1276:. Although the electrons in the valence band are always moving around, a completely full valence band is inert, not conducting any current. If an electron is taken out of the valence band, then the trajectory that the electron would normally have taken is now missing its charge. For the purposes of electric current, this combination of the full valence band, minus the electron, can be converted into a picture of a completely empty band containing a positively charged particle that moves in the same way as the electron. Combined with the
1833:
1056:
1995:
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61:
31:
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1028:. To get the impure atoms embedded in the silicon wafer, the wafer is first put in a 1,100 degree Celsius chamber. The atoms are injected in and eventually diffuse with the silicon. After the process is completed and the silicon has reached room temperature, the doping process is done and the semiconducting
495:
can display a range of different useful properties, such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and having sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be modified by doping and by the application
1518:
elements. Group III elements all contain three valence electrons, causing them to function as acceptors when used to dope silicon. When an acceptor atom replaces a silicon atom in the crystal, a vacant state (an electron "hole") is created, which can move around the lattice and function as a charge
1280:
effective mass of the electrons at the top of the valence band, we arrive at a picture of a positively charged particle that responds to electric and magnetic fields just as a normal positively charged particle would do in a vacuum, again with some positive effective mass. This particle is called a
1358:
As the probability that electrons and holes meet together is proportional to the product of their numbers, the product is in the steady-state nearly constant at a given temperature, providing that there is no significant electric field (which might "flush" carriers of both types, or move them from
1735:
as due to the extreme "structure sensitive" behavior of semiconductors, whose properties change dramatically based on tiny amounts of impurities. Commercially pure materials of the 1920s containing varying proportions of trace contaminants produced differing experimental results. This spurred the
1813:
In the years preceding World War II, infrared detection and communications devices prompted research into lead-sulfide and lead-selenide materials. These devices were used for detecting ships and aircraft, for infrared rangefinders, and for voice communication systems. The point-contact crystal
656:. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials. The n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until an equilibrium is reached by a process called
901:, and other electronic devices. Semiconductors for ICs are mass-produced. To create an ideal semiconducting material, chemical purity is paramount. Any small imperfection can have a drastic effect on how the semiconducting material behaves due to the scale at which the materials are used.
1157:, containing an electron only part of the time. If the state is always occupied with an electron, then it is inert, blocking the passage of other electrons via that state. The energies of these quantum states are critical since a state is partially filled only if its energy is near the
1568:
The history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the electrical properties of materials. The properties of the time-temperature coefficient of resistance, rectification, and light-sensitivity were observed starting in the early 19th century.
916:) interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a major cause of defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more difficult it is to achieve the necessary perfection. Current mass production processes use crystal
1396:
The probability of meeting is increased by carrier traps ā impurities or dislocations which can trap an electron or hole and hold it until a pair is completed. Such carrier traps are sometimes purposely added to reduce the time needed to reach the steady-state.
1434:
A 1 cm specimen of a metal or semiconductor has the order of 10 atoms. In a metal, every atom donates at least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm of metal contains on the order of 10 free electrons, whereas a 1 cm sample of pure germanium at
1180:
with few energy states to occupy. Importantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap
1359:
neighbor regions containing more of them to meet together) or externally driven pair generation. The product is a function of the temperature, as the probability of getting enough thermal energy to produce a pair increases with temperature, being approximately
1814:
detector became vital for microwave radio systems since available vacuum tube devices could not serve as detectors above about 4000 MHz; advanced radar systems relied on the fast response of crystal detectors. Considerable research and development of
1215:. When undoped, these have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators, however they can be doped (making them as useful as semiconductors). Semi-insulators find niche applications in micro-electronics, such as substrates for
1245:) but they can move around for some time. The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical
1917:
about 1941 when a specimen was found to be light-sensitive, with a sharp boundary between p-type impurity at one end and n-type at the other. A slice cut from the specimen at the pān boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light.
