196: 3189: 3182: 3175: 3167: 3160: 3153: 3146: 3139: 3132: 3125: 3118: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3104: 3093: 3084: 3076: 3069: 3060: 3052: 3045: 3036: 3031:Marsden, E.W. 3029: 3021: 3010: 3009: 3004: 3001: 2999: 2998: 2989: 2980: 2971: 2962: 2953: 2944: 2931: 2922: 2913: 2904: 2895: 2878: 2869: 2857: 2844: 2835: 2826: 2813: 2796: 2783: 2774: 2765: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2725: 2716: 2699: 2686: 2677: 2664: 2655: 2642: 2640:, p. 410. 2630: 2628:, p. 365. 2618: 2606: 2604:Bradbury, 254. 2597: 2579: 2577:Bradbury, 251. 2570: 2558: 2556:, p. 172. 2546: 2534: 2522: 2510: 2498: 2489: 2477: 2462: 2453: 2444: 2432: 2423: 2411: 2402: 2390: 2381: 2372: 2363: 2354: 2345: 2336: 2323: 2308: 2285: 2270: 2257: 2248: 2235: 2226: 2213: 2200: 2186: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2109: 2106: 2101: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2080: 2077: 2073: 2072: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2050: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2017: 2007: 2004:Roman Ballista 2001: 1998:Roman Ballista 1995: 1985: 1974: 1971:Cheiroballista 1968: 1965:Warwick Castle 1958: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1935: 1928: 1927: 1922: 1919: 1918: 1917: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1887: 1881: 1875: 1868: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1829:Bronze Washers 1826: 1823:Cheiroballista 1820: 1817:Cheiroballista 1814: 1811:Cheiroballista 1806: 1803: 1802: 1801: 1787: 1781: 1778:De re militari 1771: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1750: 1739: 1738: 1722: 1721: 1709: 1706: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1640: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1596: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1582: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1568: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1539: 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1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1002: 999: 996: 992: 991: 988: 985: 982: 979: 975: 974: 971: 968: 965: 962: 958: 957: 954: 951: 948: 945: 941: 940: 937: 934: 931: 928: 924: 923: 920: 917: 914: 911: 907: 906: 903: 900: 897: 894: 890: 889: 886: 883: 880: 877: 873: 872: 869: 866: 863: 860: 856: 855: 854:Machine width 852: 851:Machine length 849: 846: 843: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 795: 792: 789: 786: 783: 759: 756: 749: 748: 745: 742: 739: 738:cheiroballista 735: 734: 731: 728: 725: 721: 720: 717: 714: 711: 707: 706: 703: 700: 697: 693: 692: 689: 686: 683: 679: 678: 675: 672: 669: 665: 664: 661: 658: 655: 651: 650: 649:before 334 BC 647: 644: 641: 637: 636: 633: 630: 627: 623: 622: 621:before 340 BC 619: 616: 613: 609: 608: 605: 602: 599: 595: 594: 591: 588: 585: 565: 562: 528: 525: 509: 436: 414:had a copy of 306: 303: 216: 213: 130:Main article: 127: 124: 122: 119: 97:that utilizes 73: 72: 52:the key points 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 18:Torsion engine 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3710: 3699: 3696: 3695: 3693: 3678: 3677:Spear-thrower 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3629: 3627: 3623: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3593: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3555:Carroballista 3553: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3545: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3526: 3524: 3522:Generic terms 3520: 3511: 3506: 3504: 3499: 3497: 3492: 3491: 3488: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3463: 3459: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3427: 3423: 3422: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3391: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3343: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3285: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3271: 3267: 3264: 3260: 3257: 3253: 3250: 