476:
balance involves the exquisite coordination of food intake and energy expenditure. Experiments in the 1940s and 1950s showed that lesions of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) reduced food intake; hence, the normal role of this brain area is to stimulate feeding and decrease energy utilization. In contrast, lesions of the medial hypothalamus, especially the ventromedial nucleus (VMH) but also the PVN and dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH), increased food intake; hence, the normal role of these regions is to suppress feeding and increase energy utilization. Yet discovery of the complex networks of neuropeptides and other neurotransmitters acting within the hypothalamus and other brain regions to regulate food intake and energy expenditure began in earnest in 1994 with the cloning of the leptin (ob, for obesity) gene. Indeed, there is now explosive interest in basic feeding mechanisms given the epidemic proportions of obesity in our society, and the increased toll of the eating disorders, anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Unfortunately, despite dramatic advances in the basic neurobiology of feeding, our understanding of the etiology of these conditions and our ability to intervene clinically remain limited.
532:
hypothalamus and other brain areas that are a part of a neurocircuit that regulates food intake in response to input from humoral signals that circulate at concentrations proportionate to body fat content. ... An emerging concept in the neurobiology of food intake is that neurocircuits exist that are normally inhibited, but when activated in response to emergent or stressful stimuli they can override the homeostatic control of energy balance. Understanding how these circuits interact with the energy homeostasis system is fundamental to understanding the control of food intake and may bear on the pathogenesis of disorders at both ends of the body weight spectrum.
236:, first introduced in 1953, postulated that each body has a preprogrammed fixed weight, with regulatory mechanisms to compensate. This theory was quickly adopted and used to explain failures in developing effective and sustained weight loss procedures. A 2019 systematic review of multiple weight change interventions on humans, including
240:, exercise and overeating, found systematic "energetic errors", the non-compensated loss or gain of calories, for all these procedures. This shows that the body cannot precisely compensate for errors in energy/calorie intake, contrary to what the Set-Point Theory hypothesizes, and potentially explaining both
475:
Orexin neurons are regulated by peripheral mediators that carry information about energy balance, including glucose, leptin, and ghrelin. ... Accordingly, orexin plays a role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, reward, and perhaps more generally in emotion. ... The regulation of energy
366:
to below normal values have beneficial effects, and even though they are showing positive indications in nonhuman primates it is still not certain if calorie restriction has a positive effect on longevity for humans and other primates. Calorie restriction may be viewed as attaining energy balance at
106:
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as
531:
However, in normal individuals, body weight and body fat content are typically quite stable over time owing to a biological process termed 'energy homeostasis' that matches energy intake to expenditure over long periods of time. The energy homeostasis system comprises neurons in the mediobasal
832:
Levitsky, DA; Sewall, A; Zhong, Y; Barre, L; Shoen, S; Agaronnik, N; LeClair, JL; Zhuo, W; Pacanowski, C (1 February 2019). "Quantifying the imprecision of energy intake of humans to compensate for imposed energetic errors: A challenge to the physiological control of human food intake".
367:
a lower intake and expenditure, and is, in this sense, not generally an energy imbalance, except for an initial imbalance where decreased expenditure hasn't yet matched the decreased intake.
58:
by integrating a number of biochemical signals that transmit information about energy balance. Fifty percent of the energy from glucose metabolism is immediately converted to heat.
248:. This review was conducted on short-term studies, therefore such a mechanism cannot be excluded in the long term, as evidence is currently lacking on this timeframe.
1100:
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Energy intake is measured by the amount of calories consumed from food and fluids. Energy intake is modulated by hunger, which is primarily regulated by the
77:
with a capital C (i.e. a kilocalorie), which equals the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 °C (about 4.18 k
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A negative balance is a result of energy intake being less than what is consumed in external work and other bodily means of energy expenditure.
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Energy expenditure is mainly a sum of internal heat produced and external work. The internal heat produced is, in turn, mainly a sum of
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David
Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of physics, 9th edition,John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011, p. 485
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There has been controversy over energy-balance messages that downplay energy intake being promoted by food industry groups.
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has compiled a detailed report on human energy requirements. An older but commonly used and fairly accurate method is the
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Kevin G. Murphy & Stephen R. Bloom (December 14, 2006). "Gut hormones and the regulation of energy homeostasis".
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Energy intake (from food and fluids) = Energy expended (through work and heat generated) + Change in stored energy (
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785:"The role of leptin and ghrelin in the regulation of food intake and body weight in humans: a review"
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Field JB (1989). "Exercise and deficient carbohydrate storage and intake as causes of hypoglycemia".
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Weingarten HP (1985). "Stimulus control of eating: implications for a two-factor theory of hunger".
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Normal energy requirement, and therefore normal energy intake, depends mainly on age, sex and
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Rezzi S, Martin FP, Shanmuganayagam D, Colman RJ, Nicholson JK, Weindruch R (May 2009).
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than what is consumed in external work and other bodily means of energy expenditure.
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546:"Central nervous system regulation of eating: Insights from human brain imaging"
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693:"Obesity and the neurocognitive basis of food reward and the control of intake"
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of eating behavior. Hunger is regulated in part by the action of certain
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463:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 179, 262–263.