1753:
in 1883, using a metal plate coated with selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the 1930s. Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by
676:
A difference in electric potential on a semiconducting material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium and create a non-equilibrium situation. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called
585:
A few of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the mid-19th and first decades of the 20th century. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the
2124:
1782:
observed similar light emission in 1922, but at the time the effect had no practical use. Power rectifiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were developed in the 1920s and became commercially important as an alternative to
1470:
The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the dopant and the material to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classified as either electron
539:. Apart from doping, the conductivity of a semiconductor can be improved by increasing its temperature. This is contrary to the behavior of a metal, in which conductivity decreases with an increase in temperature.
2049:
3474:
868:
in a variety of proportions. These compounds share with better-known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity with temperature, as well as occasional
1519:
carrier. Group V elements have five valence electrons, which allows them to act as a donor; substitution of these atoms for silicon creates an extra free electron. Therefore, a silicon crystal doped with
2293:
1132:
Semiconductors are defined by their unique electric conductive behavior, somewhere between that of a conductor and an insulator. The differences between these materials can be understood in terms of the
372:
1192:
A pure semiconductor, however, is not very useful, as it is neither a very good insulator nor a very good conductor. However, one important feature of semiconductors (and some insulators, known as
570:" doping. The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor device
2242:
810:. Silicon and germanium are used here effectively because they have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell, which gives them the ability to gain or lose electrons equally at the same time.
1241:
The partial filling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to that band. The electrons do not stay indefinitely (due to the natural thermal
1739:
Devices using semiconductors were at first constructed based on empirical knowledge before semiconductor theory provided a guide to the construction of more capable and reliable devices.
681:. Whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the number of holes and electrons changes. Such disruptions can occur as a result of a temperature difference or
1189:). An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a band gap that is smaller than that of an insulator and at room temperature, significant numbers of electrons can be excited to cross the band gap.
2467:
Dong, Renhao; Han, Peng; Arora, Himani; Ballabio, Marco; Karakus, Melike; Zhang, Zhe; Shekhar, Chandra; Adler, Peter; Petkov, Petko St.; Erbe, Artur; Mannsfeld, Stefan C. B. (2018).
2268:
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1945:
made from germanium and silicon, but he failed to build such a working device, before eventually using germanium to invent the point-contact transistor. In France, during the war,
413:
generally falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way. In many cases their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by introducing impurities ("
1204:
with electric fields. Doping and gating move either the conduction or valence band much closer to the Fermi level and greatly increase the number of partially filled states.
365:
660:, which causes the migrating electrons from the n-type to come in contact with the migrating holes from the p-type. The result of this process is a narrow strip of immobile
2808:
1855:
Detector and power rectifiers could not amplify a signal. Many efforts were made to develop a solid-state amplifier and were successful in developing a device called the
3460:
1563:
358:
2754:
1901:
in 1938 demonstrated a solid-state amplifier using a structure resembling the control grid of a vacuum tube; although the device displayed power gain, it had a
623:
filled, preventing the entire flow of new electrons. Several developed techniques allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials, such as
1009:
is located on the cathode, which causes it to be hit by the positively charged ions that are released from the plasma. The result is silicon that is etched
1731:
Agreement between theoretical predictions (based on developing quantum mechanics) and experimental results was sometimes poor. This was later explained by
639:. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively. A balanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow throughout the material.
2251:
1736:
development of improved material refining techniques, culminating in modern semiconductor refineries producing materials with parts-per-trillion purity.
1708:
stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been established by
1281:
hole, and the collection of holes in the valence band can again be understood in simple classical terms (as with the electrons in the conduction band).
2023:
550:. Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a semiconductor is doped by Group V elements, they will behave like
1687:
classified solid materials like metals, insulators, and "variable conductors" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the term
1050:
697:
In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat. Controlling the semiconductor composition and
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873:. Such disordered materials lack the rigid crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are generally used in
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1300:
1290:
1258:
686:
73:
1257:, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much as they would in a vacuum, though with a different
1227:, can even be used as insulating materials for some applications, while being treated as wide-gap semiconductors for other applications.
877:
structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage.
2620:
1467:(an impurity) donates an extra 10 free electrons in the same volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000.
