Transcription (biology) - Knowledge (XXG)

985:. RNA polymerase core enzyme binds to the bacterial general transcription (sigma) factor to form RNA polymerase holoenzyme and then binds to a promoter. (RNA polymerase is called a holoenzyme when sigma subunit is attached to the core enzyme which is consist of 2 α subunits, 1 β subunit, 1 β' subunit only). Unlike eukaryotes, the initiating nucleotide of nascent bacterial mRNA is not capped with a modified guanine nucleotide. The initiating nucleotide of bacterial transcripts bears a 5′ triphosphate (5′-PPP), which can be used for genome-wide mapping of transcription initiation sites. 1144:(or noncoding strand), is used as a template for RNA synthesis. As transcription proceeds, RNA polymerase traverses the template strand and uses base pairing complementarity with the DNA template to create an RNA copy (which elongates during the traversal). Although RNA polymerase traverses the template strand from 3' → 5', the coding (non-template) strand and newly formed RNA can also be used as reference points, so transcription can be described as occurring 5' → 3'. This produces an RNA molecule from 5' → 3', an exact copy of the coding strand (except that 1247: 806: 732:), with one member of the dimer anchored to its binding motif on the enhancer and the other member anchored to its binding motif on the promoter (represented by the red zigzags in the illustration). Several cell function specific transcription factors (there are about 1,600 transcription factors in a human cell) generally bind to specific motifs on an enhancer and a small combination of these enhancer-bound transcription factors, when brought close to a promoter by a DNA loop, govern level of transcription of the target gene. 926: 911: 54: 644: 743:(eRNAs) as illustrated in the Figure. An inactive enhancer may be bound by an inactive transcription factor. Phosphorylation of the transcription factor may activate it and that activated transcription factor may then activate the enhancer to which it is bound (see small red star representing phosphorylation of transcription factor bound to enhancer in the illustration). An activated enhancer begins transcription of its RNA before activating transcription of messenger RNA from its target gene. 1133: 802:. These MBD proteins have both a methyl-CpG-binding domain as well as a transcription repression domain. They bind to methylated DNA and guide or direct protein complexes with chromatin remodeling and/or histone modifying activity to methylated CpG islands. MBD proteins generally repress local chromatin such as by catalyzing the introduction of repressive histone marks, or creating an overall repressive chromatin environment through nucleosome remodeling and chromatin reorganization. 720:

enhancer DNA regions, for a particular type of tissue only specific enhancers are brought into proximity with the promoters that they regulate. In a study of brain cortical neurons, 24,937 loops were found, bringing enhancers to their target promoters. Multiple enhancers, each often at tens or hundred of thousands of nucleotides distant from their target genes, loop to their target gene promoters and can coordinate with each other to control transcription of their common target gene.

752: 223: 1553:, such as MS2, into a gene, these become incorporated into newly synthesized RNA. The stem loops can then be detected using a fusion of GFP and the MS2 coat protein, which has a high affinity, sequence-specific interaction with the MS2 stem loops. The recruitment of GFP to the site of transcription is visualized as a single fluorescent spot. This new approach has revealed that transcription occurs in discontinuous bursts, or pulses (see 1472: 337: 1593: 6613: 1403:, among which are ~8,000 polymerase II factories and ~2,000 polymerase III factories. Each polymerase II factory contains ~8 polymerases. As most active transcription units are associated with only one polymerase, each factory usually contains ~8 different transcription units. These units might be associated through promoters and/or enhancers, with loops forming a "cloud" around the factor. 1399:. Such sites can be visualized by allowing engaged polymerases to extend their transcripts in tagged precursors (Br-UTP or Br-U) and immuno-labeling the tagged nascent RNA. Transcription factories can also be localized using fluorescence in situ hybridization or marked by antibodies directed against polymerases. There are ~10,000 factories in the nucleoplasm of a 1664:, a repeating sequence of DNA, to the end of linear chromosomes. It is important because every time a linear chromosome is duplicated, it is shortened. With the telomere at the ends of chromosomes, the shortening eliminates some of the non-essential, repeated sequence, rather than the protein-encoding DNA sequence farther away from the chromosome end. 579: 508:

strand of DNA is read by RNA polymerase from the 3' end to the 5' end during transcription (3' → 5'). The complementary RNA is created in the opposite direction, in the 5' → 3' direction, matching the sequence of the sense strand except switching uracil for thymine. This directionality is because RNA

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Telomerase is often activated in cancer cells to enable cancer cells to duplicate their genomes indefinitely without losing important protein-coding DNA sequence. Activation of telomerase could be part of the process that allows cancer cells to become immortal. The immortalizing factor of cancer via

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mRNA transcription can involve multiple RNA polymerases on a single DNA template and multiple rounds of transcription (amplification of particular mRNA), so many mRNA molecules can be rapidly produced from a single copy of a gene. The characteristic elongation rates in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are

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The regulatory sequence elements (yellow) at the start of a eukaryotic protein-coding gene, can be immediately upstream of the open read frame (ORF, red), or many kilobases away (upstream or downstream). Promoter and enhancer regions up-regulate (and silencers downregulate) transcription from DNA to

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Enhancers are regions of the genome that are major gene-regulatory elements. Enhancers control cell-type-specific gene transcription programs, most often by looping through long distances to come in physical proximity with the promoters of their target genes. While there are hundreds of thousands of

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In eukaryotes, at an RNA polymerase II-dependent promoter, upon promoter clearance, TFIIH phosphorylates serine 5 on the carboxy terminal domain of RNA polymerase II, leading to the recruitment of capping enzyme (CE). The exact mechanism of how CE induces promoter clearance in eukaryotes is not yet

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to each of the five RNA polymerase subunits in bacteria and also contains additional subunits. In archaea and eukaryotes, the functions of the bacterial general transcription factor sigma are performed by multiple general transcription factors that work together. In archaea, there are three general

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RNA polymerase, assisted by one or more general transcription factors, then unwinds approximately 14 base pairs of DNA to form an RNA polymerase-promoter open complex. In the open complex, the promoter DNA is partly unwound and single-stranded. The exposed, single-stranded DNA is referred to as the

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The splice isoform DNMT3A2 behaves like the product of a classical immediate-early gene and, for instance, it is robustly and transiently produced after neuronal activation. Where the DNA methyltransferase isoform DNMT3A2 binds and adds methyl groups to cytosines appears to be determined by histone

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transcription factor binding site is frequently located in enhancer or promoter sequences. There are about 12,000 binding sites for EGR1 in the mammalian genome and about half of EGR1 binding sites are located in promoters and half in enhancers. The binding of EGR1 to its target DNA binding site is

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are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a gene. The binding sequence for a transcription factor in DNA is usually about 10 or 11 nucleotides long. As summarized in 2009, Vaquerizas et al. indicated there are approximately 1,400 different transcription

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marker found predominantly within CpG sites. About 28 million CpG dinucleotides occur in the human genome. In most tissues of mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated (forming 5-methylCpG or 5-mCpG). However, unmethylated cytosines within 5'cytosine-guanine 3' sequences often

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may also work to inhibit the action of transcription. Potent, bioactive natural products like triptolide that inhibit mammalian transcription via inhibition of the XPB subunit of the general transcription factor TFIIH has been recently reported as a glucose conjugate for targeting hypoxic cancer

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Elongation also involves a proofreading mechanism that can replace incorrectly incorporated bases. In eukaryotes, this may correspond with short pauses during transcription that allow appropriate RNA editing factors to bind. These pauses may be intrinsic to the RNA polymerase or due to chromatin

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the methylated CpG islands at those promoters. Upon demethylation, these promoters can then initiate transcription of their target genes. Hundreds of genes in neurons are differentially expressed after neuron activation through EGR1 recruitment of TET1 to methylated regulatory sequences in their

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During transcription initiation, proteins (dark grey semi-circles) bound to the DNA can be brought into proximity with each other since the intervening DNA can loop back on itself. In this way, the basal transcription machinery can interact with distant activators and repressors many kilobases

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gene into protein at one hour after stimulation is drastically elevated. Production of EGR1 transcription factor proteins, in various types of cells, can be stimulated by growth factors, neurotransmitters, hormones, stress and injury. In the brain, when neurons are activated, EGR1 proteins are

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shown by a small red star on a transcription factor on the enhancer) the enhancer is activated and can now activate its target promoter. The active enhancer is transcribed on each strand of DNA in opposite directions by bound RNAP IIs. Mediator (a complex consisting of about 26 proteins in an

788:, at active promoters. About 60% of promoter sequences have a CpG island while only about 6% of enhancer sequences have a CpG island. CpG islands constitute regulatory sequences, since if CpG islands are methylated in the promoter of a gene this can reduce or silence gene transcription. 840:

factors encoded in the human genome by genes that constitute about 6% of all human protein encoding genes. About 94% of transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) that are associated with signal-responsive genes occur in enhancers while only about 6% of such TFBSs occur in promoters.

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have a leading role in the initiation of gene transcription. An enhancer localized in a DNA region distant from the promoter of a gene can have a very large effect on gene transcription, with some genes undergoing up to 100-fold increased transcription due to an activated enhancer.

1094:, and is common for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Abortive initiation continues to occur until an RNA product of a threshold length of approximately 10 nucleotides is synthesized, at which point promoter escape occurs and a transcription elongation complex is formed. 1198:

followed by a run of Us. When the hairpin forms, the mechanical stress breaks the weak rU-dA bonds, now filling the DNA–RNA hybrid. This pulls the poly-U transcript out of the active site of the RNA polymerase, terminating transcription. In Rho-dependent termination,

666:(RNAP II) bound to the promoter at the transcription start site of the gene. The loop is stabilized by one architectural protein anchored to the enhancer and one anchored to the promoter and these proteins are joined to form a dimer (red zigzags). Specific regulatory 1356:

or passenger mutations. However, transcriptional inhibition (silencing) may be of more importance than mutation in causing progression to cancer. For example, in colorectal cancers about 600 to 800 genes are transcriptionally inhibited by CpG island methylation (see

1176:. Since transcription enhances the accessibility of DNA to exogenous chemicals and internal metabolites that can cause recombinogenic lesions, homologous recombination of a particular DNA sequence may be strongly stimulated by transcription. 736:(a complex usually consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from enhancer DNA-bound transcription factors directly to the RNA polymerase II (pol II) enzyme bound to the promoter. 1258: 3231:

Dukatz M, Holzer K, Choudalakis M, Emperle M, Lungu C, Bashtrykov P, Jeltsch A (December 2019). "H3K36me2/3 Binding and DNA Binding of the DNA Methyltransferase DNMT3A PWWP Domain Both Contribute to its Chromatin Interaction".

