Bipolar junction transistor

939:

optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collector–base junction breaks down. The collector–base junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter.

1248: 1236: 351: 132: 1964: 1907: 5435: 3636: 860: 1275: 121: 116: 5471: 845: 1790: 995: 851:

current could be considered a defect and is controlled by the characteristics of the base–emitter junction and recombination in the base). In many designs beta is assumed high enough so that base current has a negligible effect on the circuit. In some circuits (generally switching circuits), sufficient base current is supplied so that even the lowest beta value a particular device may have will still allow the required collector current to flow.

3596: 49: 1972: 1801: 3450: 4019: 4280:, meaning that it conducts more current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of the die conducts the most current, causing its conductivity to increase, which then causes it to become progressively hotter again, until the device fails internally. The thermal runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, once triggered, occurs almost instantly and may catastrophically damage the transistor package. 592:; it is approximately the ratio of the collector's direct current to the base's direct current in forward-active region. (The F subscript is used to indicate the forward-active mode of operation.) It is typically greater than 50 for small-signal transistors, but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Both injection efficiency and recombination in the base reduce the BJT gain. 943: 623: 4525:"If the principle of space charge neutrality is used in the analysis of the transistor, it is evident that the collector current is controlled by means of the positive charge (hole concentration) in the base region. ... When a transistor is used at higher frequencies, the fundamental limitation is the time it takes the carriers to diffuse across the base region..." (same in 4th and 5th editions). 4304: 4190: 2189: 5380: 509:) is required. The voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be modeled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers–Moll model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For 281: 840:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{E}}}},&\beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{B}}}},\\\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\beta _{\text{F}}}{1+\beta _{\text{F}}}}&\iff \beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\alpha _{\text{F}}}{1-\alpha _{\text{F}}}}.\end{aligned}}} 3514:) varies, the collector–base depletion region varies in size. An increase in the collector–base voltage, for example, causes a greater reverse bias across the collector–base junction, increasing the collector–base depletion region width, and decreasing the width of the base. This variation in base width often is called the 3992:(or hFE) refers to the (total; DC) collector current divided by the base current, and is dimensionless. It is a parameter that varies somewhat with collector current, but is often approximated as a constant; it is normally specified at a typical collector current and voltage, or graphed as a function of collector current. 1999: 4049:

The Gummel–Poon SPICE model is often used, but it suffers from several limitations. For instance, reverse breakdown of the base–emitter diode is not captured by the SGP (SPICE Gummel–Poon) model, neither are thermal effects (self-heating) or quasi-saturation. These have been addressed in various more

1870:

are positive, forward biasing the emitter–base junction and reverse-biasing the collector–base junction. In this mode, electrons are injected from the forward biased n-type emitter region into the p-type base where they diffuse as minority carriers to the reverse-biased n-type collector and are swept

1808:

BJTs can be thought of as two diodes (p–n junctions) sharing a common region that minority carriers can move through. A PNP BJT will function like two diodes that share an N-type cathode region, and the NPN like two diodes sharing a P-type anode region. Connecting two diodes with wires will not make

1282:

The diagram shows a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources. (The same description applies to a PNP transistor with reversed directions of current flow and applied voltage.) This applied voltage causes the lower p–n junction to become forward biased, allowing a

934:

and is made from lightly doped, high-resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape without being collected, thus making the resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor

850:

Beta is a convenient figure of merit to describe the performance of a bipolar transistor, but is not a fundamental physical property of the device. Bipolar transistors can be considered voltage-controlled devices (fundamentally the collector current is controlled by the base–emitter voltage; the base

254:

conductors is generally due to the flow of electrons. Because electrons carry a negative charge, they move in the direction opposite to conventional current. On the other hand, inside a bipolar transistor, currents can be composed of both positively charged holes and negatively charged electrons. In

417:

before reaching the collector–base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority-carrier lifetime. Having a lightly doped base ensures recombination rates are low. In particular, the thickness of the

938:

The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually

439:

The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base–emitter current (current control), or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current–voltage relation of the base–emitter junction, which is the usual exponential current–voltage curve

3680:, but using input current and output voltage as independent variables, rather than input and output voltages. This two-port network is particularly suited to BJTs as it lends itself easily to the analysis of circuit behaviour, and may be used to develop further accurate models. As shown, the term 3167: 556:

The proportion of carriers able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region causes many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base

382:

for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is heavily doped compared to the other two layers, and the collector is doped more lightly (typically ten times lighter) than the base. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charge carriers injected from a

330:

BJTs exist as PNP and NPN types, based on the doping types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped region. N-type means doped

1812:

Both types of BJT function by letting a small current input to the base control an amplified output from the collector. The result is that the BJT makes a good switch that is controlled by its base input. The BJT also makes a good amplifier, since it can multiply a weak input signal to about 100

1219:

With both junctions forward biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a

4163:

Transistors may be deliberately made with a lower collector to emitter breakdown voltage than the collector to base breakdown voltage. If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased the collector emitter voltage may be maintained at a voltage just below breakdown. As soon as the base voltage is

1265:

Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never

422:

of the carriers. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so negligible carrier injection occurs from the collector to the base, but carriers that are injected into the base from the emitter, and diffuse to reach the collector–base depletion region, are swept into the collector by the

4168:

occurs and impact ionization in the collector base depletion region rapidly floods the base with carriers and turns the transistor fully on. So long as the pulses are short enough and infrequent enough that the device is not damaged, this effect can be used to create very sharp falling edges.

614:. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.980 and 0.998. It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region. 504:

times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the base–emitter voltage is approximately constant and that collector current is β times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control model (e.g. the

202:

of the semiconductor material as it is grown, by depositing metal pellets to form alloy junctions, or by such methods as diffusion of n-type and p-type doping substances into the crystal. The superior predictability and performance of junction transistors quickly displaced the original

470:, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis. 3921:

parameters are neglected (that is, they are set to infinity and zero, respectively). The h-parameter model as shown is suited to low-frequency, small-signal analysis. For high-frequency analyses the inter-electrode capacitances that are important at high frequencies must be added.

3906:

As shown, the h-parameters have lower-case subscripts and hence signify AC conditions or analyses. For DC conditions they are specified in upper-case. For the CE topology, an approximate h-parameter model is commonly used which further simplifies the circuit analysis. For this the

3546:

When the base–collector voltage reaches a certain (device-specific) value, the base–collector depletion region boundary meets the base–emitter depletion region boundary. When in this state the transistor effectively has no base. The device thus loses all gain when in this state.

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model (see above). As with all h parameters, the choice of lower case or capitals for the letters that follow the "h" is significant; lower-case signifies "small signal" parameters, that is, the slope the particular relationship; upper-case letters imply "large signal" or

3555:

The Gummel–Poon model is a detailed charge-controlled model of BJT dynamics, which has been adopted and elaborated by others to explain transistor dynamics in greater detail than the terminal-based models typically do. This model also includes the dependence of transistor

1203:

By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the

4276:, in which excessive current and normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions of the silicon inside the device to become disproportionately hotter than the others. The electrical resistivity of doped silicon, like other semiconductors, has a negative 1266:

involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region.

2306: 2184:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{ES}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\\I_{\text{C}}&=\alpha _{\text{F}}I_{\text{E}}\\I_{\text{B}}&=\left(1-\alpha _{\text{F}}\right)I_{\text{E}}\end{aligned}}} 4796: 4142:

Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-biased base–emitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a known ratio.

521:

or a comparable analog-circuit simulator, so mathematical model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer, but a simplified view of the characteristics allows designs to be created following a logical process.

2629: 4058:

The BJT remains a device that excels in some applications, such as discrete circuit design, due to the very wide selection of BJT types available, and because of its high transconductance and output resistance compared to

4088:

Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an integrated circuit by using a BiCMOS process of wafer fabrication to create circuits that take advantage of the application strengths of both types of transistor.

4287:

mode and charge flows for a short period of time, the current gain of the BJT may be permanently degraded, as the emitter is smaller than the collector and cannot dissipate significant power. This is a common

2622:

The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to describe the three currents in any operating region are given below. These equations are based on the transport model for a bipolar junction transistor.

1591:. Nowadays, the use of the BJT has declined in favor of CMOS technology in the design of digital integrated circuits. The incidental low performance BJTs inherent in CMOS ICs, however, are often utilized as 1208:

in inverted mode is several times smaller (2–3 times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of

3512: 1335:

In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons carry negative

1563:

by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way.

4258:. Radiation causes a buildup of 'defects' in the base region that act as recombination centers. The resulting reduction in minority carrier lifetime causes gradual loss of gain of the transistor. 2634: 2004: 628: 536:

Bipolar transistors, and particularly power transistors, have long base-storage times when they are driven into saturation; the base storage limits turn-off time in switching applications. A

950:

The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference between forward and backward operation.

1002:

Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of semiconductors may be used for the HBT structure. HBT structures are usually grown by

1181:

The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, β

1226:

In cut-off, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.

2460: 557:

into the emitter. A thin and lightly doped base region means that most of the minority carriers that are injected into the base will diffuse to the collector and not recombine.