652:
occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined. For example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped
3034:
3303:
3223:
3044:
2629:
2454:
1216:
685:, which can enter the system and create electrons and holes. The processes that create or annihilate electrons and holes are called
3144:"Experimentelle BeitrƤge Zur Elektronentheorie Aus dem Gebiet der ThermoelektrizitƤt, Inaugural-Dissertation ... von J. Weiss, ..."
1721:
1335:
In some states, the generation and recombination of electronāhole pairs are in equipoise. The number of electron-hole pairs in the
1299:
strikes a semiconductor, it may excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently leave a hole. This process is known as
30:
2013:
1676:, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers.
1531:
718:
48:
1431:. By adding impurity to the pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or millions.
2812:
2173:
1949:
had observed amplification between adjacent point contacts on a germanium base. After the war, MatarƩ's group announced their "
1168:
High conductivity in material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization. Metals are good
766:
853:
750:
24:
3064:
2733:
3236:
1261:. Because the electrons behave like an ideal gas, one may also think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as the
1905:
of one cycle per second, too low for any practical applications, but an effective application of the available theory. At
1340:
885:
Almost all of today's electronic technology involves the use of semiconductors, with the most important aspect being the
3099:
Busch, G (1989). "Early history of the physics and chemistry of semiconductors-from doubts to fact in a hundred years".
2306:
1201:
1020:. This is the process that gives the semiconducting material its desired semiconducting properties. It is also known as
628:
2074:
841:
2761:
1913:
and A. Holden started investigating solid-state amplifiers in 1938. The first pān junction in silicon was observed by
742:
1162:
1110:
1068:
927:
There is a combination of processes that are used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is called
1766:. However, it was somewhat unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for best performance. In 1906,
701:
allows for the manipulation of the emitted light's properties. These semiconductors are used in the construction of
1607:
1534:, dopants can be diffused into the semiconductor body by contact with gaseous compounds of the desired element, or
1208:
2947:
1638:
1546:
Some materials, when rapidly cooled to a glassy amorphous state, have semiconducting properties. These include B,
1827:
1759:
1673:
1606:
decreases when they are heated. This is contrary to the behavior of metallic substances such as copper. In 1839,
1510:
has four valence electrons that bond each silicon atom to its neighbors. In silicon, the most common dopants are
1472:
1250:
1142:
1138:
1060:
1046:
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563:
505:
1926:
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found that a copper oxide layer on wires had rectification properties that ceased when the wires are cleaned.
496:
of electrical fields or light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching, and
1724:. By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the
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3194:
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1421:
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The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount (of the order of 1 in 10) of pentavalent (
402:
39:
2926:
2018:
1934:
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1406:
1348:
1313:
1197:
1021:
1017:
624:
551:
422:
414:
340:
1677:
1503:, which exists due to thermal excitation at a much lower concentration compared to the majority carrier.
904:
A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in the crystal structure (such as
1755:
1742:
1595:
1591:
830:
754:
3003:
1594:
was the first to notice that semiconductors exhibit special feature such that experiment concerning an
2839:
2469:"High-mobility band-like charge transport in a semiconducting two-dimensional metalāorganic framework"
1610:
reported observation of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte, when struck by light, the
966:
The etching is the next process that is required. The part of the silicon that was not covered by the
3597:
3295:
3108:
2968:
Hulls, K.; McMillan, P. W. (May 22, 1972). "Amorphous semiconductors: a review of current theories".
2651:
2585:
2480:
1791:
1775:
1646:
1626:
1584:
1576:
1559:
1169:
1150:
726:
702:
492:
394:
315:
20:
2786:
2363:
Arik, Mehmet, and
Stanton Weaver. "Chip-scale thermal management of high-brightness LED packages."