1057:. The TFIID is the first component to bind to DNA due to binding of TBP, while TFIIH is the last component to be recruited. In archaea and eukaryotes, the RNA polymerase-promoter closed complex is usually referred to as the " 698:

are sufficient to direct transcription initiation, but generally have low basal activity. Other important cis-regulatory modules are localized in DNA regions that are distant from the transcription start sites. These include

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The schematic illustration in this section shows an enhancer looping around to come into close physical proximity with the promoter of a target gene. The loop is stabilized by a dimer of a connector protein (e.g. dimer of

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Transcription termination in eukaryotes is less well understood than in bacteria, but involves cleavage of the new transcript followed by template-independent addition of adenines at its new 3' end, in a process called

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then digests the RNA strand, and reverse transcriptase synthesises a complementary strand of DNA to form a double helix DNA structure (cDNA). The cDNA is integrated into the host cell's genome by the enzyme

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act as major barriers to transcribing polymerases during transcription elongation. In these organisms, the pausing induced by nucleosomes can be regulated by transcription elongation factors such as TFIIS.

879:(DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) catalyze the addition of methyl groups to cytosines in DNA. While DNMT1 is a maintenance methyltransferase, DNMT3A and DNMT3B can carry out new methylations. There are also two 528:, because its sequence is the same as the newly created RNA transcript (except for the substitution of uracil for thymine). This is the strand that is used by convention when presenting a DNA sequence. 531:

Transcription has some proofreading mechanisms, but they are fewer and less effective than the controls for copying DNA. As a result, transcription has a lower copying fidelity than DNA replication.

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After the first bond is synthesized, the RNA polymerase must escape the promoter. During this time there is a tendency to release the RNA transcript and produce truncated transcripts. This is called

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by several laboratories by 1965; however, the RNA synthesized by these enzymes had properties that suggested the existence of an additional factor needed to terminate transcription correctly.

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Papantonis A, Kohro T, Baboo S, Larkin JD, Deng B, Short P, Tsutsumi S, Taylor S, Kanki Y, Kobayashi M, Li G, Poh HM, Ruan X, Aburatani H, Ruan Y, Kodama T, Wada Y, Cook PR (November 2012).

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Weintraub AS, Li CH, Zamudio AV, Sigova AA, Hannett NM, Day DS, Abraham BJ, Cohen MA, Nabet B, Buckley DL, Guo YE, Hnisz D, Jaenisch R, Bradner JE, Gray NS, Young RA (December 2017).

1577:, which allows the measurement of relative abundance of RNA, as well as the detection of additional variations such as fusion genes, post-transcriptional edits and novel splice sites 3985:"Recombinogenic effects of DNA-damaging agents are synergistically increased by transcription in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. New insights into transcription-associated recombination" 1265:

As shown in the image in the right it is evident that the CTD (C Terminal Domain) is a tail that changes its shape; this tail will be used as a carrier of splicing, capping and

1645:, which causes the host cell to generate viral proteins that reassemble into new viral particles. In HIV, subsequent to this, the host cell undergoes programmed cell death, or 1557:). With the notable exception of in situ techniques, most other methods provide cell population averages, and are not capable of detecting this fundamental property of genes. 4802: 759:

Transcription regulation at about 60% of promoters is also controlled by methylation of cytosines within CpG dinucleotides (where 5' cytosine is followed by 3' guanine or

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bind to DNA sequence motifs on the enhancer. General transcription factors bind to the promoter. When a transcription factor is activated by a signal (here indicated as

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Carullo NV, Phillips I RA, Simon RC, Soto SA, Hinds JE, Salisbury AJ, Revanna JS, Bunner KD, Ianov L, Sultan FA, Savell KE, Gersbach CA, Day JJ (September 2020).

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into DNA. The resulting DNA can be merged with the DNA genome of the host cell. The main enzyme responsible for synthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called

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Cramer, P.; Armache, K.-J.; Baumli, S.; Benkert, S.; Brueckner, F.; Buchen, C.; Damsma, G.E.; Dengl, S.; Geiger, S.R.; Jasiak, A.J.; Jawhari, A. (June 2008).

5779: 1203:, a protein factor, destabilizes the interaction between the template and the mRNA, thus releasing the newly synthesized mRNA from the elongation complex. 981:

consists of five subunits: 2 α subunits, 1 β subunit, 1 β' subunit, and 1 ω subunit. In bacteria, there is one general RNA transcription factor known as a

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can catalyse demethylation of 5-methylcytosine. When EGR1 transcription factors bring TET1 enzymes to EGR1 binding sites in promoters, the TET enzymes can

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Sun Z, Xu X, He J, Murray A, Sun MA, Wei X, Wang X, McCoig E, Xie E, Jiang X, Li L, Zhu J, Chen J, Morozov A, Pickrell AM, Theus MH, Xie H (August 2019).

368: 4951: 1191: 1152:, and the nucleotides are composed of a ribose (5-carbon) sugar whereas DNA has deoxyribose (one fewer oxygen atom) in its sugar-phosphate backbone). 2878:

Vaquerizas JM, Kummerfeld SK, Teichmann SA, Luscombe NM (April 2009). "A census of human transcription factors: function, expression and evolution".

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On the other hand, neural activation causes degradation of DNMT3A1 accompanied by reduced methylation of at least one evaluated targeted promoter.

5338: 4196:"The structure and activities of the archaeal transcription termination factor Eta detail vulnerabilities of the transcription elongation complex" 739:

Enhancers, when active, are generally transcribed from both strands of DNA with RNA polymerases acting in two different directions, producing two

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polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing mRNA chain. This use of only the 3' → 5' DNA strand eliminates the need for the

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Bayraktar G, Yuanxiang P, Confettura AD, Gomes GM, Raza SA, Stork O, Tajima S, Suetake I, Karpova A, Yildirim F, Kreutz MR (November 2020).

1807:"Tentative identification of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases of dsRNA viruses and their relationship to positive strand RNA viral polymerases" 970:

and an extending NTP) complementary to the transcription start site sequence, and catalyzes bond formation to yield an initial RNA product.

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machinery to repair the lesion. Mfd is proposed to also resolve conflicts between DNA replication and transcription. In eukayrotes, ATPase

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Goodrich JA, Tjian R (April 1994). "Transcription factors IIE and IIH and ATP hydrolysis direct promoter clearance by RNA polymerase II".

3623:"Functional interactions of RNA-capping enzyme with factors that positively and negatively regulate promoter escape by RNA polymerase II" 3088:

Oliveira AM, Hemstedt TJ, Bading H (July 2012). "Rescue of aging-associated decline in Dnmt3a2 expression restores cognitive abilities".

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Notable vertebrate −ssRNA viruses include the Ebola virus, hantaviruses, influenza viruses, the Lassa fever virus, and the rabies virus.

1583:: amplifies and reads partial transcriptomes from isolated cells, allowing for detailed analyses of RNA in tissues, embryos, and cancers 1058: 679: 412: 4520:

Tessitore A, Cicciarelli G, Del Vecchio F, Gaggiano A, Verzella D, Fischietti M, Vecchiotti D, Capece D, Zazzeroni F, Alesse E (2014).

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RNA which acts as a template for positive sense viral messenger RNA - a necessary step in the synthesis of viral proteins needed for

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Aymard F, Bugler B, Schmidt CK, Guillou E, Caron P, Briois S, Iacovoni JS, Daburon V, Miller KM, Jackson SP, Legube G (April 2014).

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Bacteria use two different strategies for transcription termination – Rho-independent termination and Rho-dependent termination. In

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sequence to form an RNA polymerase-promoter closed complex. In the closed complex, the promoter DNA is still fully double-stranded.

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Roeder, Robert G. (1991). "The complexities of eukaryotic transcription initiation: regulation of preinitiation complex assembly".

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While only small amounts of EGR1 transcription factor protein are detectable in cells that are un-stimulated, translation of the

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Image showing RNA polymerase interacting with different factors and DNA during transcription, especially CTD (C Terminal Domain)

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regulates gene transcription through interaction with methyl binding domain (MBD) proteins, such as MeCP2, MBD1 and MBD2. These

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Beagan JA, Pastuzyn ED, Fernandez LR, Guo MH, Feng K, Titus KR, Chandrashekar H, Shepherd JD, Phillips-Cremins JE (June 2020).

1919: 1537:: measures the relative abundance of the global total or nuclear RNA levels; however, these may differ from transcription rates 1006: 821:, wherein the lighter regions are generally more transcriptionally active, whereas darker regions are more inactive, including 483: 6447: 6042: 5184: 475: 361: 31: 4067:

Lykke-Andersen S, Jensen TH (October 2007). "Overlapping pathways dictate termination of RNA polymerase II transcription".

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with the remaining 10% using an alternative telomere maintenance route called ALT or Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres.

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mRNA. The 5' and 3' untranslated regions of that mRNA (UTR, blue) then regulate translation into the final protein product.

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interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from the enhancer DNA-bound transcription factors to the promoter.

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is the process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA. The segments of DNA transcribed into RNA molecules that can encode

4662:"Kethoxal-assisted single-stranded DNA sequencing captures global transcription dynamics and enhancer activity in situ" 3723:

Milo, Ron; Philips, Rob (2015). "4. Rates and Duration: Central dogma: Which is faster:transcription or translation?".

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Lambert SA, Jolma A, Campitelli LF, Das PK, Yin Y, Albu M, Chen X, Taipale J, Hughes TR, Weirauch MT (February 2018).

1349: 420: 4896: 6638: 5364: 5223: 1580: 1531:: measures the absolute abundance of total or nuclear RNA levels, which may however differ from transcription rates 1227: 1223: 1112:

However, later data showed that upon and following promoter clearance, the sigma factor is released according to a

967: 514: 130: 6452: 5561: 5497: 5467: 5445: 4365:"A genome-wide analysis of CpG dinucleotides in the human genome distinguishes two distinct classes of promoters" 2611:"Enhancer RNAs predict enhancer-gene regulatory links and are critical for enhancer function in neuronal systems" 2513:"The degree of enhancer or promoter activity is reflected by the levels and directionality of eRNA transcription" 795: 505: 443: 354: 846:

protein is a particular transcription factor that is important for regulation of methylation of CpG islands. An

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Spitz F, Furlong EE (September 2012). "Transcription factors: from enhancer binding to developmental control".