3316: 3287: 502: 2204: 1587:. The junction version known as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), invented by Shockley in 1948, was for three decades the device of choice in the design of discrete and 4006:) current gain, i.e. the slope of the Collector current versus Base current graph at a given point, which is often close to the hFE value unless the test frequency is high. 3623:

in 1969. The model can be quite accurate for low-frequency circuits and can easily be adapted for higher-frequency circuits with the addition of appropriate inter-electrode

299: 3432: 3403: 2518: 2489: 1868: 1841: 1561: 1530: 1500: 1473: 1426: 1399: 1372: 255:

this article, current arrows are shown in the conventional direction, but labels for the movement of holes and electrons show their actual direction inside the transistor.

3374: 3345: 3258: 3229: 3200: 2431: 2402: 2339: 3879:), is one of the main parameters in datasheets, and may be given for a typical collector current and voltage or plotted as a function of collector current. See below. 2577: 402:. When forward bias is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium between the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the emitter 5318: 3574: 2617: 2597: 1446: 5562: 5412: 2547: 4714: 2373: 1297:. The remainder of the electrons recombine with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current, 406:

is disturbed. This allows thermally excited carriers (electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) to inject from the emitter into the base region. These carriers create a

4211: 3162:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}i_{\text{C}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left\\i_{\text{B}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left\\i_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left\end{aligned}}} 3684:

in the model represents a different BJT lead depending on the topology used. For common-emitter mode the various symbols take on the specific values as:

226:) integrated circuits relying on the field-effect transistor (FET). Bipolar transistors are still used for amplification of signals, switching, and in 6436: 4111:

of the BJT. It is this gain that allows BJTs to be used as the building blocks of electronic amplifiers. The three main BJT amplifier topologies are:

5272:. Springer Science & Business Media. Part II: Compact Models of Bipolar Junction Transistors, pp. 167–267 cover Mextram and HiCuM in-depth. 3534:

The charge gradient is increased across the base, and consequently, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.

3453:

Top: NPN base width for low collector–base reverse bias; Bottom: narrower NPN base width for large collector–base reverse bias. Hashed regions are

6077: 5157: 5237: 513:, in which the exponential I–V curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modeled as voltage-controlled current sources whose 462:, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behaviour more exactly. The charge-control view easily handles 398:, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base–collector junction is 5384: 5302: 5277: 5200: 5114: 5089: 4754: 4600: 4573: 4546: 4495: 4462: 540:

can prevent the transistor from heavily saturating, which reduces the amount of charge stored in the base and thus improves switching time.

5994: 4151:

Because base–emitter voltage varies as the logarithm of the base–emitter and collector–emitter currents, a BJT can also be used to compute

1804:

Band diagram for NPN transistor in active mode, showing injection of electrons from emitter to base, and their overshoot into the collector

935:

a large β. A cross-section view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction has a much larger area than the emitter–base junction.

414: 35: 4050:

advanced models which either focus on specific cases of application (Mextram, HICUM, Modella) or are designed for universal usage (VBIC).

451:

rates (in which the excess majority and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect determined by the excess minority carriers.

263:

The arrow on the symbol for bipolar transistors indicates the p–n junction between base and emitter and points in the direction in which

5775: 5555: 5405: 965:, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base. 4940:

Bullis, W.M.; Runyan, W.R. (1967). "Influence of mobility and lifetime variations on drift-field effects in silicon-junction devices".

961:

to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled

477:

design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately

366:(electrons and holes) across a junction between two regions of different charge carrier concentration. The regions of a BJT are called 4404: 4137: 1596: 5758: 5654: 4327: 4237: 3538:

Both factors increase the collector or "output" current of the transistor in response to an increase in the collector–base voltage.

1634: – first transistor ever constructed (December 1947), a bipolar transistor, limited commercial use due to high cost and noise. 1401:. That is, when a small change in the currents occurs, and sufficient time has passed for the new condition to reach a steady state 1283:

flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between base and collector (caused by

1007: 984: 363: 317: 1699:(PADT) – high-speed type of alloy junction transistor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-base transistor. Developed at 1247: 410:

through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter toward the region of low concentration near the collector.

4485: 3861:. This parameter, with lower case "fe" to imply small signal (AC) gain, or more often with capital letters for "FE" (specified as 1235: 5898: 5625: 1761: – the bipolar junction transistor that made mass-produced monolithic integrated circuits possible. Developed by 246:

By convention, the direction of current on diagrams is shown as the direction that a positive charge would move. This is called

1210: 5946: 5745: 3464: 1975:

Approximated Ebers–Moll model for an NPN transistor in the forward active mode. The collector diode is reverse-biased so

1686: 227: 4563: 4155:

and anti-logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear functions but the transistor provides more circuit flexibility.

1290:) will cause the majority of these electrons to cross the upper p–n junction into the collector to form the collector current 5548: 5398: 4289: 4215: 1711: – high-speed variant of grown-junction transistor or alloy junction transistor with two connections to base. 1696: 4536: 3902:

usually corresponds to the output admittance of the bipolar transistor and has to be inverted to convert it to an impedance.

5325: 1186: 3576:-values upon the direct current levels in the transistor, which are assumed current-independent in the Ebers–Moll model. 211:

for analog and digital functions. Hundreds of bipolar junction transistors can be made in one circuit at very low cost.

6605: 6600: 5977: 5729: 4711: 5781: 5519: 4975: 4332: 4265:(essentially limited by self-heating), maximum collector and base currents (both continuous/DC ratings and peak), and 1572: 4421: 4200: 1813:

times its original strength. Networks of BJTs are used to make powerful amplifiers with many different applications.

443:

The explanation for collector current is the concentration gradient of minority carriers in the base region. Due to

6441: 5988: 4317: 1993:

The DC emitter and collector currents in active mode are well modeled by an approximation to the Ebers–Moll model:

1714: 4219: 4204: 6610: 6195: 5909: 5752: 5637: 1662: 1648: 1592: 1343:. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see 6062: 6204: 5914: 5770: 4365: 1742: 1690: 1631: 204: 54: 4884: 4690: 517:

is proportional to their collector current. In general, transistor-level circuit analysis is performed using

6215: 5935: 5734: 5479: 5017: 4669: 4665: 4277: 1809:

a BJT, since minority carriers will not be able to get from one p–n junction to the other through the wire.

1774:

Epitaxial transistor – a bipolar junction transistor made using vapor-phase deposition. See

1766: 1600: 164: 6384: 5951: 5816: 5792: 5529: 3620: 1816:

In the discussion below, focus is on the NPN BJT. In what is called active mode, the base–emitter voltage

1720: 1676: 1011: 987:(HBT) is an improvement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high frequencies up to several hundred 199: 172: 459: 6453: 6405: 6226: 6042: 5957: 5888: 5724: 5514: 4082: 3674: 2438: 2301:{\displaystyle J_{n\,({\text{base}})}={\frac {1}{W}}qD_{n}n_{bo}e^{\frac {V_{\text{EB}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}} 907:

type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled:

350: 5161: 4272:

In addition to normal breakdown ratings of the device, power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called

3294: 3265: 1739: – modern type bipolar junction transistor. Prototypes developed at Bell Labs in 1954. 506: 480: 4996: 1611:

The germanium transistor was more common in the 1950s and 1960s but has a greater tendency to exhibit

6527: 6271: 6166: 5940: 5833: 5687: 5648: 5579: 5571: 4949: 4914: 4829: 4770: 4731: 4621: 4516: 4173: 4098: 1736: 953:

Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–emitter terminals cause the current between the

264: 31: 5244: 4807: 1963: 1906: 6247: 6155: 6047: 5883: 5860: 5434: 5192: 4863: 4617: 4273: 4255: 4165: 4067: 4003: 3410: 3381: 2496: 2467: 1846: 1819: 1588: 1539: 1508: 1478: 1451: 1404: 1377: 1350: 1274: 1213:. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region. 510: 448: 444: 427:

base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping are what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two

3635: 3352: 3323: 3236: 3207: 3178: 2409: 2380: 2317: 859: 6552: 6412: 6120: 6087: 5903: 5787: 5765: 5056: 4845: 4309: 4251: 4108: 3604: 2342: 1895: 1887: 1708: 1637: 379: 215: 208: 5081: 5075: 4976:"Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Bell Labs Prototype Diffused Base Germanium Silicon Transistor" 387:(electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) that diffuse toward the collector, so BJTs are classified as 1789: 1185:, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the collector–emitter current is approximately 6547: 6468: 6359: 6311: 6140: 6067: 6029: 5298: 5273: 5196: 5130:

Gummel, H. K.; Poon, H. C. (1970). "An Integral Charge Control Model of Bipolar Transistors".

5110: 5085: 4750: 4596: 4569: 4542: 4491: 4458: 4400: 4396: 4390: 4266: 2491:

is the reverse saturation current of the base–emitter diode (on the order of 10 to 10 amperes)

1758: 1752: 455: 407: 180: 107: 2562: 1727:

at the Central Bureau of Telecommunications Technology of the German Postal Service, in 1953.

1717: – high-speed metal-barrier junction transistor. Developed at Philco in 1953. 1170:

Bipolar transistors have four distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases:

399: 395: 187: 175:

to control a much larger current flowing between the terminals, making the device capable of

6263: 6210: 6072: 6037: 5676: 5470: 5455: 5184: 5139: 5048: 4957: 4922: 4837: 4125: 3677: 3665: 3559: 2602: 2582: 1689:(MADT) – high-speed type of alloy junction transistor, speedier than MAT, a 1666: 1584: 1533: 1431: 994: 977: 580: 514: 403: 384: 168: 120: 115: 2525: 6540: 6473: 6326: 6057: 5967: 5811: 5349: 5216: 4718: 4284: 4071: 3670: 3595: 3590: 3454: 2347: 1989:

is nearly 1) is drawn from the collector, providing the amplification of the base current.