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (ed.).
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Ziauddeen H, Alonso-Alonso M, Hill JO, Kelley M, Khan NA (2015).
280:, resulting in decreased energy expenditure through external work
128:
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In the US, biological energy is expressed using the energy unit
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285:
941:"Caloric restriction and aging: studies in mice and monkeys"
925:
Human energy requirements (Rome, 17–24 October 2001)
428:(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 329–349.
878:"Role of set-point theory in regulation of body weight"
422:"Chapter 11: Energy Balance and Body Weight Regulation"
284:
A positive balance results in energy being stored as
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Anderson RM, Shanmuganayagam D, Weindruch R (2009).
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Yet, there are currently ongoing studies to show if
50:(energy outflow). The human brain, particularly the
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493:"Neurobiology of food intake in health and disease"
783:Klok MD, Jakobsdottir S, Drent ML (January 2007).
214:. External work may be estimated by measuring the
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1068:Diagram of regulation of fat stores and hunger
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88:, can be measured with the following equation:
46:regulation of food intake (energy inflow) and
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61:Energy homeostasis is an important aspect of
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304:may develop, with resultant complications.
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426:Metabolic Regulation: A Human Perspective
127:) or related compounds, or dissipated as
491:Morton GJ, Meek TH, Schwartz MW (2014).
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274:, resulting in increased energy intake
544:Farr OM, Li CS, Mantzoros CS (2016).
36:homeostatic control of energy balance
7:
1074:Daily energy requirement calculator
319:due to a medical condition such as
256:A positive balance is a result of
25:
658:Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am
349:Food and Agriculture Organization
267:The main preventable causes are:
802:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00270.x
1040:O’Connor, Anahad (2015-08-09).
42:that involves the coordinated
1:
754:10.1016/S0195-6663(85)80006-4
670:10.1016/S0889-8529(18)30394-3
562:10.1016/j.metabol.2016.02.002
876:Harris, RB (December 1990).
1176:Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
1009:10.1016/j.exger.2009.02.008
895:10.1096/fasebj.4.15.2253845
847:10.1016/j.appet.2018.11.017
1554:
225:
199:
1181:Wernicke's encephalopathy
957:10.1177/0192623308329476
357:Harris-Benedict equation
244:and weight gain such as
84:Energy balance, through
18:Total energy expenditure
345:physical activity level
216:physical activity level
188:, among others) in the
390:Earth's energy balance
212:thermic effect of food
158:classical conditioning
121:adenosine triphosphate
86:biosynthetic reactions
1357:Electrolyte imbalance
1225:Pyridoxine deficiency
1199:Riboflavin deficiency
709:10.3945/an.115.008268
385:Dynamic energy budget
335:can also be a cause.
226:Further information:
200:Further information:
1335:Vitamin K deficiency
1329:Vitamin E deficiency
1306:Vitamin D deficiency
1287:Vitamin A deficiency
1186:Korsakoff's syndrome
208:basal metabolic rate
154:operant conditioning
27:A biological process
618:10.1038/nature05484
610:2006Natur.444..854M
371:Society and culture
364:calorie restriction
278:Sedentary lifestyle
1349:Mineral deficiency
1148:Vitamin deficiency
497:Nat. Rev. Neurosci
321:decreased appetite
315:The main cause is
228:Nutrition disorder
202:Energy expenditure
48:energy expenditure
40:biological process
32:energy homeostasis
1515:
1514:
1464:Failure to thrive
1459:Delayed milestone
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1321:Harrison's groove
1251:Folate deficiency
1238:Biotin deficiency
604:(7121): 854–859.
420:Frayn KN (2013).
329:digestive disease
162:cognitive control
16:(Redirected from
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308:Negative balance
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234:Set-Point Theory
166:peptide hormones
150:stimulus control
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1538:Biochemistry
1316:Osteomalacia
1120:malnutrition
1110:Malnutrition
1049:. Retrieved
1045:
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439:. Retrieved
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190:hypothalamus
146:hypothalamus
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52:hypothalamus
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30:In biology,
29:
1507:Underweight
1497:Weight loss
1138:Catabolysis
1128:Kwashiorkor
841:: 337–343.
347:(PAL). The
339:Requirement
317:undereating
296:. In time,
294:weight gain
242:weight loss
196:Expenditure
44:homeostatic
1533:Metabolism
1522:Categories
1474:Idiopathic
1424:Molybdenum
1268:deficiency
1157:B vitamins
1051:2018-03-24
396:References
298:overweight
292:, causing
272:Overeating
69:Definition
1528:Nutrition
1404:Manganese
1382:Potassium
1377:Phosphate
1372:Magnesium
1264:Vitamin B
441:9 January
222:Imbalance
34:, or the
1502:Cachexia
1492:Anorexia
1441:Fluorine
1429:Selenium
1419:Chromium
1367:Chloride
1212:Pellagra
1171:Beriberi
1133:Marasmus
1027:19264119
975:19075044
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908:S2CID
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630:S2CID
115:, or
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