1554: 1460: 1456: 1238:, preventing errors in chromosomal segregation. In archaea, the Eta ATPase is proposed to play a similar role. 1169: 805: 691: 544: 148: 4824:

Cesare AJ, Reddel RR (May 2010). "Alternative lengthening of telomeres: models, mechanisms and implications".

1218:), transcription may also need to be terminated when it encounters conditions such as DNA damage or an active 6326: 6102: 5736: 5704: 5678: 5662: 5351: 5228: 5045: 2218:

Schoenfelder S, Fraser P (August 2019). "Long-range enhancer-promoter contacts in gene expression control".

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may occur more frequently by over-produced microRNA-182 than by hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter (see

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Interactive Java simulation of transcription interference—a game of promoter dominance in bacterial virus.

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Shi, J; Wen, A; Zhao, M; Jin, S; You, L; Shi, Y; Dong, S; Hua, X; Zhang, Y; Feng, Y (18 November 2020).

1766: 1626: 1604: 1597: 1540: 1496: 1294: 1185: 1101:, providing the energy needed to break interactions between RNA polymerase holoenzyme and the promoter. 876: 836: 712: 321: 301: 266: 178: 173: 3277:"Synaptic control of DNA methylation involves activity-dependent degradation of DNMT3A1 in the nucleus" 2562:"MAP kinase phosphorylation-dependent activation of Elk-1 leads to activation of the co-activator p300" 2168:"Three-dimensional genome restructuring across timescales of activity-induced neuronal gene expression" 3041:"Neuronal DNA Methyltransferases: Epigenetic Mediators between Synaptic Activity and Gene Expression?" 2988:

Kubosaki A, Tomaru Y, Tagami M, Arner E, Miura H, Suzuki T, Suzuki M, Suzuki H, Hayashizaki Y (2009).

6258: 6253: 6129: 5652: 5566: 5532: 5426: 5255: 5153: 5071: 4907: 4883: 4476: 4376: 4317: 4207: 4155:"Involvement of transcription termination factor 2 in mitotic repression of transcription elongation" 3939: 3831: 3771: 3634: 3536: 3479: 3381: 2941: 2416: 1818: 1254:

RNA polymerase plays a very crucial role in all steps including post-transcriptional changes in RNA.

1065: 1034: 1002: 940: 880: 708: 667: 4589: 4573:"TNFα signals through specialized factories where responsive coding and miRNA genes are transcribed" 3184:"Isoform-specific localization of DNMT3A regulates DNA methylation fidelity at bivalent CpG islands" 2511:

Mikhaylichenko O, Bondarenko V, Harnett D, Schor IE, Males M, Viales RR, Furlong EE (January 2018).

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Richardson JP (September 2002). "Rho-dependent termination and ATPases in transcript termination".

1743: 1733: 1475: 1353: 1333: 1314: 1282: 1091: 944: 704: 700: 687: 651: 600: 296: 276: 241: 211: 168: 162: 153: 125: 3879:"Transcriptionally active chromatin recruits homologous recombination at DNA double-strand breaks" 1668:

telomere lengthening due to telomerase has been proven to occur in 90% of all carcinogenic tumors

1653:. However, in other retroviruses, the host cell remains intact as the virus buds out of the cell. 1411:

A molecule that allows the genetic material to be realized as a protein was first hypothesized by

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ATPase can remove a RNA polymerase stalled at a lesion by prying open its clamp. It also recruits

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Jabbari K, Bernardi G (May 2004). "Cytosine methylation and CpG, TpG (CpA) and TpA frequencies".

2243: 2145: 1844: 1362: 1310: 1113: 434:, the term transcription is used when referring to mRNA synthesis from a viral RNA molecule. The 424: 291: 286: 261: 183: 751: 4630: 2930:"EGR1 recruits TET1 to shape the brain methylome during development and upon neuronal activity" 6539: 6243: 5723: 5300: 4841: 4773: 4748: 4691: 4612: 4553: 4502: 4445: 4404: 4345: 4274: 4254: 4235: 4176: 4135: 4084: 4049: 4014: 3965: 3908: 3859: 3797: 3740: 3730: 3697: 3662: 3603: 3562: 3505: 3444: 3409: 3340: 3306: 3249: 3213: 3164: 3131:

Dhayalan A, Rajavelu A, Rathert P, Tamas R, Jurkowska RZ, Ragozin S, Jeltsch A (August 2010).

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and tethering elements. Among this constellation of elements, enhancers and their associated

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Ouyang J, Yadav T, Zhang JM, Yang H, Rheinbay E, Guo H, Haber DA, Lan L, Zou L (June 2021).

3898: 3890: 3849: 3839: 3787: 3779: 3689: 3652: 3642: 3593: 3552: 3544: 3495: 3487: 3436: 3399: 3389: 3332: 3296: 3288: 3241: 3203: 3195: 3154: 3144: 3133:"The Dnmt3a PWWP domain reads histone 3 lysine 36 trimethylation and guides DNA methylation" 3097: 3060: 3052: 3011: 3001: 2957: 2949: 2887: 2850: 2804: 2763: 2755: 2716: 2679: 2671: 2630: 2622: 2581: 2573: 2532: 2524: 2483: 2475: 2434: 2424: 2372: 2331: 2323: 2282: 2274: 2227: 2187: 2179: 2129: 2092: 2082: 2041: 2033: 1826: 1219: 764: 639:

Enhancers, transcription factors, Mediator complex, and DNA loops in mammalian transcription

510: 233: 470:, which direct and regulate the synthesis of that protein. The regulatory sequence before ( 6532: 6226: 6205: 6134: 5937: 5509: 5277: 5114: 4960: 4924: 4911: 4900: 4887: 4876: 3582:"Holoenzyme switching and stochastic release of sigma factors from RNA polymerase in vivo" 1761: 1728: 1713: 1708: 1534: 1490: 1345: 1266: 1208: 1108:

is definitely released after promoter clearance occurs. This theory had been known as the

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The methylation of promoters is also altered in response to signals. The three mammalian

5316: 4480: 4380: 4321: 4211: 3943: 3835: 3775: 3638: 3540: 3525:"Abortive initiation and productive initiation by RNA polymerase involve DNA scrunching" 3483: 3385: 2945: 2420: 1822: 6617: 6522: 6409: 6280: 6139: 6122: 5927: 5857: 5719: 5707: 5657: 5104: 5076: 4869: 4743: 4718: 4686: 4661: 4607: 4572: 4548: 4521: 4497: 4464: 4463:

Vogelstein B, Papadopoulos N, Velculescu VE, Zhou S, Diaz LA, Kinzler KW (March 2013).

4399: 4364: 4340: 4305: 4291: 4230: 4195: 4130: 4103: 4009: 3984: 3960: 3927: 3903: 3878: 3854: 3819: 3792: 3759: 3557: 3524: 3500: 3467: 3404: 3369: 3301: 3276: 3208: 3183: 3159: 3132: 3065: 3040: 3016: 2990:"Genome-wide investigation of in vivo EGR-1 binding sites in monocytic differentiation" 2989: 2962: 2929: 2768: 2743: 2684: 2659: 2635: 2610: 2537: 2512: 2488: 2463: 2439: 2404: 2336: 2311: 2287: 2262: 2192: 2167: 2097: 2070: 2046: 2021: 1688: 1637: 1511:: measures single-stranded DNA generated by RNA polymerases; can work with 1,000 cells. 1502: 1471: 1442: 1306: 1098: 822: 393: 281: 206: 5771: 4171: 4154: 4045: 3657: 3622: 2586: 2561: 954:

RNA polymerase, assisted by one or more general transcription factors, then selects a

6627: 6562: 6527: 6370: 6360: 6331: 5964: 5957: 5421: 5305: 4992: 4703: 3693: 3440: 3354: 3261: 2247: 2149: 1831: 1806: 1738: 1693: 1574: 1560: 1479: 1416: 1286: 659: 525: 439: 389: 4853: 4194:

Marshall, CJ; Qayyum, MZ; Walker, JE; Murakami, KS; Santangelo, TJ (9 August 2022).

3709: 3117: 2744:"Pervasive and CpG-dependent promoter-like characteristics of transcribed enhancers" 1848: 17: 6549: 6392: 6352: 6319: 6091: 6077: 5975: 5179: 5109: 4978: 3370:"Global repositioning of transcription start sites in a plant-fermenting bacterium" 2907: 2405:"Positional specificity of different transcription factor classes within enhancers" 1656:

Some eukaryotic cells contain an enzyme with reverse transcription activity called

1438: 1420: 1195: 1194:, RNA transcription stops when the newly synthesized RNA molecule forms a G-C-rich 1105: 982: 814: 740: 400: 271: 3182:

Manzo M, Wirz J, Ambrosi C, Villaseñor R, Roschitzki B, Baubec T (December 2017).

2560:

Li QJ, Yang SH, Maeda Y, Sladek FM, Sharrocks AD, Martins-Green M (January 2003).

1592: 1391:

Active transcription units are clustered in the nucleus, in discrete sites called

4767: 4080: 4000: 3760:"Nucleosomal fluctuations govern the transcription dynamics of RNA polymerase II" 3598: 3581: 1889: 1080:, which modulate formation and function of the transcription initiation complex. 6573: 6439: 6387: 6382: 5895: 5608: 5576: 5479: 5282: 5211: 3327:

Pakay, Julian; Duivenvoorden, Hendrika; Shafee, Thomas; Clarke, Kaitlin (2023).

2022:"Eukaryotic core promoters and the functional basis of transcription initiation" 1718: 1546: 1396: 1348:

the gene becomes inhibited (silenced). Colorectal cancers typically have 3 to 6

1077: 1073: 1046: 1038: 1026: 864: 860: 780: 768: 6612: 4734: 4369:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4330: 4306:"A Glucose-Triptolide Conjugate Selectively Targets Cancer Cells under Hypoxia" 4200:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3951: 3627:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2953: 2720: 2377: 2360: 2327: 6481: 6476: 6429: 6422: 6417: 6402: 6397: 6238: 6173: 5922: 5864: 5760: 5454: 5409: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5240: 4677: 3818:

Fitz V, Shin J, Ehrlich C, Farnung L, Cramer P, Zaburdaev V, Grill SW (2016).