3246: 3243: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3229: 3225: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3211: 3208: 3204: 3201: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3187: 3183: 3180: 3176: 3173: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3144: 3140: 3137: 3133: 3130: 3126: 3123: 3119: 3116: 3112: 3111: 3107: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3082: 3077: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3061: 3058: 3053: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3034: 3030: 3027: 3022: 3019: 3015: 3014: 3013: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2993: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2978:DeVries, 132. 2975: 2972: 2969:DeVries, 131. 2966: 2963: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2945: 2941: 2935: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2917: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2882: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2858: 2854: 2848: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2817: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2800: 2797: 2793: 2787: 2784: 2781:Landels, 106. 2778: 2775: 2769: 2766: 2763:Landels, 109. 2760: 2757: 2754:Landels, 108. 2751: 2748: 2742: 2739: 2735: 2729: 2726: 2720: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2703: 2700: 2696: 2690: 2687: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2668: 2665: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2646: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2619: 2616:, p. 17. 2615: 2610: 2607: 2601: 2598: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2547: 2544:, p. 13. 2543: 2538: 2535: 2532:, p. 89. 2531: 2526: 2523: 2520:, p. 85. 2519: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2502: 2499: 2493: 2490: 2487:, p. 11. 2486: 2481: 2478: 2475:, p. 80. 2474: 2469: 2467: 2463: 2457: 2454: 2448: 2445: 2442:, p. 14. 2441: 2436: 2433: 2427: 2424: 2421:, p. 16. 2420: 2415: 2412: 2406: 2403: 2400:, p. 12. 2399: 2394: 2391: 2385: 2382: 2376: 2373: 2367: 2364: 2358: 2355: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2319: 2312: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2286: 2282: 2279: 2274: 2271: 2267: 2261: 2258: 2255:DeVries, 130. 2252: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2236: 2230: 2227: 2223: 2217: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2201: 2197: 2191: 2188: 2182: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2133: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2063: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2041: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2030: 2027: 2020: 2015: 2011: 2008: 2005: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1993: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1948: 1944: 1943: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1921:Reproductions 1920: 1915: 1914:Stone Thrower 1912: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1876: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1865: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1844: 1840: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1748: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1736: 1735: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1725: 1719: 1715: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1705: 1699: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1627: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1569: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1556: 1555: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1515:Lyon (France) 1514: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1430: 1426: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1183: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1141: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1125:Effective use 1124: 1122: 1120: 1115: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1040: 