1976:
1968:
1864:
1717:
1709:
1653:
1611:
1254:
1029:
1006:
921:
920:
between 100 and 300 mm (3.9 and 11.8 in) in diameter, grown as cylinders and sliced into
870:
678:
591:
466:
1832:
3538:
3124:
2985:
2667:
2512:
2404:
2000:
1868:
1713:
1682:
1657:
1379:
1296:
1272:
For partial filling at the top of the valence band, it is helpful to introduce the concept of an
983:
886:
599:
535:) atoms. This process is known as doping, and the resulting semiconductors are known as doped or
501:
486:
482:
970:
layer from the previous step can now be etched. The main process typically used today is called
1896:
1880:
1698:
1425:(pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as
1411:
The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their
3592:
3484:
3433:
3415:
3396:
3377:
3354:
3328:
3299:
3289:
3219:
3040:
2904:
2711:
2690:
2625:
2555:
2504:
2496:
2450:
2394:
2339:
2208:
2080:
1946:
1902:
1547:
1344:
1266:
1064:
956:
928:
849:
820:, groups 12 and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between different group-14 elements, e.g.
795:
547:
500:. The term semiconductor is also used to describe materials used in high capacity, medium- to
497:
418:
123:
16:
Material that has electrical conductivity intermediate to that of a conductor and an insulator
2100:
1725:
1025:
717:
Semiconductors with high thermal conductivity can be used for heat dissipation and improving
575:
3116:
2977:
2659:
2593:
2488:
2422:
2386:
2028:
1964:
1961:
1938:
1910:
1840:
1803:
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1615:
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1224:
1220:
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462:
330:
319:
305:
96:
87:
3452:
2330:
Wang, Yangang; Dai, Xiaoping; Liu, Guoyou; Wu, Yibo; Jones, Yun Li and Steve (2016-10-05),
3157:
1980:
1844:
1771:
1749:
over a beam of light in 1880. A working solar cell, of low efficiency, was constructed by
1697:
published a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In 1930,
1642:
1599:
1412:
1186:
1153:(extending through the material), however in order to transport electrons a state must be
991:
940:
932:
894:
821:
813:
579:
543:
345:
35:
2531:
1660:
demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, the
473:. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the second-most common semiconductor and is used in
132:
114:
105:
3112:
2655:
2589:
2576:
Cutler, M.; Mott, N. (1969). "Observation of
Anderson Localization in an Electron Gas".
2484:
3602:
3370:
2861:
2615:
1750:
1703:
1637:, although this effect had been discovered much earlier by Peter Munck af Rosenschƶld (
1603:
1306:
975:
971:
913:
799:
665:
648:
470:
426:
325:
168:
162:
156:
150:
144:
138:
955:. This process is what creates the patterns on the circuit in the integrated circuit.
3617:
3576:
3347:
3128:
3120:
2989:
2882:
2408:
1495:. The n and p type designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the material's
1273:
1236:
1134:
1114:
783:
562:" doping. When a semiconductor is doped by Group III elements, they will behave like
438:
240:
231:
222:
213:
204:
195:
186:
177:
2981:
2516:
2468:
2390:
2181:
1055:
790:
A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties, including:
2671:
1930:
1885:
1836:
1732:
1669:
1336:
1182:
730:
620:
285:
267:
258:
249:
3442:
2205:
Electrons and holes in semiconductors: with applications to transistor electronics
1598:
emerged with much stronger result when applying semiconductors, in 1821. In 1833,
578:
between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic behavior. Using a
3143:
3075:
1316:
demands that these recombination events, in which an electron loses an amount of
2332:"Status and Trend of Power Semiconductor Module Packaging for Electric Vehicles"
1950:
1914:
1784:
1694:
1661:
1511:
1262:
1158:
1109:; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be
1088:
967:
960:
905:
706:
474:
450:
2533:
Charge transport in two-dimensional materials and their electronic applications
2378:
1994:
1176:, by contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within
963:
layer to create a chemical change that generates the patterns for the circuit.
594:
receivers. Developments in quantum physics led in turn to the invention of the
2689:(9th ed.). India: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. pp. 7ā10.
2492:
1990:
1954:
1922:
1891:
1860:
1818:
materials occurred during the war to develop detectors of consistent quality.
1779:
1767:
1746:
1572:
1524:
1010:
898:
595:
516:
478:
446:
300:
60:
3291:
Advanced
Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century
3263:"1954: Morris Tanenbaum fabricates the first silicon transistor at Bell Labs"
2597:
2500:
2383:
2019 IEEE 7th
Workshop on Wide Bandgap Power Devices and Applications (WiPDA)
1415:. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as
3342:
2331:
2008:
1972:
1906:
1799:
1649:
and
Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1876.