3744: 3292: 3245: 2403:

Grossman SR, Engreitz J, Ray JP, Nguyen TH, Hacohen N, Lander ES (July 2018).

2231: 2183: 2087: 2037: 2006: 1657: 1621:), have the ability to transcribe RNA into DNA. HIV has an RNA genome that is 1298: 1278: 1200: 1173: 1157: 993: 978: 650:. An active enhancer regulatory region of DNA is enabled to interact with the 416: 408: 201: 115: 95: 70: 4719:"Nature, nurture, or chance: stochastic gene expression and its consequences" 3056: 3006: 6486: 6471: 6458: 6210: 5998: 5917: 5912: 5902: 5890: 5829: 5416: 4488: 4389: 4220: 3844: 3783: 3647: 3548: 3491: 3199: 3149: 2660:"DNA methylation in human epigenomes depends on local topology of CpG sites" 2429: 1646: 1642: 1632:

In the case of HIV, reverse transcriptase is responsible for synthesizing a

1550: 1518: 1400: 1168:

Double-strand breaks in actively transcribed regions of DNA are repaired by

1069: 828: 818: 810: 760: 504:

Only one of the two DNA strands serves as a template for transcription. The

404: 158: 4845: 4752: 4695: 4616: 4598: 4557: 4506: 4449: 4408: 4349: 4278: 4239: 4180: 4139: 4088: 4053: 4018: 3969: 3912: 3863: 3801: 3666: 3607: 3566: 3509: 3413: 3310: 3253: 3217: 3168: 3109: 3074: 3025: 2971: 2899: 2864: 2818: 2777: 2728: 2693: 2644: 2595: 2577: 2546: 2528: 2497: 2448: 2386: 2345: 2296: 2239: 2201: 2141: 2106: 2055: 4893: 4538: 4120: 3983:

García-Rubio M, Huertas P, González-Barrera S, Aguilera A (October 2003).

3701: 3448: 2759: 2626: 1840: 1261:

The Image shows how CTD is carrying protein for further changes in the RNA

755:

This shows where the methyl group is added when 5-methylcytosine is formed

493:, transcription results in an RNA complement that includes the nucleotide 6517: 6463: 6365: 6309: 6304: 6195: 6156: 6112: 6014: 5819: 5623: 5613: 5260: 5250: 5174: 2675: 1895: 1751: 1661: 1429: 1366: 1341: 1337: 974: 799: 785: 776: 431: 217: 100: 90: 45: 3928:"RNA transcripts stimulate homologous recombination by forming DR-loops" 3820:"Nucleosomal arrangement affects single-molecule transcription dynamics" 3394: 2261:

Pennacchio LA, Bickmore W, Dean A, Nobrega MA, Bejerano G (April 2013).

2071:"The Why of YY1: Mechanisms of Transcriptional Regulation by Yin Yang 1" 603:. Can we just make a canonical "main article" and redirect people there? 392:(mRNA). Other segments of DNA are transcribed into RNA molecules called 6499: 6377: 6161: 6146: 5849: 5824: 5583: 5450: 4996: 4440: 4423: 4304:

Datan E, Minn I, Peng X, He QL, Ahn H, Yu B, Pomper MG, Liu JO (2020).

2809: 2792: 1670: 1610: 1570: 1564: 1235: 1145: 1064:

Transcription initiation is regulated by additional proteins, known as

1017:-dependent transcription, there are six general transcription factors: 989: 498: 385: 3894: 3621:

Mandal SS, Chu C, Wada T, Handa H, Shatkin AJ, Reinberg D (May 2004).

3580:

Raffaelle M, Kanin EI, Vogt J, Burgess RR, Ansari AZ (November 2005).

2855: 2838: 1257: 6590: 6568: 6265: 6188: 6183: 5948: 5839: 5834: 5379: 3758:

Hodges C, Bintu L, Lubkowska L, Kashlev M, Bustamante C (July 2009).

1747: 1723: 1650: 1528: 1290: 1149: 494: 435: 110: 85: 4837: 3101: 2891: 2479: 2278: 2133: 513:

that are seen in DNA replication. This also removes the need for an

30:

This article is about transcription in biology. For other uses, see

4034:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Structure and Expression

1987:

Watson JD, Baker TA, Bell SP, Gann AA, Levine M, Losick RM (2013).

1214:

Beyond termination by a terminator sequences (which is a part of a

462:

A DNA transcription unit encoding for a protein may contain both a

6072: 6064: 5882: 5844: 5640: 5492: 5018: 4929: 3336: 1698: 1591: 1573:: applies next-generation sequencing techniques to sequence whole 1505:

assay: measures the relative abundance of newly formed transcripts

1470: 1374: 1370: 1256: 1245: 1054: 1050: 1042: 1030: 1022: 1018: 804: 642: 1660:. Telomerase carries an RNA template from which it synthesizes a 1486:

Transcription can be measured and detected in a variety of ways:

415:

language. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by an RNA

6578: 6270: 5811: 5711: 5541: 5472: 1755: 1703: 1683: 1618: 1522: 1361:). Transcriptional repression in cancer can also occur by other 1231: 1215: 847: 843: 725: 655: 5775: 5320: 4933: 4988: 2839:"Methyl-CpG-binding domain proteins: readers of the epigenome" 1614: 772: 729: 572: 517:

to initiate RNA synthesis, as is the case in DNA replication.

80: 75: 4104:"Structural basis of Mfd-dependent transcription termination" 2464:"The Mediator complex: a central integrator of transcription" 1242:

Role of RNA polymerase in post-transcriptional changes in RNA

939:

Transcription begins with the RNA polymerase and one or more

4918:

Virtual Cell Animation Collection, Introducing Transcription

2742:

Steinhaus R, Gonzalez T, Seelow D, Robinson PN (June 2020).

2069:

Verheul TC, van Hijfte L, Perenthaler E, Barakat TS (2020).

4795:"Some patterns of apoptosis mechanism during HIV-infection" 4294:

8-Hydroxyquinoline from SIGMA-ALDRICH. Retrieved 2022-02-15

3523:

Revyakin A, Liu C, Ebright RH, Strick TR (November 2006).

2312:"YY1 Is a Structural Regulator of Enhancer-Promoter Loops" 1482:

strands are visible as branches from the main DNA strand.

890:

gene: DNA methyltransferase proteins DNMT3A1 and DNMT3A2.

1313:

is an antifungal transcription inhibitor. The effects of

859:

up-regulated and they bind to (recruit) the pre-existing

658:

by the formation of a chromosome loop. This can initiate

4870:

Interactive Java simulation of transcription initiation.

2658:

Lövkvist C, Dodd IB, Sneppen K, Haerter JO (June 2016).

4522:"MicroRNAs in the DNA Damage/Repair Network and Cancer" 4153:

Jiang, Y; Liu, M; Spencer, CA; Price, DH (7 May 2004).

4904: 4880: 3468:"Direct detection of abortive RNA transcripts in vivo" 1427:

in 1959 for developing a process for synthesizing RNA

863:

enzymes that are produced in high amounts in neurons.

6601: 1375:

Low expression of BRCA1 in breast and ovarian cancers

1318:

cells with increased glucose transporter production.

1234:

helps to suppress the action of RNAP I and II during

4292:

http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/sial/h6878

958:

in the transcription bubble, binds to an initiating

6510: 6438: 6351: 6219: 6101: 6090: 6063: 6035: 5985: 5974: 5947: 5936: 5881: 5810: 5732: 5697: 5671: 5596: 5554: 5531: 5508: 5444: 5437: 5372: 5363: 5293: 5202: 5167: 5141: 5132: 5090: 5064: 5038: 5029: 4967: 1866:

Biology, 8th Edition, International Student Edition

1805:Koonin EV, Gorbalenya AE, Chumakov KM (July 1989). 1864:Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W. Martin. 1636:strand (cDNA) to the viral RNA genome. The enzyme 1563:: the traditional method, and until the advent of 1369:. In breast cancer, transcriptional repression of 1104:In bacteria, it was historically thought that the 682:for transcription in mammals is regulated by many 3813: 3811: 1499:assay: identifies transcription start sites (TSS) 1033:(a multisubunit factor in which the key subunit, 932:upstream or downstream of the open reading frame. 798:proteins bind most strongly to highly methylated 466:, which will be translated into the protein, and 4424:"DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory" 3322: 3320: 2793:"DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory" 1097:Mechanistically, promoter escape occurs through 851:insensitive to cytosine methylation in the DNA. 3824:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2398: 2396: 2213: 2211: 1493:transcription assay: measures promoter strength 1478:of transcription of ribosomal RNA. The forming 1344:. When many of a gene's promoter CpG sites are 4363:Saxonov S, Berg P, Brutlag DL (January 2006). 1953:(6th ed.). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. 1156:about 10–100 nts/sec. In eukaryotes, however, 524:-template (sense) strand of DNA is called the 5787: 5332: 4945: 1305:of DNA into mRNA by inhibiting DNA-dependent 501:(T) would have occurred in a DNA complement. 362: 8: 2837:Du Q, Luu PL, Stirzaker C, Clark SJ (2015). 1883: 1881: 688:core promoter and promoter-proximal elements 27:Process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA 2983: 2981: 1459:"for his studies of the molecular basis of 6098: 5982: 5944: 5794: 5780: 5772: 5441: 5369: 5339: 5325: 5317: 5138: 5100:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA) 5035: 4952: 4938: 4930: 1365:mechanisms, such as altered production of 1297:). An example of such an antibacterial is 1136:Simple diagram of transcription elongation 369: 355: 36: 4742: 4717:Raj A, van Oudenaarden A (October 2008). 4685: 4606: 4588: 4547: 4537: 4496: 4439: 4398: 4388: 4339: 4329: 4255:"Structure of Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases" 4229: 4219: 4170: 4129: 4119: 4008: 3959: 3902: 3853: 3843: 3791: 3656: 3646: 3597: 3556: 3499: 3403: 3393: 3300: 3207: 3158: 3148: 3064: 3015: 3005: 2961: 2854: 2808: 2767: 2683: 2634: 2585: 2536: 2487: 2438: 2428: 2376: 2335: 2286: 2191: 2161: 2159: 2096: 2086: 2045: 1860: 1858: 1830: 1192:Rho-independent transcription termination 626:Learn how and when to remove this message 4271:10.1146/annurev.biophys.37.032807.130008 1277:Transcription inhibitors can be used as 1131: 750: 747:CpG island methylation and demethylation 482:from) the coding sequence is called the 474:from) the coding sequence is called the 6608: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2917: 1797: 1778: 813:of a human, showing an overview of the 694:of genes. Core promoters combined with 450:. This process is catalyzed by a viral 44: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1949:Berg J, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2006). 1543:: detects the presence of a transcript 648:Regulation of transcription in mammals 5485:Histone acetylation and deacetylation 5120:Histone acetylation and deacetylation 3039:Bayraktar G, Kreutz MR (April 2018). 2832: 2830: 2828: 2263:"Enhancers: five essential questions" 1425:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1359:regulation of transcription in cancer 1332:In vertebrates, the majority of gene 1328:Regulation of transcription in cancer 1269:, as shown in the image on the left. 7: 5185:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC) 1930:from the original on 27 October 2017 1437:, which was useful for cracking the 4641:from the original on March 15, 2007 2462:Allen BL, Taatjes DJ (March 2015). 2020:Haberle V, Stark A (October 2018). 1525:: detect active transcription sites 1309:by binding its beta-subunit, while 996:, RNA polymerase contains subunits 4805:from the original on July 10, 2011 3329:Threshold Concepts in Biochemistry 1172:during the S and G2 phases of the 894:post translational modifications. 835:As noted in the previous section, 419:, which produces a complementary, 25: 4526:International Journal of Genomics 2361:"The Human Transcription Factors" 1072:, and, in some cases, associated 6611: 924: 909: 577: 484:three prime untranslated regions 336: 335: 222: 221: 52: 5689:Archaeal transcription factor B 5190:Post-translational modification 476:five prime untranslated regions 6448:Last universal common ancestor 6043:Defective interfering particle 4766:Clark, David P. (2005-06-24). 3429:Trends in Biochemical Sciences 1888:Clark, David P. (2005-06-24). 1750:from precursor messenger RNA ( 549:Transcription is divided into 1: 6584:Clonally transmissible cancer 6020:Satellite-like nucleic acids 4172:10.1016/s1097-2765(04)00234-5 4046:10.1016/S0167-4781(02)00456-6 3729:. CRC Press. pp. 231–6. 1989:Molecular Biology of the Gene 941:general transcription factors 696:general transcription factors 478:(5'UTR); the sequence after ( 4914:at the Niels Bohr Institute. 4890:at the Niels Bohr Institute. 4081:10.1016/j.biochi.2007.05.007 3694:10.1016/0092-8674(94)90242-9 3599:10.1016/j.molcel.2005.10.011 3441:10.1016/0968-0004(91)90164-Q 1832:10.1016/0014-5793(89)80886-5 1435:polynucleotide phosphorylase 569:Setting up for transcription 452:RNA dependent RNA polymerase 4259:Annual Review of Biophysics 3726:Cell Biology by the Numbers 1140:One strand of the DNA, the 597:. The specific problem is: 497:(U) in all instances where 6660: 6140:Class II or DNA transposon 6135:Class I or retrotransposon 5365:Transcriptional regulation 4735:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.050 4465:"Cancer genome landscapes" 4331:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101536 4001:10.1093/genetics/165.2.457 3952:10.1038/s41586-021-03538-8 2954:10.1038/s41467-019-11905-3 2721:10.1016/j.gene.2004.02.043 2378:10.1016/j.cell.2018.01.029 2328:10.1016/j.cell.2017.11.008 1602: 1384: 1325: 1228:nucleotide excision repair 1183: 826: 690:that are located near the 593:to meet Knowledge (XXG)'s 538: 29: 6453:Earliest known life forms 6327:Repeated sequences in DNA 5562:Transcription coregulator 5498:Histone acetyltransferase 5468:Histone methyltransferase 5446:Histone-modifying enzymes 4905:Center for Models of Life 4881:Center for Models of Life 4678:10.1038/s41592-020-0797-9 3466:, Nickels BE (May 2009). 3293:10.1038/s41386-020-0780-2 3246:10.1016/j.jmb.2019.09.006 2232:10.1038/s41576-019-0128-0 2184:10.1038/s41593-020-0634-6 2088:10.3389/fcell.2020.592164 2038:10.1038/s41580-018-0028-8 1991:(7th ed.). Pearson. 1754:) to make messenger RNA ( 779:(see Figure). 5-mC is an 692:transcription start sites 654:DNA region of its target 6300:Endogenous viral element 6118:Horizontal gene transfer 5251:sequestration (P-bodies) 4772:. Elsevier. p. 63. 3368:Boutard, Magali (2016). 3057:10.1177/1073858417707457 3007:10.1186/gb-2009-10-4-r41 2409:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1555:Transcriptional bursting 1461:eukaryotic transcription 1457:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1170:homologous recombination 1118:stochastic release model 956:transcription start site 951:"transcription bubble". 784:occur in groups, called 545:Eukaryotic transcription 5997:dsDNA satellite virus ( 5663:Internal control region 5229:Gene regulatory network 4826:Nature Reviews Genetics 4793:Kolesnikova IN (2000). 4489:10.1126/science.1235122 4428:Genes & Development 4422:Bird A (January 2002). 4390:10.1073/pnas.0510310103 4221:10.1073/pnas.2207581119 3845:10.1073/pnas.1602764113 3784:10.1126/science.1172926 3648:10.1073/pnas.0401493101 3549:10.1126/science.1131398 3492:10.1126/science.1169237 3281:Neuropsychopharmacology 3200:10.15252/embj.201797038 3150:10.1074/jbc.M109.089433 2791:Bird A (January 2002). 2430:10.1073/pnas.1804663115 1868:. Thomson Brooks/Cole. 1567:, the most quantitative 1549:: by incorporating RNA 1467:Measuring and detecting 1393:transcription factories 1387:Transcription factories 1381:Transcription factories 1352:mutations and 33 to 66 1303:bacterial transcription 1110:obligate release model. 1001:transcription factors: 877:DNA methyltransferasess 684:cis-regulatory elements 541:Bacterial transcription 6555:Helper dependent virus 5871:Biological dark matter 5234:cis-regulatory element 4599:10.1038/emboj.2012.288 4108:Nucleic Acids Research 2529:10.1101/gad.308619.117 1746:– process of removing 1600: 1515:RNase protection assay 1483: 1281:against, for example, 1262: 1251: 1137: 832: 756: 676: 6315:Endogenous retrovirus 6288:Origin of replication 6004:ssDNA satellite virus 5994:ssRNA satellite virus 5756:Intrinsic termination 5521:DNA methyltransferase 3374:Nature Communications 2468:Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2026:Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 1767:Translation (biology) 1627:reverse transcriptase 1605:Reverse transcription 1598:reverse transcription 1595: 1588:Reverse transcription 1541:In situ hybridization 1497:Run-off transcription 1474: 1322:Endogenous inhibitors 1260: 1249: 1186:Terminator (genetics) 1135: 1059:preinitiation complex 837:transcription factors 827:Further information: 808: 754: 713:transcription factors 668:transcription factors 646: 539:Further information: 399:Both DNA and RNA are 322:Personalized medicine 316:Personalized medicine 179:Quantitative genetics 174:Mendelian inheritance 6259:Secondary chromosome 6254:Extrachromosomal DNA 6130:Transposable element 5533:Chromatin remodeling 5256:alternative splicing 5246:Post-transcriptional 5072:Transcription factor 4660:Wu, T (April 2020). 3331:. La Trobe eBureau. 2578:10.1093/emboj/cdg028 1013:. In eukaryotes, in 662:(mRNA) synthesis by 608:improve this section 468:regulatory sequences 423:RNA strand called a 242:Branches of genetics 18:Transcript (biology) 6495:Model lipid bilayer 6337:Interspersed repeat 5490:Histone deacetylase 5480:Histone demethylase 5464:Histone methylation 5180:Transfer RNA (tRNA) 4539:10.1155/2014/820248 4481:2013Sci...339.1546V 4381:2006PNAS..103.1412S 4322:2020iSci...23j1536D 4212:2022PNAS..11907581M 4206:(32): e2207581119. 4121:10.1093/nar/gkaa904 4114:(20): 11762–11772. 3944:2021Natur.594..283O 3883:Nat Struct Mol Biol 3836:2016PNAS..11312733F 3830:(45): 12733–12738. 3776:2009Sci...325..626H 3639:2004PNAS..101.7572M 3541:2006Sci...314.1139R 3484:2009Sci...324..927G 3395:10.1038/ncomms13783 3386:2016NatCo...713783B 2946:2019NatCo..10.3892S 2760:10.1093/nar/gkaa223 2627:10.1093/nar/gkaa671 2421:2018PNAS..115E7222G 2075:Front Cell Dev Biol 1823:1989FEBSL.252...42K 1734:Long non-coding RNA 1623:reverse transcribed 1581:Single cell RNA-Seq 1476:Electron micrograph 1441:. RNA synthesis by 1315:histone methylation 1283:pathogenic bacteria 1222:. In bacteria, the 1092:abortive initiation 601:Regulatory sequence 212:Genetic engineering 169:Population genetics 40:Part of a series on 6644:Cellular processes 5805:organic structures 5294:Influential people 5273:Post-translational 5092:Post-transcription 4923:2021-04-14 at the 4910:2011-08-09 at the 4899:2011-08-26 at the 4886:2011-08-09 at the 4875:2011-07-22 at the 4441:10.1101/gad.947102 2810:10.1101/gad.947102 2676:10.1093/nar/gkw124 2322:(7): 1573–88.e28. 