1037: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1003: 1000: 997: 994: 993: 989: 986: 983: 980: 977: 976: 972: 969: 966: 963: 960: 959: 955: 952: 949: 946: 943: 942: 938: 935: 932: 929: 926: 925: 921: 918: 915: 912: 909: 908: 904: 901: 898: 895: 892: 891: 887: 884: 881: 878: 875: 874: 870: 867: 864: 861: 858: 857: 853: 850: 847: 844: 841: 840: 837: 834: 830: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 790: 784: 781: 773: 769: 765: 757: 755: 746: 743: 740: 737: 736: 732: 729: 726: 723: 722: 718: 715: 712: 709: 708: 704: 701: 698: 695: 694: 690: 687: 684: 681: 680: 676: 673: 670: 667: 666: 662: 659: 656: 653: 652: 648: 645: 642: 639: 638: 635:after 340 BC 634: 631: 628: 625: 624: 620: 617: 614: 611: 610: 606: 603: 600: 597: 596: 592: 589: 586: 583: 582: 579: 577: 572: 563: 558: 557: 553:known as the 552: 548: 547: 542: 538: 533: 526: 524: 521: 508: 503: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 468: 464: 460: 455: 451: 447: 435: 431: 425: 419: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 391: 387: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 367:Francis Grose 364: 360: 356: 352: 344: 339: 332: 327: 321: 317: 312: 304: 302: 300: 296: 292: 288: 283: 278: 276: 272: 268: 264: 263:carroballista 260: 254: 252: 251: 246: 242: 238: 230: 226: 225:carroballista 221: 214: 212: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 176: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 155: 151: 143: 138: 133: 125: 120: 118: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 93:is a type of 92: 84: 81:Sketch of an 79: 69: 59: 53: 51: 46: 41: 37: 32: 31: 19: 3647:Gastraphetes 3533: 3283: 3276: 3269: 3262: 3255: 3248: 3241: 3234: 3227: 3220: 3213: 3206: 3199: 3192: 3185: 3178: 3171: 3163: 3156: 3149: 3142: 3135: 3128: 3121: 3114: 3096: 3088: 3080: 3072: 3064: 3056: 3048: 3040: 3032: 3025: 3017: 3011: 3003:Bibliography 2992: 2983: 2974: 2965: 2956: 2947: 2939: 2934: 2925: 2916: 2907: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2872: 2867:, p. 5. 2860: 2852: 2847: 2838: 2829: 2821: 2816: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2791: 2786: 2777: 2772:Landels, 111 2768: 2759: 2750: 2741: 2733: 2728: 2719: 2711: 2707: 2702: 2694: 2689: 2684:Landels, 117 2680: 2672: 2667: 2658: 2650: 2645: 2633: 2621: 2609: 2600: 2590: 2587:Abbo Cernuus 2582: 2573: 2566:Nicolle 2002 2561: 2549: 2537: 2525: 2513: 2501: 2492: 2480: 2456: 2447: 2435: 2426: 2414: 2405: 2393: 2384: 2375: 2366: 2357: 2348: 2339: 2331: 2326: 2317: 2311: 2303: 2288: 2280:, 26.47.5-6 2273: 2265: 2260: 2251: 2243: 2238: 2229: 2221: 2216: 2208: 2203: 2195: 2190: 2024: 1849:with bucket. 1797: 1777: 1752: 1749:, 537-538 AD 1746: 1740: 1733: 1723: 1717: 1703: 1670:Volubilis #2 1187: 1162: 1145: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1116: 1107: 1106: 1098: 1097: 832: 828: 771: 767: 763: 761: 758:Measurements 752: 727:oval washers 713:oval washers 688:Heron/Philon 674:Heron/Philon 584:Machine Type 567: 556:gastraphetes 554: 544: 543:such as the 539:, including 527:Construction 519: 516: 505: 487: 483: 453: 449: 445: 443: 439:Peter Purton 432: 426: 421: 403: 395: 392: 388: 348: 279: 259:manuballista 255: 248: 233: 209:New Carthage 177: 156: 150:gastraphetes 147: 95:siege engine 90: 88: 66:October 2021 63: 47: 45:lead section 3205:Köhler, G. 3095:Vitruvius. 2987:Hacker, 41. 2929:Baatz, 1-2. 2865:Fulton 2018 2662:Heron, W96. 2638:Purton 2009 2626:Purton 2009 2614:Fulton 2016 2554:Purton 2009 2542:Fulton 2016 2530:Purton 2006 2518:Purton 2006 2506:Fulton 2016 2485:Fulton 2016 2473:Purton 2006 2440:Fulton 2016 2419:Fulton 2016 2398:Fulton 2016 2021:Terminology 1855:with sling. 1805:Iconography 1762:Manuscripts 1745:Procopius, 699:curved arms 275:ballistarii 211:in 209 BC. 142:Hellenistic 111:Middle Ages 3662:Mesangylon 3601:Lithobolos 2723:Rihill,21. 2165:tormentum 2095:paterells 2079:katapeltes 2014:Albarracín 1976:Espringal 1967:, England. 