1748: 1724: 1612: 1580: 1428:

is the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current. The symbol

1336: 1311:, is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the other terminal currents, (i.e. 463: 235: 131: 5185: 4953: 4918: 4833: 4520: 1971: 1800: 6515: 6296: 6286: 6052: 5855: 5450: 5143: 4115: 3946: 3817:

everse transfer relationship, it represents the dependence of the transistor's (input)

3521: 1640:– Point-contact transistor having two emitters. It became obsolete in the middle 1950s. 1339:. In active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the 962: 567: 474: 214:

Bipolar transistor integrated circuits were the main active devices of a generation of

198:

of material. The junctions can be made in several different ways, such as changing the

160: 48: 4018: 6594: 6577: 6400: 6316: 6135: 5962: 5930: 5488: 4448: 4444: 3995:

Had capital letters not been used for used in the subscript, i.e. if it were written

2195: 419: 191: 156: 82: 5060: 4849: 3937:

refers to its being an h-parameter, a set of parameters named for their origin in a

6458: 6446: 6334: 6301: 6130: 6115: 5698: 5682: 5493: 4262: 3608: 3516: 3444: 1891: 1793: 1679:(MAT) – high-speed type of alloy junction transistor. Developed at 1576: 942: 343:) that provide mobile electrons, while p-type means doped with impurities (such as 219: 4997:"Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Fairchild 2N1613 Early Silicon Planar Transistor" 3949:

values, the ratio of the voltages or currents. In the case of the very often used

3449: 447:(in which there are much fewer excess carriers than normal majority carriers) the 4864:"Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Philco A01 Germanium Surface Barrier Transistor" 4749:. IEE History of Technology Series 12. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. p. 29. 4642:"Lecture 18 Outline: The Bipolar Junction Transistor (II) – Regimes of Operation" 4452: 1665: – emitter and collector alloy beads fused to base. Developed at 167:(FET), uses only one kind of charge carrier. A bipolar transistor allows a small 6500: 6242: 6191: 6097: 6082: 5865: 5827: 5498: 5460: 4322: 4189: 4120: 3624: 3612: 1762: 1259:

Input and output characteristics for a common-base silicon transistor amplifier.

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is the thermal voltage (approximately 26 mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature).

1189:

to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current variations.

466:, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of 336: 148: 5039:

Ebers, J.; Moll, J. (1954). "Large-Signal Behavior of Junction Transistors".

4905:

Brar, B.; Sullivan, G.J.; Asbeck, P.M. (2001). "Herb's bipolar transistors".

3838:. It is usually very small and is often neglected (assumed to be zero) at DC. 222:, but most computer systems now use Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor ( 6535: 6379: 6374: 6364: 6291: 6171: 6005: 6000: 5925: 5850: 5424: 4961: 4841: 4732:"Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery, Bell Labs Type M1752" 4641: 4352: 4152: 3531:

There is a lesser chance for recombination within the "smaller" base region.

1730: 1656: 969: 359: 176: 4808:

Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery, Western Electric 3N22

5379: 1871:

away by the electric field in the reverse-biased collector–base junction.

1571:

The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in December 1947 at the

946:

Die of a 2N2222 NPN transistor—bond wires connect to the base and emitter.

6557: 6505: 6485: 6463: 6349: 6344: 6232: 6221: 6150: 5920: 4066:

The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits, especially for

3669:

model, also known as the hybrid equivalent model, closely related to the

332: 152: 5540: 5390: 354:

NPN BJT with forward-biased B–E junction and reverse-biased B–C junction

135:

3D model of a TO-92 package, commonly used for small bipolar transistors

6417: 6354: 6176: 6161: 6015: 5972: 5620: 5524: 4568:. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers (Peter Peregrinus Ltd.). 3790:

nput impedance of the transistor (corresponding to the base resistance

1775: 1723: – high-speed bipolar junction transistor. Invented by 1700: 1003: 973: 340: 195: 4926: 4885:"Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Germanium Surface Barrier Transistor" 4590: 6490: 6181: 6145: 6110: 5670: 5642: 5615: 5590: 4269:

ratings, beyond which the device may fail or at least perform badly.

4060: 2462:

is the common base forward short-circuit current gain (0.98 to 0.998)

1680: 1627:

Various methods of manufacturing bipolar transistors were developed.

1344: 467: 231: 207:. Diffused transistors, along with other components, are elements of 62: 5018:"1960: Epitaxial Deposition Process Enhances Transistor Performance" 3347:

is the reverse saturation current (on the order of 10 to 10 amperes)

871:

BJTs consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions: the

30:"BJT" and "Junction transistor" redirect here. For other uses, see 6567: 6478: 6237: 6010: 5803: 5665: 5660: 4104: 3854:, the "forward" current-gain of the transistor, sometimes written 3594: 1875: 1799: 1788: 1616: 1273: 993: 988: 941: 858: 518: 349: 344: 251: 130: 58: 4283:

If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased into avalanche or

1374:, and the value of this gain for small signals is referred to as 1278:

Structure and use of NPN transistor; arrow according to schematic

6510: 5893: 5839: 5740: 5693: 5631: 1745: – first implementation of diffusion transistor. 991:. It is common in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems. 980:, especially for very high speed applications (see HBT, below). 223: 66: 27:

Transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers

5544: 5394: 5350:"IC Temperature Sensors Find the Hot Spots - Application Note" 4183: 4013: 1670: 1619:

than silicon, germanium transistors turn on at lower voltage.

274: 1778:. Allows very precise control of doping levels and gradients. 998:

Symbol for NPN bipolar transistor with current flow direction

5109:(5th ed.). New York: Oxford. Eqs. 4.103–4.110, p. 305. 234:. Specialized types are used for high voltage switches, for 5295:

Compact Hierarchical Bipolar Transistor Modeling with Hicum

3663:

Another model commonly used to analyze BJT circuits is the

1347:). The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as 2549:

is the diffusion constant for electrons in the p-type base

5270:

Compact Modeling: Principles, Techniques and Applications

3507:{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}=V_{\text{CE}}-V_{\text{BE}}} 617:

Alpha and beta are related by the following identities:

194:

types, n-type and p-type, which are regions in a single

4030: 295: 4395:(1st ed.). Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. pp. 3289:

is the forward common emitter current gain (20 to 500)

2194:

The base internal current is mainly by diffusion (see

1982:

is virtually zero. Most of the emitter diode current (

1959:

are the forward and reverse common-base current gains.

5080:(2nd ed.). Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. p. 4820:

Maupin, J.T. (1957). "The tetrode power transistor".

3611:

and AC behavior of bipolar junction and field effect

3562: 3467: 3413: 3384: 3355: 3326: 3297: 3268: 3239: 3210: 3181: 2632: 2605: 2585: 2565: 2528: 2499: 2470: 2441: 2412: 2383: 2350: 2320: 2207: 2002: 1874:

For an illustration of forward and reverse bias, see

1849: 1822: 1542: 1511: 1481: 1454: 1434: 1407: 1380: 1353: 626: 483: 53:

Typical individual BJT packages. From left to right:

4423:

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits

3895:, the output impedance of transistor. The parameter 3318:

is the reverse common emitter current gain (0 to 20)

347:) that provide holes that readily accept electrons. 6526: 6426: 6393: 6325: 6262: 6190: 6096: 6028: 5874: 5802: 5707: 5589: 5578: 5507: 5478: 5440: 2375:(approximately 26 mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature). 394:In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is 383:heavily doped emitter into the base where they are 290:

may be too technical for most readers to understand

106: 96: 88: 73: 3568: 3527:Narrowing of the base width has two consequences: 3506: 3426: 3397: 3368: 3339: 3310: 3281: 3252: 3223: 3194: 3161: 2611: 2599:parameters are as described previously. A reverse 2591: 2571: 2541: 2512: 2483: 2454: 2425: 2396: 2367: 2333: 2300: 2183: 1862: 1835: 1555: 1524: 1494: 1467: 1440: 1420: 1393: 1366: 839: 496: 5319:"Compact Models for Bipolar Transistors, Berkner" 4666:"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor" 3868:) to mean the "large signal" or DC current-gain ( 1655:transistor made. Invented by William Shockley at 1617:germanium p-n junctions have a lower forward bias 423:electric field in the depletion region. The thin 238:(RF) amplifiers, or for switching high currents. 4565:Physics and Technology of Heterojunction Devices 1659:on June 23, 1948. Patent filed on June 26, 1948. 1304:. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, 976:. A significant minority are also now made from 163:. In contrast, a unipolar transistor, such as a 4562:Morgan, D.V.; Williams, Robin H., eds. (1991). 4535:Antognetti, Paolo; Massobrio, Giuseppe (1993). 4439: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4261:Transistors have "maximum ratings", including 1945:are the collector and emitter diode currents; 1931:are the base, collector and emitter currents; 1910:Ebers–Moll model for an NPN transistor. 5556: 5406: 4747:A History of the World Semiconductor Industry 4691:"1948: Conception of the Junction Transistor" 8: 4457:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3639:Generalized h-parameter model of an NPN BJT. 41: 4794:(2nd ed.). Motorola. 1963. p. 17. 4771:"Transistor Museum Photo Gallery RCA TA153" 4487:Semiconductor Device Physics and Simulation 4218:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1967:Ebers–Moll model for a PNP transistor 5586: 5563: 5549: 5541: 5413: 5399: 5391: 5191:(5th ed.). New York: Oxford. p. 5074:Sedra, Adel S.; Smith, Kenneth C. (1987). 4292:failure mechanism in low-voltage devices. 3786:for the common-emitter configuration, the 3658:for CE, CB and CC topologies respectively. 1021: 780: 776: 413:To minimize the fraction of carriers that 47: 5217:"VBIC Description and Derivation Details" 4712:Third case study – the solid state advent 4368:for the historical origin of these names. 4238:Learn how and when to remove this message 3561: 3498: 3485: 3472: 3466: 3418: 3412: 3389: 3383: 3360: 3354: 3331: 3325: 3302: 3296: 3273: 3267: 3244: 3238: 3215: 3209: 3186: 3180: 3130: 3120: 3114: 3097: 3088: 3071: 3061: 3055: 3039: 3029: 3023: 3003: 2986: 2953: 2943: 2937: 2920: 2911: 2888: 2878: 2872: 2855: 2846: 2835: 2818: 2785: 2775: 2769: 2752: 2743: 2726: 2716: 2710: 2694: 2684: 2678: 2658: 2641: 2633: 2631: 2604: 2584: 2564: 2533: 2527: 2504: 2498: 2475: 2469: 2446: 2440: 2417: 2411: 2388: 2382: 2357: 2349: 2325: 2319: 2289: 2279: 2273: 2260: 2250: 2233: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2206: 2171: 2156: 2128: 2114: 2104: 2087: 2059: 2049: 2043: 2028: 2011: 2003: 2001: 1854: 1848: 1827: 1821: 1547: 1541: 1516: 1510: 1486: 1480: 1459: 1453: 1433: 1412: 1406: 1385: 1379: 1358: 1352: 883:region. These regions are, respectively, 821: 804: 798: 785: 765: 748: 742: 729: 710: 700: 694: 681: 664: 654: 648: 635: 627: 625: 488: 482: 318:Learn how and when to remove this message 302:, without removing the technical details. 4792:High Speed Switching Transistor Handbook 4538:Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice 3976:refers to the transistor operating in a 3634: 3448: 1970: 1962: 1905: 4592:SiGe Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 4484:Liou, Juin Jei; Yuan, Jiann S. (1998). 4381: 4344: 4176:devices are made for this application. 40: 5238:"SmartSpice Analog Circuit Simulator" 4942:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 4907:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 4002:the parameter indicate small signal ( 3694:Terminal 3 (common), emitter; giving 863:Simplified cross section of a planar 600:Another useful characteristic is the 300:make it understandable to non-experts 7: 5995:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 4822:IRE Transactions on Electron Devices 4216:adding citations to reliable sources 2619:is sometimes included in the model. 526:Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay 435:Voltage, current, and charge control 36:Junction transistor (disambiguation) 5776:Programmable unijunction transistor 4745:Morris, Peter Robin (1990). "4.2". 4164:allowed to rise, and current flows 3769:and the h-parameters are given by: 1270:Active-mode transistors in circuits 972:but most modern BJTs are made from 544:Transistor characteristics: alpha ( 5677:Multi-gate field-effect transistor 5144:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01803.x 4138:Silicon bandgap temperature sensor 2455:{\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{F}}} 1597:silicon bandgap temperature sensor 1505:The emitter current is related to 926:is physically located between the 458:of transistor action, such as the 378:. A discrete transistor has three 125:BJTs PNP and NPN schematic symbols 25: 5655:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor 5105:Sedra, A.S.; Smith, K.C. (2004). 4328:Insulated gate bipolar transistor 3603:The hybrid-pi model is a popular 3311:{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{R}}} 3282:{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}} 1796:for NPN transistor at equilibrium 1651: – first bipolar 985:heterojunction bipolar transistor 968:Early transistors were made from 497:{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}} 42:Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) 5899:Heterostructure barrier varactor 5626:Chemical field-effect transistor 5469: 5433: 5378: 5268:Gennady Gildenblat, ed. (2010). 4302: 4188: 4017: 3758:, collector-to-emitter voltage ( 3551:Gummel–Poon charge-control model 1751: – developed at 1638:Tetrode point-contact transistor 1246: 1234: 418:base must be much less than the 279: 228:mixed-signal integrated circuits 119: 114: 5947:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 5183:A.S. Sedra; K.C. Smith (2004). 4595:. New York: Wiley. Chapter 10. 4074:circuits for wireless systems. 3831:curve on the value of (output) 3461:As the collector–base voltage ( 1733: – around 1957. 1687:Micro-alloy diffused transistor 358:Charge flow in a BJT is due to 5158:"Bipolar Junction Transistors" 4618:"Transistors: Operation Modes" 4250:Exposure of the transistor to 3627:and other parasitic elements. 3615:. Sometimes it is also called 2225: 2217: 1697:Post-alloy diffused transistor 1623:Early manufacturing techniques 895:type in a PNP transistor, and 777: 1: 5132:Bell System Technical Journal 3970:also called the current gain. 3619:because it was introduced by 3607:model used for analyzing the 3434:is the base–collector voltage 3427:{\displaystyle V_{\text{BC}}} 3398:{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}} 2513:{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}} 2484:{\displaystyle I_{\text{ES}}} 1863:{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}} 1836:{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}} 1556:{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}} 1525:{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}} 1495:{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}} 1468:{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}} 1421:{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}} 1394:{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}} 1367:{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}} 242:Current direction conventions 5978:Silicon controlled rectifier 5840:Organic light-emitting diode 5730:Diffused junction transistor 5385:Bipolar junction transistors 4541:. McGraw–Hill Professional. 4515:(6th ed.). p. 12. 4355:have significant hole bands. 3968:orward current amplification 3369:{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}} 3340:{\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}} 3253:{\displaystyle i_{\text{E}}} 3224:{\displaystyle i_{\text{B}}} 3195:{\displaystyle i_{\text{C}}} 2426:{\displaystyle I_{\text{C}}} 2397:{\displaystyle I_{\text{E}}} 2334:{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}} 431:diodes connected in series. 5782:Static induction transistor 5719:Bipolar junction transistor 5671:MOS field-effect transistor 5643:Fin field-effect transistor 5520:Complementary feedback pair 5442:Bipolar junction transistor 4717:September 27, 2007, at the 4420:Chenming Calvin Hu (2010). 4333:Multiple-emitter transistor 3742:, base-to-emitter voltage ( 3405:is the base–emitter voltage 2520:is the base–emitter voltage 1843:and collector–base voltage 1573:Bell Telephone Laboratories 867:bipolar junction transistor 561:Common-emitter current gain 440:of a p–n junction (diode). 141:bipolar junction transistor 6627: 5989:Static induction thyristor 5293:Schröter, Michael (2010). 