1601: 1484: 1311:8-hydroxyquinoline 1263: 1252: 1148:are replaced with 1138: 1049:of archaeal TFE), 1041:of archaeal TBP), 1029:of archaeal TFB), 886:produced from the 833: 757: 677: 425:primary transcript 184:Molecular genetics 143:History and topics 6639:Molecular biology 6599: 6598: 6540:Non-cellular life 6347: 6346: 6086: 6085: 6059: 6058: 6013:ssRNA satellite ( 5769: 5768: 5724:RNA polymerase II 5592: 5591: 5550: 5549: 5314: 5313: 5198: 5197: 5128: 5127: 5004:Special transfers 4779:978-0-08-045421-4 4769:Molecular Biology 4475:(6127): 1546–58. 3895:10.1038/nsmb.2796 3736:978-1-317-23069-4 3535:(5802): 1139–43. 3346:978-0-6484681-9-6 2856:10.2217/epi.15.39 2748:Nucleic Acids Res 2664:Nucleic Acids Res 2615:Nucleic Acids Res 1998:978-0-321-76243-6 1905:978-0-08-045421-4 1891:Molecular Biology 1634:complementary DNA 1453:Roger D. Kornberg 1301:, which inhibits 1015:RNA polymerase II 977:, RNA polymerase 962:and an extending 943:binding to a DNA 664:RNA polymerase II 636: 635: 628: 599:Duplication with 595:quality standards 586:This section may 511:Okazaki fragments 448:viral replication 379: 378: 106:Genetic variation 16:(Redirected from 6651: 6616: 6615: 6607: 6276:Gene duplication 6099: 6095:self-replication 5983: 5945: 5803:Self-replicating 5796: 5789: 5782: 5773: 5646:Response element 5629:Response element 5442: 5370: 5341: 5334: 5327: 5318: 5139: 5036: 4954: 4947: 4940: 4931: 4858: 4857: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4812: 4810: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4746: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4689: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4635:Nobel Foundation 4631:"Chemistry 2006" 4627: 4621: 4620: 4610: 4592: 4577:The EMBO Journal 4568: 4562: 4561: 4551: 4541: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4500: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4443: 4419: 4413: 4412: 4402: 4392: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4343: 4333: 4301: 4295: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4233: 4223: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4174: 4150: 4144: 4143: 4133: 4123: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4012: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3963: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3906: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3857: 3847: 3815: 3806: 3805: 3795: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3660: 3650: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3601: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3560: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3503: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3407: 3397: 3365: 3359: 3358: 3324: 3315: 3314: 3304: 3272: 3266: 3265: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3211: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3162: 3152: 3143:(34): 26114–20. 3128: 3122: 3121: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3068: 3036: 3030: 3029: 3019: 3009: 2985: 2976: 2975: 2965: 2925: 2912: 2911: 2875: 2869: 2868: 2858: 2834: 2823: 2822: 2812: 2788: 2782: 2781: 2771: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2704: 2698: 2697: 2687: 2655: 2649: 2648: 2638: 2606: 2600: 2599: 2589: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2540: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2491: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2442: 2432: 2415:(30): E7222–30. 2400: 2391: 2390: 2380: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2339: 2307: 2301: 2300: 2290: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2215: 2206: 2205: 2195: 2163: 2154: 2153: 2117: 2111: 2110: 2100: 2090: 2066: 2060: 2059: 2049: 2017: 2011: 2010: 1984: 1965: 1964: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1924:www.sci.sdsu.edu 1916: 1910: 1909: 1885: 1876: 1862: 1853: 1852: 1834: 1802: 1786: 1783: 1445:was established 1220:replication fork 1114:stochastic model 966:(or a short RNA 928: 913: 884:protein isoforms 765:5-methylcytosine 631: 624: 620: 617: 611: 581: 580: 573: 371: 364: 357: 344: 339: 338: 234:Medical genetics 230: 225: 224: 56: 37: 21: 6659: 6658: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6650: 6649: 6648: 6634:Gene expression 6624: 6623: 6622: 6610: 6602: 6600: 6595: 6545:Synthetic virus 6533:Artificial cell 6506: 6434: 6343: 6232:RNA replication 6227:DNA replication 6215: 6206:Group II intron 6104: 6094: 6082: 6073:Mammalian prion 6055: 6031: 6010:dsRNA satellite 6007:ssDNA satellite 5977: 5970: 5939: 5932: 5877: 5806: 5800: 5770: 5765: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5693: 5667: 5588: 5546: 5527: 5510:DNA methylation 5504: 5448: 5433: 5359: 5345: 5315: 5310: 5289: 5224:Transcriptional 5194: 5163: 5124: 5115:Polyadenylation 5086: 5060: 5025: 5019:Protein→Protein 4970: 4963: 4961:Gene expression 4958: 4925:Wayback Machine 4912:Wayback Machine 4901:Wayback Machine 4888:Wayback Machine 4877:Wayback Machine 4866: 4861: 4838:10.1038/nrg2763 4823: 4822: 4818: 4808: 4806: 4792: 4791: 4787: 4780: 4765: 4764: 4760: 4716: 4715: 4711: 4659: 4658: 4654: 4644: 4642: 4629: 4628: 4624: 4590:10.1.1.919.1919 4583:(23): 4404–14. 4570: 4569: 4565: 4519: 4518: 4514: 4462: 4461: 4457: 4421: 4420: 4416: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4303: 4302: 4298: 4290: 4286: 4252: 4251: 4247: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4152: 4151: 4147: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4075:(10): 1177–82. 4066: 4065: 4061: 4031: 4030: 4026: 3982: 3981: 3977: 3938:(7862): 283–8. 3925: 3924: 3920: 3876: 3875: 3871: 3817: 3816: 3809: 3770:(5940): 626–8. 3757: 3756: 3752: 3737: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3620: 3619: 3615: 3579: 3578: 3574: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3478:(5929): 927–8. 3461: 3460: 3456: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3367: 3366: 3362: 3347: 3326: 3325: 3318: 3287:(12): 2120–30. 3274: 3273: 3269: 3240:(24): 5063–74. 3230: 3229: 3225: 3194:(23): 3421–34. 3181: 3180: 3176: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3102:10.1038/nn.3151 3087: 3086: 3082: 3038: 3037: 3033: 2987: 2986: 2979: 2927: 2926: 2915: 2892:10.1038/nrg2538 2880:Nat. Rev. Genet 2877: 2876: 2872: 2836: 2835: 2826: 2790: 2789: 2785: 2754:(10): 5306–17. 2741: 2740: 2736: 2706: 2705: 2701: 2670:(11): 5123–32. 2657: 2656: 2652: 2621:(17): 9550–70. 2608: 2607: 2603: 2559: 2558: 2554: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2480:10.1038/nrm3951 2461: 2460: 2456: 2402: 2401: 2394: 2358: 2357: 2353: 2309: 2308: 2304: 2279:10.1038/nrg3458 2260: 2259: 2255: 2217: 2216: 2209: 2165: 2164: 2157: 2134:10.1038/nrg3207 2119: 2118: 2114: 2068: 2067: 2063: 2032:(10): 621–637. 2019: 2018: 2014: 1999: 1986: 1985: 1968: 1961: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1933: 1931: 1918: 1917: 1913: 1906: 1898:. p. 134. 1887: 1886: 1879: 1863: 1856: 1804: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1775: 1762:Transcriptomics 1729:Gene regulation 1714:gene expression 1709:gene regulation 1680: 1617:, the cause of 1607: 1590: 1535:DNA microarrays 1491:G-Less Cassette 1469: 1409: 1389: 1383: 1330: 1324: 1275: 1267:polyadenylation 1244: 1209:polyadenylation 1188: 1182: 1142:template strand 1130: 1088: 1086:Promoter escape 937: 936: 935: 934: 933: 929: 920: 919: 918: 914: 903: 831: 792:DNA methylation 749: 672:phosphorylation 641: 632: 621: 615: 612: 605: 582: 578: 571: 555:promoter escape 547: 537: 491:DNA replication 464:coding sequence 460: 442:is composed of 394:non-coding RNAs 375: 334: 327: 326: 317: 309: 308: 307: 306: 255: 247: 246: 238: 216: 197: 189: 188: 144: 136: 135: 122: 121: 120: 64: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6657: 6655: 6647: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6626: 6625: 6621: 6620: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6587: 6586: 6581: 6571: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6552: 6542: 6537: 6536: 6535: 6530: 6520: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6507: 6505: 6504: 6503: 6502: 6497: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6455: 6450: 6444: 6442: 6436: 6435: 6433: 6432: 6427: 6426: 6425: 6420: 6412: 6410:Kappa organism 6407: 6406: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6375: 6374: 6373: 6368: 6357: 6355: 6349: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6339: 6334: 6324: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6297: 6296: 6295: 6285: 6284: 6283: 6281:Non-coding DNA 6278: 6273: 6263: 6262: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6236: 6235: 6234: 6223: 6221: 6217: 6216: 6214: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6201:Group I intron 6198: 6193: 6192: 6191: 6181: 6180: 6179: 6176: 6167: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6137: 6127: 6126: 6125: 6123:Genomic island 6120: 6109: 6107: 6103:Mobile genetic 6096: 6088: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6075: 6069: 6067: 6061: 6060: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6053: 6052: 6051: 6048: 6039: 6037: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6029: 6028: 6027: 6024: 6018: 6011: 6008: 6005: 6002: 5995: 5991: 5989: 5980: 5972: 5971: 5969: 5968: 5961: 5953: 5951: 5942: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5930: 5928:dsDNA-RT virus 5925: 5923:ssRNA-RT virus 5920: 5918:(−)ssRNA virus 5915: 5913:(+)ssRNA virus 5910: 5905: 5900: 5899: 5898: 5887: 5885: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5875: 5874: 5873: 5868: 5858:Incertae sedis 5854: 5853: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5827: 5822: 5816: 5814: 5808: 5807: 5801: 5799: 5798: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5767: 5766: 5764: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5747: 5745: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5726: 5720:RNA polymerase 5714: 5708:RNA polymerase 5701: 5699: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5675: 5673: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5649: 5648: 5643: 5633: 5632: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5600: 5598: 5594: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5558: 5556: 5552: 5551: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5544: 5538: 5536: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5525: 5524: 5523: 5515: 5513: 5506: 5505: 5503: 5502: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5482: 5477: 5476: 5475: 5460: 5458: 5439: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5431: 5430: 5429: 5424: 5414: 5413: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5376: 5374: 5367: 5361: 5360: 5346: 5344: 5343: 5336: 5329: 5321: 5312: 5311: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5301:François Jacob 5297: 5295: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5285: 5280: 5270: 5265: 5264: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5243: 5238: 5237: 5236: 5231: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5208: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5171: 5169: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5145: 5143: 5136: 5130: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5096: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5077:RNA polymerase 5074: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5040: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5001: 5000: 4999: 4981: 4975: 4973: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4949: 4942: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4915: 4891: 4865: 4864:External links 4862: 4860: 4859: 4816: 4801:(in Russian). 