1904:side view. 1902:Palintonon 1896:Palintonon 1884:Euthytonon 1878:Euthytonon 1320:Cremona #2 871:Hand-held 747:c. 100 AD 705:c. 150 BC 691:c. 270 BC 677:c. 270 BC 607:c. 350 BC 309:See also: 157:Belopoeica 3616:Trebuchet 3575:Polybolos 3560:Catapulta 3460:Vitruvius 3388:Procopius 3115:Britannia 2851:Marsden, 2820:Marsden, 2803:Marsden, 2732:Marsden, 2706:Marsden, 2693:Marsden, 2671:Marsden, 2649:Marsden, 2330:Marsden, 2316:Plautus, 2264:Marsden, 2242:Marsden, 2220:Marsden, 2207:Marsden, 2194:Marsden, 2158:espringal 2119:petraria 1982:rear view 1978:side view 1774:Espringal 1768:Espringal 1649:c. 50 BC? 1635:c. 260 BC 1577:c. 380 AD 1557:Mahdia #3 1543:Mahdia #2 1521:c. 197 AD 1508:c. 241 AD 1494:c. 241 AD 1480:c. 380 AD 1474:Gornea #3 1466:c. 380 AD 1460:Gornea #2 1452:c. 380 AD 1438:c. 167 BC 1432:Ephyra #7 1424:c. 167 BC 1418:Ephyra #6 1410:c. 167 BC 1404:Ephyra #5 1396:c. 169 BC 1390:Ephyra #4 1382:c. 169 BC 1376:Ephyra #3 1368:c. 169 BC 1362:Ephyra #2 1354:c. 169 BC 1284:c. 100 AD 1264:Azaila #3 1250:Azaila #2 1214:c. 100 BC 1080:2 talents 868:Hand-held 764:d = x / 9 733:c. 60 BC 730:Vitruvius 719:c. 60 BC 716:Vitruvius 702:Vitruvius 590:Authority 546:polybolos 541:catapults 400:springald 299:Procopius 205:scorpions 169:Acropolis 115:gunpowder 50:summarize 3692:Category 3642:Crossbow 3606:Mangonel 3596:Catapult 3565:Oxybeles 3550:Ballista 3449:Archived 3437:Archived 3424:Vegetius 3365:Archived 3329:Archived 2697:, 24-34. 2246:, 73-74. 2162:monagkon 2152:scorpio 2138:manjanîq 2108:peralia 2076:calibres 2065:brigoles 2043:ballista 2016:, Spain. 1992:Saalburg 1961:Ballista 1957:, Wales. 1951:Ballista 1932:Catapult 1908:Scorpion 1890:Oxybolos 1872:Ballista 1853:Catapult 1847:Catapult 1836:Diagrams 1784:Mangonel 1729:Josephus 1708:Examples 1563:c. 60 BC 1549:c. 60 BC 1535:c. 60 BC 1502:Hatra #2 1340:c. 90 AD 1326:c. 69 AD 1312:c. 69 AD 1298:c. 75 BC 1270:c. 80 BC 1256:c. 80 BC 1242:c. 80 BC 1228:c. 75 AD 1194:Location 1149:Ampurias 1063:1 talent 1046:50 minas 1029:30 minas 1012:20 minas 995:15 minas 978:10 minas 827:, where 766:, where 551:crossbow 510:— 450:Mangonel 446:mangonel 437:— 416:Vegetius 363:mangonel 351:ballista 320:Ballista 287:Vegetius 161:Syracuse 3657:Kestros 3652:Javelin 3580:Scorpio 3242:Science 3143:Science 2318:Captivi 2113:chaabla 2104:mangana 1737:, 67 AD 1718:History 1646:Unknown 488:mangana 463:Muslims 459:petrary 396:mangana 329:Bucket 250:Captivi 245:Plautus 121:History 99:torsion 3611:Onager 2352:Nossov 2334:, 164. 2297:Aeneid 2293:Vergil 2083:patera 1938:Onager 1859:Onager 1790:Onager 1757:Images 1119:talent 660:Philon 646:Philon 571:tenons 564:Design 355:onager 343:onager 341:Sling 331:onager 282:onager 267:onager 223:Roman 193:Rhodes 189:Cyanae 173:Athens 83:onager 3672:Sling 3570:Oyumi 2942:, 79. 2824:, 86. 2736:, 87. 2653:, 19. 2320:, 796 2306:, 83. 2268:, 77. 2224:, 17. 2183:Notes 2010:Zayir 1792:from 1776:from 1618:Metal 1574:Metal 1518:Metal 1477:Metal 1463:Metal 1449:Metal 1153:Hatra 1112:minas 632:Heron 618:Heron 604:Heron 593:Date 484:funda 476:Rollo 472:Paris 404:ziyar 379:skein 243:that 215:Roman 181:Samos 126:Greek 2278:Livy 1980:and 1687:Wood 1673:Wood 1659:Wood 1632:Wood 1615:Sala 1604:Wood 1588:Wood 1560:Wood 1546:Wood 1532:Wood 1505:Wood 1491:Wood 1435:Wood 1421:Wood 1407:Wood 1393:Wood 1379:Wood 1365:Wood 1351:Wood 1337:Wood 1323:Wood 1309:Wood 1295:Wood 1281:Wood 1267:Wood 1253:Wood 1239:Wood 1225:Wood 1211:Wood 1200:Date 494:and 185:Ceos 105:and 3632:Bow 1963:at 1953:at 1796:'s 797:100 791:1.1 502:. 490:by 353:or 227:on 171:in 163:by 152:in 3694:: 2589:, 2465:^ 2295:, 1731:, 1716:, 1117:1 448:. 289:, 187:, 183:, 89:A 3509:e 3502:t 3495:v 3103:. 2283:. 2006:. 1984:. 1973:. 1916:. 1910:. 1898:. 1892:. 1880:. 1874:. 1861:. 1108:m 1099:d 833:m 829:d 813:3 809:/ 805:1 801:m 794:) 788:( 785:= 782:d 772:x 768:d 68:) 64:( 54:. 20:)

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Torsion siege engine

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