5053:10.1109/jrproc.1954.274797 4318:Bipolar transistor biasing 4159:Avalanche pulse generators 4135: 4096: 3588: 3442: 1715:Surface-barrier transistor 1174:Forward-active (or simply 529: 29: 6158:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode) 5910:Hybrid integrated circuit 5753:Light-emitting transistor 5467: 5431: 5243:. Silvaco. Archived from 5020:. Computer History Museum 4693:. Computer History Museum 4511:General Electric (1962). 4389:Ashcroft; Mermin (1976). 4107:α and β characterize the 1663:Alloy-junction transistor 1649:Grown-junction transistor 1593:bandgap voltage reference 1109: 1050: 1037: 1034: 1029: 1024: 113: 46: 6205:Backward-wave oscillator 5915:Light emitting capacitor 5771:Point-contact transistor 5741:Junction Gate FET (JFET) 5187:Microelectronic Circuits 5107:Microelectronic Circuits 5077:Microelectronic Circuits 4366:Point-contact transistor 4078:High-speed digital logic 3942:ybrid equivalent circuit 3202:is the collector current 2433:is the collector current 1898:of transistor currents: 1743:Diffused-base transistor 1691:diffused-base transistor 1632:Point-contact transistor 596:Common-base current gain 389:minority-carrier devices 205:point-contact transistor 102:Collector, base, emitter 6216:Crossed-field amplifier 5735:Field-effect transistor 5480:Field-effect transistor 4962:10.1109/T-ED.1967.15902 4842:10.1109/T-ED.1957.14192 4670:Computer History Museum 4589:Ashburn, Peter (2003). 4278:temperature coefficient 2572:{\displaystyle \alpha } 1601:electrostatic discharge 1583:under the direction of 250:. However, current in 171:injected at one of its 165:field-effect transistor 98:Pin configuration 6385:Voltage-regulator tube 5952:MOS integrated circuit 5817:Constant-current diode 5793:Unijunction transistor 5041:Proceedings of the IRE 4454:The Art of Electronics 4147:Logarithmic converters 4070:applications, such as 3660: 3600: 3570: 3569:{\displaystyle \beta } 3508: 3458: 3428: 3399: 3370: 3341: 3312: 3283: 3260:is the emitter current 3254: 3225: 3196: 3163: 2613: 2612:{\displaystyle \beta } 2593: 2592:{\displaystyle \beta } 2573: 2543: 2514: 2485: 2456: 2427: 2404:is the emitter current 2398: 2369: 2335: 2302: 2185: 1990: 1968: 1960: 1864: 1837: 1805: 1797: 1721:Drift-field transistor 1693:. Developed at Philco. 1677:Micro-alloy transistor 1557: 1526: 1496: 1469: 1442: 1441:{\displaystyle \beta } 1422: 1395: 1368: 1279: 1253:Output characteristics 999: 947: 868: 841: 498: 355: 136: 6454:Electrolytic detector 6227:Inductive output tube 6043:Low-dropout regulator 5958:Organic semiconductor 5889:Printed circuit board 5725:Darlington transistor 5572:Electronic components 5515:Darlington transistor 5508:Multiple transistors: 4351:Some metals, such as 4105:transistor parameters 4083:Emitter-coupled logic 3726:, collector current ( 3691:Terminal 2, collector 3638: 3598: 3571: 3520:after its discoverer 3509: 3452: 3439:Base-width modulation 3429: 3400: 3371: 3342: 3313: 3284: 3255: 3226: 3197: 3164: 2614: 2594: 2574: 2544: 2542:{\displaystyle D_{n}} 2515: 2486: 2457: 2428: 2399: 2370: 2336: 2303: 2186: 1974: 1966: 1909: 1865: 1838: 1803: 1792: 1645:Junction transistors 1607:Germanium transistors 1558: 1527: 1497: 1470: 1443: 1423: 1396: 1369: 1277: 1241:Input characteristics 997: 945: 862: 842: 499: 353: 134: 6272:Beam deflection tube 5941:Metal oxide varistor 5834:Light-emitting diode 5688:Thin-film transistor 5649:Floating-gate MOSFET 5387:at Wikimedia Commons 5297:. World Scientific. 4622:SparkFun Electronics 4212:improve this section 4174:avalanche transistor 4099:Electronic amplifier 3560: 3465: 3411: 3382: 3353: 3324: 3295: 3266: 3237: 3208: 3179: 2630: 2603: 2583: 2563: 2526: 2497: 2468: 2439: 2410: 2381: 2368:{\displaystyle kT/q} 2348: 2318: 2205: 2000: 1876:semiconductor diodes 1847: 1820: 1737:Diffusion transistor 1540: 1509: 1479: 1452: 1432: 1405: 1378: 1351: 1018:Regions of operation 624: 511:translinear circuits 481: 265:conventional current 248:conventional current 32:BJT (disambiguation) 6606:Transistor modeling 6601:Bipolar transistors 6248:Traveling-wave tube 6048:Switching regulator 5884:Printed electronics 5861:Step recovery diode 5638:Depletion-load NMOS 5356:. February 21, 2002 5164:on February 7, 2009 4954:1967ITED...14...75B 4919:2001ITED...48.2473B 4834:1957ITED....4....1M 4521:1964trma.book.....C 4392:Solid State Physics 4274:secondary breakdown 4132:Temperature sensors 4068:very-high-frequency 3984:(CE) configuration. 3580:Small-signal models 3231:is the base current 1882:Large-signal models 1785:Theory and modeling 1589:integrated circuits 1192:Reverse-active (or 449:ambipolar transport 445:low-level injection 209:integrated circuits 43: 6553:Crystal oscillator 6413:Variable capacitor 6088:Switched capacitor 6030:Voltage regulators 5904:Integrated circuit 5788:Tetrode transistor 5766:Pentode transistor 5759:Organic LET (OLET) 5746:Organic FET (OFET) 4310:Electronics portal 4252:ionizing radiation 4029:. You can help by 3661: 3601: 3566: 3504: 3459: 3424: 3395: 3366: 3337: 3308: 3279: 3250: 3221: 3192: 3159: 3157: 2609: 2589: 2569: 2539: 2510: 2481: 2452: 2423: 2394: 2365: 2331: 2298: 2181: 2179: 1991: 1969: 1961: 1896:mathematical model 1888:Jewell James Ebers 1860: 1833: 1806: 1798: 1709:Tetrode transistor 1553: 1532:exponentially. At 1522: 1492: 1465: 1438: 1418: 1391: 1364: 1280: 1000: 948: 869: 837: 835: 572:is represented by 494: 356: 137: 6588: 6587: 6548:Ceramic resonator 6360:Mercury-arc valve 6312:Video camera tube 6264:Cathode-ray tubes 6024: 6023: 5632:Complementary MOS 5538: 5537: 5383:Media related to 5304:978-981-4273-21-3 5279:978-90-481-8614-3 5202:978-0-19-514251-8 5116:978-0-19-514251-8 5091:978-0-03-007328-1 5047:(12): 1761–1772. 4927:10.1109/16.960370 4913:(11): 2473–2476. 4756:978-0-86341-227-1 4602:978-0-470-84838-8 4575:978-0-86341-204-2 4548:978-0-07-134955-0 4513:Transistor Manual 4497:978-0-306-45724-1 4464:978-0-521-37095-0 4267:breakdown voltage 4248: 4247: 4240: 4047: 4046: 3631:h-parameter model 3501: 3488: 3475: 3421: 3392: 3363: 3334: 3305: 3276: 3247: 3218: 3189: 3136: 3133: 3123: 3103: 3100: 3077: 3074: 3064: 3045: 3042: 3032: 3006: 2989: 2959: 2956: 2946: 2926: 2923: 2894: 2891: 2881: 2861: 2858: 2838: 2821: 2791: 2788: 2778: 2758: 2755: 2732: 2729: 2719: 2700: 2697: 2687: 2661: 2644: 2555:is the base width 2507: 2478: 2449: 2420: 2391: 2328: 2295: 2292: 2282: 2241: 2223: 2174: 2159: 2131: 2117: 2107: 2090: 2065: 2062: 2052: 2031: 2014: 1894:introduced their 1857: 1830: 1759:Planar transistor 1753:Texas Instruments 1550: 1536:, an increase in 1519: 1489: 1462: 1448:is used for both 1415: 1388: 1361: 1168: 1167: 828: 824: 807: 788: 772: 768: 751: 732: 716: 713: 703: 684: 670: 667: 657: 638: 491: 460:Gummel–Poon model 456:transistor models 408:diffusion current 385:minority carriers 328: 327: 320: 129: 128: 108:Electronic symbol 75:Working principle 16:(Redirected from 6618: 6611:Transistor types 6442:electrical power 6327:Gas-filled tubes 6211:Cavity magnetron 6038:Linear regulator 5587: 5565: 5558: 5551: 5542: 5530:Long-tailed pair 5473: 5456:Common collector 5437: 5415: 5408: 5401: 5392: 5382: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5361: 5346: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5336: 5330: 5324:. Archived from 5323: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5290: 5284: 5283: 5265: 5259: 5258: 5256: 5255: 5249: 5242: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5224:Designer's Guide 5221: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5190: 5180: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5169: 5160:. Archived from 5154: 5148: 5147: 5127: 5121: 5120: 5102: 5096: 5095: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5036: 5030: 5029: 5027: 5025: 5014: 5008: 5007: 5005: 5003: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4817: 4811: 4805: 4799: 4795: 4788: 4782: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4767: 4761: 4760: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4728: 4722: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4698: 4687: 4681: 4680: 4678: 4676: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4652: 4646: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4628: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4586: 4580: 4579: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4532: 4526: 4524: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4471: 4441: 4428: 4427: 4417: 4411: 4410: 4386: 4369: 4362: 4356: 4349: 4312: 4307: 4306: 4256:radiation damage 4243: 4236: 4232: 4229: 4223: 4192: 4184: 4126:Common collector 4085:(ECL) use BJTs. 4042: 4039: 4021: 4014: 3875:or often simply 3710:, base current ( 3688:Terminal 1, base 3617:Giacoletto model 3575: 3573: 3572: 3567: 3513: 3511: 3510: 3505: 3503: 3502: 3499: 3490: 3489: 3486: 3477: 3476: 3473: 3455:depleted regions 3433: 3431: 3430: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3419: 3404: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3394: 3393: 3390: 3375: 3373: 3372: 3367: 3365: 3364: 3361: 3346: 3344: 3343: 3338: 3336: 3335: 3332: 3317: 3315: 3314: 3309: 3307: 3306: 3303: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3280: 3278: 3277: 3274: 3259: 3257: 3256: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3245: 3230: 3228: 3227: 3222: 3220: 3219: 3216: 3201: 3199: 3198: 3193: 3191: 3190: 