4785: 4778: 4758: 4709: 4672:(5): 515–523. 4666:Nature Methods 4652: 4622: 4563: 4512: 4455: 4414: 4355: 4296: 4284: 4265:(1): 337–352. 4245: 4186: 4159:Molecular Cell 4145: 4094: 4059: 4040:(2): 251–260. 4024: 3975: 3918: 3869: 3807: 3750: 3735: 3715: 3672: 3633:(20): 7572–7. 3613: 3586:Molecular Cell 3572: 3515: 3454: 3419: 3360: 3345: 3316: 3267: 3223: 3174: 3123: 3080: 3051:(2): 171–185. 3045:Neuroscientist 3031: 2977: 2913: 2870: 2849:(6): 1051–73. 2824: 2783: 2734: 2699: 2650: 2601: 2552: 2503: 2454: 2392: 2371:(4): 650–665. 2351: 2302: 2253: 2226:(8): 437–455. 2207: 2178:(6): 707–717. 2155: 2112: 2061: 2012: 1997: 1966: 1959: 1941: 1911: 1904: 1877: 1874:978-0495317142 1854: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1777: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1689:Cell (biology) 1686: 1679: 1676: 1638:ribonuclease H 1603:Main article: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1578: 1575:transcriptomes 1568: 1558: 1544: 1538: 1532: 1526: 1512: 1506: 1503:Nuclear run-on 1500: 1494: 1468: 1465: 1443:RNA polymerase 1413:François Jacob 1408: 1405: 1385:Main article: 1382: 1379: 1340:with numerous 1326:Main article: 1323: 1320: 1307:RNA polymerase 1287:antibacterials 1274: 1271: 1243: 1240: 1184:Main article: 1181: 1178: 1129: 1126: 1099:DNA scrunching 1087: 1084: 930: 923: 922: 921: 915: 908: 907: 906: 905: 904: 902: 899: 823:non-coding DNA 748: 745: 640: 637: 634: 633: 616:September 2021 585: 583: 576: 570: 567: 536: 533: 489:As opposed to 459: 456: 444:negative-sense 377: 376: 374: 373: 366: 359: 351: 348: 347: 346: 345: 329: 328: 325: 324: 318: 315: 314: 311: 310: 305: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 282:Immunogenetics 279: 274: 269: 264: 258: 257: 256: 253: 252: 249: 248: 245: 244: 237: 236: 231: 214: 209: 207:DNA sequencing 204: 198: 195: 194: 191: 190: 187: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 156: 151: 145: 142: 141: 138: 137: 134: 133: 128: 119: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 67: 66: 65: 63:Key components 62: 61: 58: 57: 49: 48: 42: 41: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6656: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6629: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6605: 6592: 6589: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6576: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6566: 6564: 6563:Nanobacterium 6560: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6528:Cell division 6526: 6525: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6515: 6513: 6509: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6462: 6461: 6460: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6441: 6437: 6431: 6428: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6415: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6380: 6379: 6376: 6372: 6371:Hydrogenosome 6369: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6361:Mitochondrion 6359: 6358: 6356: 6354: 6353:Endosymbiosis 6350: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6332:Tandem repeat 6330: 6329: 6328: 6325: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6302: 6301: 6298: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6286: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6268: 6267: 6264: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6240: 6237: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6228: 6225: 6224: 6222: 6220:Other aspects 6218: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6182: 6177: 6175: 6171: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6149: 6148: 6145: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6132: 6131: 6128: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6115: 6114: 6111: 6110: 6108: 6106: 6100: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6062: 6049: 6046: 6045: 6044: 6041: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6012: 6009: 6006: 6003: 6000: 5996: 5993: 5992: 5990: 5988: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5973: 5967: 5966: 5965:Avsunviroidae 5962: 5960: 5959: 5958:Pospiviroidae 5955: 5954: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5935: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5897: 5894: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5886: 5884: 5880: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5862: 5861: 5860: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5832: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5813: 5812:Cellular life 5809: 5804: 5797: 5792: 5790: 5785: 5783: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5738: 5731: 5725: 5721: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5709: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5638: 5637: 5634: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5595: 5585: 5582: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5553: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5522: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5507: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5474: 5471: 5470: 5469: 5465: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5452: 5447: 5443: 5440: 5436: 5428: 5427:trp repressor 5425: 5423: 5422:lac repressor 5420: 5419: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5382: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5348:Transcription 5342: 5337: 5335: 5330: 5328: 5323: 5322: 5319: 5307: 5306:Jacques Monod 5304: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5292: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5275: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5268:Translational 5266: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5205: 5201: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5166: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5146: 5144: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5131: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5089: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5031:Transcription 5028: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4985: 4984:Central dogma 4982: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4966: 4962: 4955: 4950: 4948: 4943: 4941: 4936: 4935: 4932: 4926: 4922: 4919: 4916: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4895: 4892: 4889: 4885: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4832:(5): 319–30. 4831: 4827: 4820: 4817: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4789: 4786: 4781: 4775: 4771: 4770: 4762: 4759: 4754: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4729:(2): 216–26. 4728: 4724: 4720: 4713: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4656: 4653: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4626: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4567: 4564: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4516: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4459: 4456: 4451: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4375:(5): 1412–7. 4374: 4370: 4366: 4359: 4356: 4351: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4316:(9): 101536. 4315: 4311: 4307: 4300: 4297: 4293: 4288: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4249: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4165:(3): 375–85. 4164: 4160: 4156: 4149: 4146: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4095: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4028: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3995:(2): 457–66. 3994: 3990: 3986: 3979: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3889:(4): 366–74. 3888: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3814: 3812: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3751: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3732: 3728: 3727: 3719: 3716: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3688:(1): 145–56. 3687: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3592:(3): 357–66. 3591: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3519: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3435:(11): 402–8. 3434: 3430: 3423: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3364: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3337:10.26826/1017 3334: 3330: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3312: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3271: 3268: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3227: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3096:(8): 1111–3. 3095: 3091: 3084: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3035: 3032: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2984: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2886:(4): 252–63. 2885: 2881: 2874: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2811: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2787: 2784: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2738: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2703: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2605: 2602: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2572:(2): 281–91. 2571: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2474:(3): 155–66. 2473: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2399: 2397: 2393: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2355: 2352: 2347: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2306: 2303: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2273:(4): 288–95. 2272: 2268: 2267:Nat Rev Genet 2264: 2257: 2254: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2220:Nat Rev Genet 2214: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2128:(9): 613–26. 2127: 2123: 2122:Nat Rev Genet 2116: 2113: 2108: 2104: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2065: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2016: 2013: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1994: 1990: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1960:0-7167-8724-5 1956: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1920:"DNA Strands" 1915: 1912: 1907: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1892: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1861: 1859: 1855: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1817:(1–2): 42–6. 