3187: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3137: 3135: 3134: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3121: 3115: 3104: 3102: 3101: 3098: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3075: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3062: 3056: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3043: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3030: 3024: 3008: 3007: 3004: 2991: 2990: 2987: 2977: 2973: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2944: 2938: 2927: 2925: 2924: 2921: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2896: 2895: 2893: 2892: 2889: 2883: 2882: 2879: 2873: 2862: 2860: 2859: 2856: 2847: 2840: 2839: 2836: 2823: 2822: 2819: 2809: 2805: 2804: 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2032: 2029: 2016: 2015: 2012: 1902:Ebers–Moll model 1869: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1859: 1858: 1855: 1842: 1840: 1839: 1834: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1667:General Electric 1585:William Shockley 1562: 1560: 1559: 1554: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1534:room temperature 1531: 1529: 1528: 1523: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1501: 1499: 1498: 1493: 1491: 1490: 1487: 1474: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1464: 1463: 1460: 1447: 1445: 1444: 1439: 1427: 1425: 1424: 1419: 1417: 1416: 1413: 1400: 1398: 1397: 1392: 1390: 1389: 1386: 1373: 1371: 1370: 1365: 1363: 1362: 1359: 1250: 1238: 1022: 1006:techniques like 978:gallium arsenide 846: 844: 843: 838: 836: 829: 827: 826: 825: 822: 809: 808: 805: 799: 790: 789: 786: 773: 771: 770: 769: 766: 753: 752: 749: 743: 734: 733: 730: 717: 715: 714: 711: 705: 704: 701: 695: 686: 685: 682: 671: 669: 668: 665: 659: 658: 655: 649: 640: 639: 636: 610: 588: 583: 575: 551: 547: 515:transconductance 507:Ebers–Moll model 503: 501: 500: 495: 493: 492: 489: 464:phototransistors 420:diffusion length 404:depletion region 323: 316: 312: 309: 303: 283: 282: 275: 123: 118: 99: 79: 78: 51: 44: 21: 6626: 6625: 6621: 6620: 6619: 6617: 6616: 6615: 6591: 6590: 6589: 6584: 6522: 6437:audio and video 6422: 6389: 6321: 6258: 6186: 6167:Photomultiplier 6092: 6020: 5968:Quantum circuit 5876: 5870: 5812:Avalanche diode 5798: 5710: 5703: 5592: 5581: 5574: 5569: 5539: 5534: 5503: 5474: 5465: 5438: 5427: 5419: 5375: 5370: 5369: 5359: 5357: 5348: 5347: 5343: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5305: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5280: 5267: 5266: 5262: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5219: 5215: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5167: 5165: 5156: 5155: 5151: 5129: 5128: 5124: 5117: 5104: 5103: 5099: 5092: 5073: 5072: 5068: 5038: 5037: 5033: 5023: 5021: 5016: 5015: 5011: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4990: 4980: 4978: 4974: 4973: 4969: 4939: 4938: 4934: 4904: 4903: 4899: 4889: 4887: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4868: 4866: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4819: 4818: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4790: 4789: 4785: 4775: 4773: 4769: 4768: 4764: 4757: 4744: 4743: 4739: 4730: 4729: 4725: 4719:Wayback Machine 4710: 4706: 4696: 4694: 4689: 4688: 4684: 4674: 4672: 4664: 4663: 4659: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4639: 4635: 4626: 4624: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4603: 4588: 4587: 4583: 4576: 4561: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4534: 4533: 4529: 4510: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4483: 4482: 4478: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4443: 4442: 4431: 4419: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4388: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4372: 4363: 4359: 4350: 4346: 4341: 4308: 4301: 4298: 4244: 4233: 4227: 4224: 4209: 4193: 4182: 4180:Vulnerabilities 4161: 4149: 4140: 4134: 4101: 4095: 4080: 4072:radio-frequency 4056: 4043: 4037: 4034: 4027:needs expansion 4012: 4010:Industry models 4000: 3991: 3954: 3931: 3929: 3920: 3913: 3901: 3894: 3887: 3874: 3867: 3859: 3853: 3846: 3837: 3830: 3823: 3812: 3805: 3796: 3785: 3778: 3764: 3757: 3748: 3741: 3732: 3725: 3716: 3709: 3671:hybrid-pi model 3640: 3633: 3621:L.J. Giacoletto 3599:Hybrid-pi model 3593: 3591:hybrid-pi model 3587: 3585:Hybrid-pi model 3582: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3544: 3494: 3481: 3468: 3463: 3462: 3447: 3441: 3414: 3409: 3408: 3385: 3380: 3379: 3356: 3351: 3350: 3327: 3322: 3321: 3298: 3293: 3292: 3269: 3264: 3263: 3240: 3235: 3234: 3211: 3206: 3205: 3182: 3177: 3176: 3156: 3155: 3126: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3093: 3067: 3057: 3051: 3035: 3025: 3019: 3018: 3014: 3013: 3009: 2999: 2992: 2982: 2979: 2978: 2949: 2939: 2933: 2932: 2928: 2916: 2884: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2863: 2851: 2845: 2841: 2831: 2824: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2781: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2748: 2722: 2712: 2706: 2690: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2654: 2647: 2637: 2628: 2627: 2601: 2600: 2581: 2580: 2561: 2560: 2529: 2524: 2523: 2500: 2495: 2494: 2471: 2466: 2465: 2442: 2437: 2436: 2413: 2408: 2407: 2384: 2379: 2378: 2346: 2345: 2343:thermal voltage 2321: 2316: 2315: 2285: 2275: 2269: 2256: 2246: 2208: 2203: 2202: 2178: 2177: 2167: 2152: 2145: 2141: 2134: 2124: 2121: 2120: 2110: 2100: 2093: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2055: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2034: 2024: 2017: 2007: 1998: 1997: 1988: 1981: 1958: 1951: 1944: 1937: 1930: 1923: 1916: 1904: 1884: 1850: 1845: 1844: 1823: 1818: 1817: 1787: 1749:Mesa transistor 1725:Herbert Kroemer 1625: 1613:thermal runaway 1609: 1581:Walter Brattain 1569: 1543: 1538: 1537: 1512: 1507: 1506: 1482: 1477: 1476: 1455: 1450: 1449: 1430: 1429: 1408: 1403: 1402: 1381: 1376: 1375: 1354: 1349: 1348: 1341:DC current gain 1337:electric charge 1331: 1324: 1317: 1310: 1303: 1296: 1289: 1272: 1263: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1255: 1254: 1251: 1243: 1242: 1239: 1207: 1184: 1164:Forward-active 1155:E > B > C 1141:E > B < C 1127:E < B > C 1122:Reverse-active 1113:E < B < C 1105:Reverse-active 1096:E > B > C 1082:E > B < C 1068:E < B > C 1063:Forward-active 1054:E < B < C 1031: 1026: 1020: 963:current sources 879:region and the 857: 834: 833: 817: 810: 800: 791: 781: 774: 761: 754: 744: 735: 725: 722: 721: 706: 696: 687: 677: 675: 660: 650: 641: 631: 622: 621: 613: 608: 598: 591: 586: 581: 578: 573: 563: 554: 549: 545: 534: 528: 484: 479: 478: 437: 364:charge carriers 324: 313: 307: 304: 296:help improve it 293: 284: 280: 273: 261: 259:Arrow direction 244: 236:radio-frequency 161:charge carriers 151:that uses both 147:) is a type of 124: 97: 76: 74: 69: 39: 28: 23: 22: 18:Transistor beta 15: 12: 11: 5: 6624: 6622: 6614: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6593: 6592: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6580: 6575: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6544: 6543: 6532: 6530: 6524: 6523: 6521: 6520: 6519: 6518: 6516:Wollaston wire 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6482: 6481: 6476: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6430: 6428: 6424: 6423: 6421: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6409: 6408: 6397: 6395: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6331: 6329: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6297:Selectron tube 6294: 6289: 6287:Magic eye tube 6284: 6279: 6274: 6268: 6266: 6260: 6259: 6257: 6256: 6251: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6224: 6219: 6213: 6208: 6201: 6199: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6102: 6100: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6034: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5992: 5986: 5981: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5949: 5944: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5912: 5907: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5880: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5869: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5856:Schottky diode 5853: 5848: 5843: 5837: 5831: 5825: 5820: 5814: 5808: 5806: 5800: 5799: 5797: 5796: 5790: 5785: 5779: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5762: 5761: 5750: 5749: 5748: 5743: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5715: 5713: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5685: 5680: 5674: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5635: 5629: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5597: 5595: 5584: 5576: 5575: 5570: 5568: 5567: 5560: 5553: 5545: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5485: 5483: 5476: 5475: 5468: 5466: 5464: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5451:Common emitter 5447: 5445: 5439: 5432: 5429: 5428: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5410: 5403: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5374: 5373:External links 5371: 5368: 5367: 5341: 5310: 5303: 5285: 5278: 5260: 5229: 5208: 5201: 5175: 5149: 5138:(5): 827–852. 5122: 5115: 5097: 5090: 5066: 5031: 5009: 4988: 4967: 4932: 4897: 4876: 4855: 4812: 4800: 4783: 4762: 4755: 4737: 4723: 4704: 4682: 4657: 4633: 4608: 4601: 4581: 4574: 4554: 4547: 4527: 4503: 4496: 4476: 4463: 4449:Hill, Winfield 4445:Horowitz, Paul 4429: 4412: 4406:978-0030839931 4405: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4357: 4343: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4297: 4294: 4246: 4245: 4196: 4194: 4187: 4181: 4178: 4160: 4157: 4148: 4145: 4136:Main article: 4133: 4130: 4129: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4116:Common emitter 4097:Main article: 4094: 4091: 4079: 4076: 4055: 4052: 4045: 4044: 4024: 4022: 4011: 4008: 3998: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3971: 3952: 3930: 3927: 3926:Etymology of h 3924: 3918: 3911: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3892: 3885: 3880: 3872: 3865: 3857: 3851: 3844: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3821: 3810: 3803: 3798: 3794: 3783: 3776: 3767: 3766: 3762: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3707: 3702: 3692: 3689: 3632: 3629: 3589:Main article: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3565: 3552: 3549: 3543: 3540: 3536: 3535: 3532: 3522:James M. Early 3497: 3493: 3484: 3480: 3471: 3443:Main article: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3435: 3417: 3406: 3388: 3377: 3359: 3348: 3330: 3319: 3301: 3290: 3272: 3261: 3243: 3232: 3214: 3203: 3185: 3170: 3169: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3141: 3129: 3119: 3113: 3108: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3083: 3070: 3060: 3054: 3050: 3038: 3028: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3002: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2985: 2981: 2980: 2976: 2971: 2967: 2964: 2952: 2942: 2936: 2931: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2887: 2877: 2871: 2866: 2854: 2850: 2844: 2834: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2817: 2813: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2796: 2784: 2774: 2768: 2763: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2738: 2725: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2693: 2683: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2640: 2636: 2635: 2608: 2588: 2568: 2557: 2556: 2550: 2536: 2532: 2521: 2503: 2492: 2474: 2463: 2445: 2434: 2416: 2405: 2387: 2376: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2353: 2324: 2309: 2308: 2288: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2263: 2259: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2192: 2191: 2170: 2165: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2135: 2127: 2123: 2122: 2113: 2103: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2070: 2058: 2048: 2042: 2037: 2027: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2010: 2006: 2005: 1986: 1979: 1956: 1949: 1942: 1935: 1928: 1921: 1914: 1903: 1900: 1883: 1880: 1853: 1826: 1786: 1783: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1779: 1772: 1771: 1770: 1756: 1746: 1734: 1728: 1718: 1712: 1706: 1705: 1704: 1694: 1684: 1660: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1624: 1621: 1608: 1605: 1599:and to handle 1568: 1565: 1546: 1515: 1485: 1458: 1437: 1411: 1384: 1357: 1329: 1322: 1315: 1308: 1301: 1294: 1287: 1271: 1268: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1245: 1244: 1240: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1220:closed switch. 1217: 1214: 1205: 1201: 1194:inverse-active 1190: 1182: 1179: 1166: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1107: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1065: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1035:Junction bias 1033: 1028: 1019: 1016: 856: 853: 848: 847: 832: 820: 816: 813: 803: 797: 794: 792: 784: 779: 775: 764: 760: 757: 747: 741: 738: 736: 728: 724: 723: 720: 709: 699: 693: 690: 688: 680: 676: 674: 663: 653: 647: 644: 642: 634: 630: 629: 611: 597: 594: 589: 576: 568:common-emitter 562: 559: 553: 542: 530:Main article: 527: 524: 487: 475:analog circuit 436: 433: 400:reverse biased 396:forward biased 326: 325: 287: 285: 278: 272: 269: 260: 257: 243: 240: 157:electron holes 127: 126: 111: 110: 104: 103: 100: 94: 93: 90: 86: 85: 80: 71: 70: 52: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6623: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6598: 6596: 6579: 6578:mercury relay 6576: 6574: 6571: 6570: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6534: 6533: 6531: 6529: 6525: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6434: 6432: 6431: 6429: 6425: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6402: 6401:Potentiometer 6399: 6398: 6396: 6392: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6328: 6324: 6318: 6317:Williams tube 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6265: 6261: 6255: 6252: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6206: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6136:Fleming valve 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6099: 6095: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6035: 6033: 6031: 6027: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5996: 5993: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5963:Photodetector 5961: 5959: 5956: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5931:Memtransistor 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5879: 5873: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5841: 5838: 5835: 5832: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5805: 5801: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5783: 5780: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5712: 5706: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5678: 5675: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5656: 5653: 5650: 5647: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5633: 5630: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580:Semiconductor 5577: 5573: 5566: 5561: 5559: 5554: 5552: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5506: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5489:Common source 5487: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5436: 5430: 5426: 5423: 5416: 5411: 5409: 5404: 5402: 5397: 5396: 5393: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5376: 5372: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5342: 5331:on 2015-01-16 5327: 5320: 5314: 5311: 5306: 5300: 5296: 5289: 5286: 5281: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5261: 5250:on 2016-03-05 5246: 5239: 5233: 5230: 5225: 5218: 5212: 5209: 5204: 5198: 5194: 5189: 5188: 5179: 5176: 5163: 5159: 5153: 5150: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5126: 5123: 5118: 5112: 5108: 5101: 5098: 5093: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5078: 5070: 5067: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5035: 5032: 5019: 5013: 5010: 4998: 4992: 4989: 4977: 4971: 4968: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4936: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4901: 4898: 4886: 4880: 4877: 4865: 4859: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4816: 4813: 4809: 4804: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4787: 4784: 4772: 4766: 4763: 4758: 4752: 4748: 4741: 4738: 4733: 4727: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4713: 4708: 4705: 4692: 4686: 4683: 4671: 4667: 4661: 4658: 4647:. Spring 2007 4643: 4637: 4634: 4623: 4619: 4612: 4609: 4604: 4598: 4594: 4593: 4585: 4582: 4577: 4571: 4567: 4566: 4558: 4555: 4550: 4544: 4540: 4539: 4531: 4528: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4507: 4504: 4499: 4493: 4489: 4488: 4480: 4477: 4466: 4460: 4456: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4424: 4416: 4413: 4408: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4393: 4385: 4382: 4375: 4367: 4361: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4345: 4338: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4263:power ratings 4259: 4257: 4253: 4242: 4239: 4231: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4202: 4197:This section 4195: 4191: 4186: 4185: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4170: 4167: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4146: 4144: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4100: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4084: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4062: 4053: 4051: 4041: 4032: 4028: 4025:This section 4023: 4020: 4016: 4015: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3993: 3983: 3981: 3975: 3972: 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1695: 1692: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1644: 1639: 1636: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1629: 1628: 1622: 1620: 1618: 1614: 1606: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1566: 1564: 1544: 1535: 1513: 1503: 1483: 1456: 1435: 1409: 1382: 1355: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1325: + 1321: 1318: = 1314: 1307: 1300: 1293: 1286: 1276: 1269: 1267: 1249: 1237: 1225: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1211:bipolar logic 1202: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1188: 1180: 1177: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1163: 