1816: 1812: 1808: 1801: 1798: 1792: 1782: 1779: 1772: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1739:Missense mRNA 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1720: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1707: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1694:Cell division 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1672: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1606: 1599: 1594: 1587: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1562: 1561:Northern blot 1559: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1488: 1487: 1481: 1480:ribosomal RNA 1477: 1473: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1455:won the 2006 1454: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1417:Jacques Monod 1414: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1388: 1380: 1378: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1329: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1259: 1255: 1248: 1241: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1210: 1204: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1187: 1179: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1134: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1119: 1116:known as the 1115: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1085: 1083: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 999: 995: 991: 986: 984: 980: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 952: 948: 946: 942: 927: 912: 900: 898: 895: 891: 889: 885: 882: 878: 873: 870: 866: 862: 857: 852: 849: 845: 841: 838: 830: 824: 820: 816: 812: 807: 803: 801: 797: 793: 789: 787: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 753: 746: 744: 742: 741:enhancer RNAs 737: 735: 731: 727: 721: 717: 714: 710: 706: 702: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 673: 669: 665: 661: 660:messenger RNA 657: 653: 649: 645: 638: 630: 627: 619: 609: 604: 602: 596: 592: 591: 584: 575: 574: 568: 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 546: 542: 534: 532: 529: 527: 526:coding strand 523: 518: 516: 512: 507: 502: 500: 496: 492: 487: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 457: 455: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 428: 426: 422: 418: 414: 413:complementary 410: 406: 402: 401:nucleic acids 397: 395: 391: 390:messenger RNA 387: 383: 382:Transcription 372: 367: 365: 360: 358: 353: 352: 350: 349: 343: 333: 332: 331: 330: 323: 320: 319: 313: 312: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 259: 251: 250: 243: 240: 239: 235: 232: 228: 219: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 193: 192: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 164: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 146: 140: 139: 132: 129: 127: 124: 123: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 68: 60: 59: 55: 51: 50: 47: 43: 39: 38: 33: 32:Transcription 19: 6550:Viral vector 6393:Gerontoplast 6320:Transpoviron 6092:Nucleic acid 6078:Fungal prion 5976:Helper-virus 5963: 5956: 5863: 5856: 5283:irreversible 5168:Key elements 5065:Key elements 5030: 4979:Genetic code 4969:Introduction 4829: 4825: 4819: 4809:February 20, 4807:. Retrieved 4799:Dissertation 4798: 4788: 4768: 4761: 4726: 4722: 4712: 4669: 4665: 4655: 4643:. Retrieved 4634: 4625: 4580: 4576: 4566: 4529: 4525: 4515: 4472: 4468: 4458: 4431: 4427: 4417: 4372: 4368: 4358: 4313: 4309: 4299: 4287: 4262: 4258: 4248: 4203: 4199: 4189: 4162: 4158: 4148: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4072: 4068: 4062: 4037: 4033: 4027: 3992: 3988: 3978: 3935: 3931: 3921: 3886: 3882: 3872: 3827: 3823: 3767: 3763: 3753: 3725: 3718: 3685: 3681: 3675: 3630: 3626: 3616: 3589: 3585: 3575: 3532: 3528: 3518: 3475: 3471: 3462:Goldman SR, 3457: 3432: 3428: 3422: 3377: 3373: 3363: 3328: 3284: 3280: 3270: 3237: 3233: 3226: 3191: 3187: 3177: 3140: 3136: 3126: 3093: 3090:Nat Neurosci 3089: 3083: 3048: 3044: 3034: 2997: 2993: 2937: 2933: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2846: 2842: 2800: 2796: 2786: 2751: 2747: 2737: 2712: 2708: 2702: 2667: 2663: 2653: 2618: 2614: 2604: 2569: 2565: 2555: 2523:(1): 42–57. 2520: 2516: 2506: 2471: 2467: 2457: 2412: 2408: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2319: 2315: 2305: 2270: 2266: 2256: 2223: 2219: 2175: 2172:Nat Neurosci 2171: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2078: 2074: 2064: 2029: 2025: 2015: 1988: 1951:Biochemistry 1950: 1944: 1932:. Retrieved 1923: 1914: 1890: 1865: 1814: 1811:FEBS Letters 1810: 1800: 1781: 1669: 1666: 1655: 1631: 1622: 1608: 1485: 1451: 1446: 1439:genetic code 1428: 1421:Severo Ochoa 1410: 1390: 1331: 1276: 1264: 1253: 1213: 1205: 1196:hairpin loop 1189: 1167: 1163: 1154: 1141: 1139: 1122: 1117: 1109: 1106:sigma factor 1103: 1096: 1089: 1082: 1078:corepressors 1074:coactivators 1063: 987: 983:sigma factor 972: 955: 953: 949: 938: 896: 892: 887: 874: 855: 853: 842: 834: 815:human genome 790: 771:form of the 767:(5-mC) is a 758: 738: 722: 718: 686:, including 678: 647: 622: 613: 606:Please help 598: 587: 562: 558: 554: 550: 548: 530: 521: 519: 503: 488: 467: 463: 461: 429: 421:antiparallel 403:, which use 398: 381: 380: 302:Quantitative 272:Cytogenetics 267:Conservation 149:Introduction 6574:Cancer cell 6440:Abiogenesis 6388:Chromoplast 6383:Chloroplast 6166:Degradative 5908:dsRNA virus 5903:ssDNA virus 5896:Giant virus 5891:dsDNA virus 5733:Termination 5609:Pribnow box 5577:Corepressor 5572:Coactivator 5373:prokaryotic 5134:Translation 4971:to genetics 4434:(1): 6–21. 3137:J Biol Chem 2994:Genome Biol 2940:(1): 3892. 2843:Epigenomics 2803:(1): 6–21. 1719:Epigenetics 1547:MS2 tagging 1397:euchromatin 1295:antifungals 1279:antibiotics 1180:Termination 1165:structure. 1158:nucleosomes 872:promoters. 869:demethylate 865:TET enzymes 800:CpG islands 786:CpG islands 610:if you can. 563:termination 559:elongation, 535:Major steps 440:RNA viruses 409:nucleotides 6628:Categories 6482:Proteinoid 6477:Coacervate 6430:Nitroplast 6423:Trophosome 6418:Bacteriome 6403:Apicoplast 6398:Leucoplast 6239:Chromosome 6157:Resistance 5865:Parakaryon 5761:Rho factor 5751:Terminator 5742:eukaryotic 5717:eukaryotic 5698:Elongation 5684:Eukaryotic 5672:Initiation 5455:nucleosome 5438:eukaryotic 5410:gal operon 5405:ara operon 5400:Gua Operon 5395:gab operon 5390:trp operon 5385:lac operon 5356:Eukaryotic 5278:reversible 5241:lac operon 5217:imprinting 5212:Epigenetic 5204:Regulation 5159:Eukaryotic 5105:5' capping 5056:Eukaryotic 4532:: 820248. 3745:1105558425 3464:Ebright RH 3234:J Mol Biol 3000:(4): R41. 2934:Nat Commun 2081:: 592164. 2007:0321762436 1793:References 1658:telomerase 1596:Scheme of 1551:stem loops 1363:epigenetic 1354:hitchhiker 1346:methylated 1338:CpG island 1336:contain a 1299:rifampicin 1273:Inhibitors 1174:cell cycle 1128:Elongation 1070:repressors 1066:activators 998:homologous 994:eukaryotes 979:holoenzyme 901:Initiation 809:Schematic 781:epigenetic 769:methylated 709:insulators 680:Setting up 551:initiation 515:RNA primer 480:downstream 458:Background 417:polymerase 405:base pairs 396:(ncRNAs). 297:Population 277:Ecological 202:Geneticist 116:Amino acid 96:Nucleotide 71:Chromosome 6491:Research 6472:Protocell 6211:Retrozyme 6170:Virulence 6152:Fertility 5999:Virophage 5987:Satellite 5978:dependent 5830:Eukaryota 5737:bacterial 5705:bacterial 5679:Bacterial 5653:Insulator 5597:Promotion 5567:Activator 5417:Repressor 5352:Bacterial 5149:Bacterial 5046:Bacterial 4704:214810294 4645:March 29, 4585:CiteSeerX 4069:Biochimie 3380:: 13783. 3355:258899183 3262:204832601 2797:Genes Dev 2715:: 143–9. 2517:Genes Dev 2248:152283312 2150:205485256 1647:apoptosis 1643:integrase 1613:(such as 1519:ChIP-Chip 1401:HeLa cell 1367:microRNAs 1342:CpG sites 1334:promoters 829:Karyotype 819:G banding 811:karyogram 761:CpG sites 705:silencers 701:enhancers 506:antisense 486:(3'UTR). 292:Molecular 287:Microbial 262:Classical 163:molecular 159:Evolution 6518:Organism 6511:See also 6487:Sulphobe 6464:Ribozyme 6459:RNA life 6366:Mitosome 6310:Prophage 6305:Provirus 6293:Replicon 6249:Circular 6196:Phagemid 6113:Mobilome 6105:elements 6015:Virusoid 5938:Subviral 5850:Protista 5835:Animalia 5820:Bacteria 5658:Silencer 5636:Enhancer 5624:CAAT box 5614:TATA box 5604:Promoter 5261:microRNA 5175:Ribosome 5154:Archaeal 5110:Splicing 5082:Promoter 5051:Archaeal 4995: → 4991: → 4921:Archived 4908:Archived 4897:Archived 4884:Archived 4873:Archived 4854:19224032 4846:20351727 4803:Archived 4753:18957198 4696:32251394 4639:Archived 4617:23103767 4558:24616890 4507:23539594 4450:11782440 4409:16432200 4350:33083765 4310:iScience 4279:18573085 4240:35917344 4181:15125840 4140:33068413 4089:17629387 4054:12213656 4019:14573461 3989:Genetics 3970:33981036 3913:24658350 3864:27791062 3802:19644123 3710:24602504 3667:15136722 3608:16285918 3567:17110577 3510:19443781 3414:27982035 3311:32726795 3254:31634469 3218:29074627 3169:20547484 3118:10590208 3110:22751036 3075:28513272 3026:19374776 2972:31467272 2900:19274049 2865:25927341 2819:11782440 2778:32338759 2729:15177689 2694:26932361 2645:32810208 2596:12514134 2547:29378788 2498:25693131 2449:29987030 2387:29425488 2346:29224777 2297:23503198 2240:31086298 2202:32451484 2142:22868264 2107:33102493 2056:29946135 1928:Archived 1896:Elsevier 1849:36482110 1752:pre-mRNA 1744:Splicing 1678:See also 1662:telomere 1447:in vitro 1430:in vitro 1146:thymines 1047:ortholog 1039:ortholog 1037:, is an 1027:ortholog 975:bacteria 945:promoter 777:cytosine 734:Mediator 652:promoter 588:require 472:upstream 438:of many 432:virology 388:produce 386:proteins 342:Category 227:template 218:Genomics 196:Research 101:Mutation 91:Heredity 46:Genetics 6618:Biology 6500:Jeewanu 6414:Organs 6378:Plastid 6178:Cryptic 6147:Plasmid 5845:Plantae 5825:Archaea 5584:Inducer 5451:histone 5014:RNA→DNA 5009:RNA→RNA 4997:Protein 4744:3118044 4687:7205578 4608:3512387 4549:3926391 4498:3749880 4477:Bibcode 4469:Science 4400:1345710 4377:Bibcode 4341:7509213 4318:Bibcode 4231:9371683 4208:Bibcode 4131:7672476 4010:1462770 3961:8855348 3940:Bibcode 3904:4300393 3855:5111697 3832:Bibcode 3793:2775800 3772:Bibcode 3764:Science 3702:8156590 3635:Bibcode 3558:2754787 3537:Bibcode 3529:Science 3501:2718712 3480:Bibcode 3472:Science 3449:1776168 3405:5171806 3382:Bibcode 3302:7547096 3209:5709737 3160:2924014 3066:5846851 3017:2688932 2963:6715719 2942:Bibcode 2908:3207586 2769:7261191 2685:4914085 2636:7515708 2538:5828394 2489:4963239 2440:6065035 2417:Bibcode 2337:5785279 2288:4445073 2193:7558717 2098:7554316 2047:6205604 1841:2759231 1819:Bibcode 1748:introns 1671:in vivo 1651:T cells 1611:viruses 1571:RNA-Seq 1565:RNA-Seq 1509:KAS-seq 1407:History 1236:mitosis 1150:uracils 1124:known. 990:archaea 590:cleanup 499:thymine 154:History 126:Outline 6604:Portal 6591:Virome 6569:Nanobe 6266:Genome 6244:Linear 6189:Fosmid 6184:Cosmid 5949:Viroid 5940:agents 5380:Operon 4852: 4844: 4776: 4751: 4741: 4702: 4694: 4684: 4615: 4605: 4587: 4556: 4546: 4505: 4495: 4448: 4407: 4397: 4348: 4338: 4277: 4238: 4228: 4179: 4138: 4128: 4087: 4052: 4017: 4007: 3968: 3958: 3932:Nature 3911: 3901: 3862: 3852: 3800: 3790: 3743: 3733: 3708: 3700: 3665: 3658:419647 3655: 3606: 3565: 3555: 3508: 3498: 3447: 3412: 3402: 3353: 3343: 3309: 3299: 3260: 3252: 3216: 3206: 3188:EMBO J 3167: 3157: 3116: 3108: 3073: 3063: 3024: 3014: 2970: 2960: 2906: 2898: 2863: 2817: 2776: 2766: 2727: 2692: 2682: 2643: 2633: 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