1160: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1076: 1073: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1023: 1017: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1005: 996: 992: 990: 986: 981: 979: 975: 971: 966: 964: 960: 956: 951: 944: 940: 936: 933: 929: 925: 920: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 866: 861: 854: 852: 830: 818: 814: 811: 801: 795: 793: 782: 762: 758: 755: 745: 739: 737: 726: 718: 707: 697: 691: 689: 678: 672: 661: 651: 645: 643: 632: 620: 619: 618: 615: 606: 604: 595: 593: 585: 571: 569: 560: 558: 543: 541: 539: 533: 525: 523: 520: 516: 512: 508: 485: 476: 471: 469: 465: 461: 457: 452: 450: 446: 441: 434: 432: 430: 426: 421: 416: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 392: 390: 386: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 352: 348: 346: 342: 338: 334: 322: 319: 311: 301: 297: 291: 288:This section 286: 277: 276: 270: 268: 266: 258: 256: 253: 249: 241: 239: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 220:minicomputers 217: 212: 210: 206: 201: 197: 193: 192:semiconductor 189: 188:p–n junctions 186:BJTs use two 184: 182: 178: 177:amplification 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 133: 122: 117: 112: 109: 105: 101: 95: 92:December 1947 91: 87: 84: 83:Semiconductor 81: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 50: 45: 37: 33: 19: 6335:Cold cathode 6302:Storage tube 6192:Vacuum tubes 6141:Neutron tube 6116:Beam tetrode 6098:Vacuum tubes 5718: 5683:Power MOSFET 5494:Common drain 5441: 5358:. Retrieved 5354:maxim-ic.com 5353: 5344: 5333:. Retrieved 5326:the original 5313: 5294: 5288: 5269: 5263: 5252:. Retrieved 5245:the original 5232: 5223: 5211: 5186: 5178: 5166:. Retrieved 5162:the original 5152: 5135: 5131: 5125: 5106: 5100: 5076: 5069: 5044: 5040: 5034: 5022:. Retrieved 5012: 5000:. Retrieved 4991: 4979:. Retrieved 4970: 4948:(2): 75–81. 4945: 4941: 4935: 4910: 4906: 4900: 4888:. Retrieved 4879: 4867:. Retrieved 4858: 4825: 4821: 4815: 4803: 4791: 4786: 4774:. Retrieved 4765: 4746: 4740: 4726: 4707: 4695:. Retrieved 4685: 4673:. Retrieved 4660: 4649:. Retrieved 4636: 4625:. Retrieved 4611: 4591: 4584: 4564: 4557: 4537: 4530: 4512: 4506: 4490:. Springer. 4486: 4479: 4468:. Retrieved 4453: 4422: 4415: 4391: 4384: 4360: 4347: 4282: 4271: 4260: 4249: 4234: 4225: 4210:Please help 4198: 4171: 4162: 4150: 4141: 4109:current gain 4102: 4087: 4081: 4065: 4057: 4054:Applications 4048: 4038:January 2015 4035: 4031:adding to it 4026: 3996: 3994: 3987: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3965: 3964: 3960: 3950: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3932: 3915: 3908: 3905: 3896: 3889: 3882: 3876: 3869: 3862: 3855: 3848: 3841: 3832: 3825: 3818: 3814: 3807: 3800: 3791: 3787: 3780: 3773: 3768: 3759: 3752: 3743: 3736: 3727: 3720: 3711: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3681: 3664: 3662: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3641: 3625:capacitances 3616: 3609:small signal 3602: 3554: 3545: 3542:Punchthrough 3537: 3526: 3517:Early effect 3515: 3460: 3445:Early effect 3171: 2621: 2579:and forward 2558: 2552: 2310: 2193: 1992: 1983: 1976: 1953: 1946: 1939: 1932: 1925: 1918: 1911: 1892:John L. Moll 1885: 1873: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1794:Band diagram 1652: 1626: 1610: 1577:John Bardeen 1570: 1504: 1340: 1334: 1326: 1319: 1312: 1305: 1298: 1291: 1284: 1281: 1264: 1197: 1193: 1187:proportional 1175: 1169: 1001: 982: 967: 958: 954: 952: 949: 937: 931: 927: 923: 921: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 875:region, the 872: 870: 864: 849: 616: 605:current gain 601: 599: 570:current gain 566: 564: 555: 548:) and beta ( 535: 472: 453: 442: 438: 428: 424: 412: 393: 388: 375: 371: 367: 357: 329: 314: 305: 289: 262: 247: 245: 213: 190:between two 185: 144: 140: 138: 6501:Transformer 6243:Sutton tube 6083:Charge pump 5936:Memory cell 5866:Zener diode 5828:Laser diode 5711:transistors 5593:transistors 5499:Common gate 5461:Common base 4323:Gummel plot 4121:Common base 3675:y-parameter 3666:h-parameter 3613:transistors 1763:Jean Hoerni 1150:Saturation 1077:Saturation 603:common-base 538:Baker clamp 532:Baker clamp 6595:Categories 6573:reed relay 6563:Parametron 6496:Thermistor 6474:resettable 6433:Connector 6394:Adjustable 6370:Nixie tube 6340:Crossatron 6307:Trochotron 6282:Iconoscope 6277:Charactron 6254:X-ray tube 6126:Compactron 6106:Acorn tube 6063:Buck–boost 5984:Solaristor 5846:Photodiode 5823:Gunn diode 5819:(CLD, CRD) 5601:Transistor 5425:amplifiers 5422:Transistor 5360:August 10, 5335:2015-01-16 5254:2015-01-15 5168:August 10, 5002:August 10, 4981:August 10, 4890:August 10, 4869:August 10, 4828:(1): 1–5. 4776:August 10, 4697:August 10, 4675:August 10, 4651:2023-06-22 4627:2023-06-22 4470:2023-06-22 4376:References 4153:logarithms 4093:Amplifiers 2196:Fick's law 1216:Saturation 584:-parameter 337:phosphorus 333:impurities 149:transistor 6536:Capacitor 6380:Trigatron 6375:Thyratron 6365:Neon lamp 6292:Monoscope 6172:Phototube 6156:Pentagrid 6121:Barretter 6006:Trancitor 6001:Thyristor 5926:Memristor 5851:PIN diode 5628:(ChemFET) 4616:JIMBLOM. 4353:aluminium 4228:June 2023 4199:does not 4166:avalanche 3564:β 3492:− 3300:β 3271:β 3140:− 3095:β 3049:− 2963:− 2918:β 2898:− 2853:β 2795:− 2750:β 2741:− 2704:− 2607:β 2587:β 2567:α 2444:α 2154:α 2150:− 2102:α 2069:− 1886:In 1954, 1767:Fairchild 1731:Spacistor 1673:in 1951. 1657:Bell Labs 1436:β 1032:voltages 1025:Junction 970:germanium 959:collector 932:collector 917:collector 903:type and 891:type and 881:collector 855:Structure 819:α 815:− 802:α 783:β 778:⟺ 763:β 746:β 727:α 679:β 633:α 486:β 454:Detailed 415:recombine 376:collector 360:diffusion 335:(such as 308:July 2012 267:travels. 216:mainframe 181:switching 173:terminals 153:electrons 6558:Inductor 6528:Reactive 6506:Varistor 6486:Resistor 6464:Antifuse 6350:Ignitron 6345:Dekatron 6233:Klystron 6222:Gyrotron 6151:Nuvistor 6068:Split-pi 5954:(MOS IC) 5921:Memistor 5679:(MuGFET) 5673:(MOSFET) 5645:(FinFET) 5061:51672011 5024:June 22, 4850:51668235 4715:Archived 4451:(1989). 4296:See also 4172:Special 3963:is from 3678:two-port 3673:and the 3642:Replace 1769:in 1959. 1755:in 1957. 1653:junction 1615:. Since 1198:inverted 1136:Cut-off 1091:Cut-off 1030:Applied 957:and the 930:and the 915:(B) and 429:separate 271:Function 89:Invented 6459:Ferrite 6427:Passive 6418:Varicap 6406:digital 6355:Krytron 6177:Tetrode 6162:Pentode 6016:Varicap 5997:(3D IC) 5973:RF CMOS 5877:devices 5651:(FGMOS) 5582:devices 5525:Cascode 4950:Bibcode 4915:Bibcode 4830:Bibcode 4517:Bibcode 4397:299–302 4254:causes 4220:removed 4205:sources 4061:MOSFETs 3978:common 3824:– 3605:circuit 2341:is the 1776:Epitaxy 1701:Philips 1567:History 1223:Cut-off 1161:Reverse 1158:Forward 1147:Forward 1144:Forward 1133:Reverse 1130:Reverse 1119:Forward 1116:Reverse 1102:Forward 1099:Reverse 1088:Reverse 1085:Reverse 1074:Forward 1071:Forward 1060:Reverse 1057:Forward 1004:epitaxy 974:silicon 955:emitter 928:emitter 909:emitter 873:emitter 579:or the 468:photons 368:emitter 341:arsenic 294:Please 196:crystal 169:current 77:‍ 6491:Switch 6182:Triode 6146:Nonode 6111:Audion 5991:(SITh) 5875:Other 5842:(OLED) 5804:Diodes 5755:(LET) 5737:(FET) 5709:Other 5657:(IGBT) 5634:(CMOS) 5621:BioFET 5616:BiCMOS 5301: 5276: 5199: 5113: 5088: 5059: 4848: 4753: 4599: 4572: 4545: 4494: 4461: 4403: 3982:mitter 3698:to be 3172:where 2311:where 2198:) and 1681:Philco 1345:op-amp 1176:active 899:type, 887:type, 425:shared 374:, and 232:BiCMOS 230:using 200:doping 63:TO-126 55:SOT-23 6568:Relay 6541:types 6479:eFUSE 6250:(TWT) 6238:Maser 6229:(IOT) 6218:(CFA) 6207:(BWO) 6131:Diode 6078:SEPIC 6058:Boost 6011:TRIAC 5980:(SCR) 5943:(MOV) 5917:(LEC) 5836:(LED) 5795:(UJT) 5784:(SIT) 5778:(PUT) 5721:(BJT) 5690:(TFT) 5666:LDMOS 5661:ISFET 5329:(PDF) 5322:(PDF) 5248:(PDF) 5241:(PDF) 5220:(PDF) 5057:S2CID 4846:S2CID 4721:(PDF) 4645:(PDF) 4339:Notes 4285:Zener 3646:with 1038:Mode 1027:type 1008:MOCVD 919:(C). 911:(E), 519:SPICE 380:leads 345:boron 331:with 252:metal 59:TO-92 6511:Wire 6469:Fuse 6053:Buck 5906:(IC) 5894:DIAC 5830:(LD) 5699:UMOS 5694:VMOS 5611:PMOS 5606:NMOS 5591:MOS 5362:2016 5299:ISBN 5274:ISBN 5197:ISBN 5170:2016 5111:ISBN 5086:ISBN 5026:2023 5004:2016 4983:2016 4892:2016 4871:2016 4778:2016 4751:ISBN 4699:2016 4677:2016 4597:ISBN 4570:ISBN 4543:ISBN 4492:ISBN 4459:ISBN 4401:ISBN 4364:See 4203:any 4201:cite 4103:The 3988:So h 3933:The 3914:and 3888:= 1/ 3813:, a 2559:The 2222:base 1952:and 1938:and 1924:and 1890:and 1669:and 1579:and 1475:and 1110:PNP 1051:NPN 1046:B–C 1043:B–E 1010:and 983:The 924:base 922:The 913:base 877:base 565:The 372:base 224:CMOS 218:and 155:and 67:TO-3 34:and 6073:Ćuk 5193:509 5140:doi 5082:903 5049:doi 4958:doi 4923:doi 4838:doi 4290:ESD 4214:by 4033:. 3654:or 1765:at 1671:RCA 1575:by 1332:). 1196:or 1012:MBE 989:GHz 865:NPN 473:In 362:of 339:or 298:to 179:or 159:as 145:BJT 6597:: 6447:RF 6196:RF 5352:. 5222:. 5195:. 5136:49 5134:. 5084:. 5055:. 5045:42 5043:. 4956:. 4946:14 4944:. 4921:. 4911:48 4909:. 4844:. 4836:. 4824:. 4668:. 4620:. 4447:; 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Knowledge (XXG)

Bipolar junction transistor

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