1630:
1246:
1172:
and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level.
1084:
948:
874:
865:
807:
653:
582:, one can determine quickly whether a semiconductor sample is p- or n-type.
458:
2508:
2307:"Electrical Property of Semiconductor - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
2076:
Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental
Aspects
3412:
The
Handbook on Optical Constants of Semiconductors: In Tables and Figures
1720:
developed models of the potential barrier and of the characteristics of a
3555:
1665:
1656:, which developed greatly in the first half of the 20th century. In 1878
1622:
1619:
1321:
1177:
1106:
1024:. The process introduces an impure atom to the system, which creates the
861:
555:
512:
504:
as part of their insulation, and these materials are often plastic XLPE (
430:
542:
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on
3521:
3325:
Handbook of
Semiconductor Nanostructures and Nanodevices (5-Volume Set)
1815:
1634:
1560:
Semiconductor device Ā§ History of semiconductor device development
1515:
1507:
1464:
998:
994:
936:
857:
803:
775:
571:
528:
520:
454:
3187:"1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as "Cat's Whisker" Detectors"
2157:
1979:
were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a
1762:
using natural galena or other materials became a common device in the
1137:
for electrons, each of which may contain zero or one electron (by the
2663:
1795:
1329:
1325:
1317:
1249:, where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the
848:
The most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but
682:
532:
398:
68:
615:
Semiconductors in their natural state are poor conductors because a
2379:"Thermal Conductivity of Power SemiconductorsāWhen Does It Matter?"
1983:
basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
1550:, Ge, Se, and Te, and there are multiple theories to explain them.
1324:, be accompanied by the emission of thermal energy (in the form of
1067:
for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the
771:
3548:
3543:
3526:
1831:
1807:
1672:
in 1897 prompted theories of electron-based conduction in solids.
1520:
1080:
1059:
Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at
1054:
1002:
987:
944:
917:
816:, particularly between elements in groups 13 and 15, such as
770:
524:
442:
421:. When two differently doped regions exist in the same crystal, a
406:
29:
1693:(a semiconductor in modern meaning) in his Ph.D. thesis in 1910.
1625:
exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In 1874,
485:, and others. Silicon is a critical element for fabricating most
3393:
1253:. In most semiconductors, the conduction bands have a parabolic
1196:) is that their conductivity can be increased and controlled by
310:
3456:
1347:
mechanisms of generation and recombination are governed by the
3428:
G. B. Abdullayev, T. D. Dzhafarov, S. Torstveit (Translator),
1652:
A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of
778:
crystals are the most common semiconducting materials used in
661:
619:
requires the flow of electrons, and semiconductors have their
434:
1770:
observed light emission when electric current passed through
1641:) writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in 1835, and
2642:
J. W. Allen (1960). "Gallium
Arsenide as a semi-insulator".
2447:
Semiconductor Materials: An Introduction to Basic Principles
1728:
and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.
2734:"Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors"
1149:
arises due to the presence of electrons in states that are
3146:
Druck- und Verlags-Gesellschaft – via Google Books.
2336:
Modeling and Simulation for Electric Vehicle Applications
3063:
Lidia Åukasiak & Andrzej Jakubowski (January 2010).
1953:" amplifier only shortly after Bell Labs announced the "
852:
and liquid semiconductors are also known. These include
802:; the most commercially important of these elements are
19:
For devices using semiconductors and their history, see
3072:
Journal of Telecommunication and Information Technology
2365:
Fourth International Conference on Solid State Lighting
1941:
at Bell Labs in 1947. Shockley had earlier theorized a
1309:
as well, in the absence of any external energy source.
1124:
1538:
can be used to accurately position the doped regions.
1523:
creates a p-type semiconductor whereas one doped with
2377:
Boteler, L.; Lelis, A.; Berman, M.; Fish, M. (2019).
1806:
in 1874 and Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose's
1305:. Electron-hole pairs are constantly generated from
3585:
3564:
3514:
3491:
3369:
3346:
3237:"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor"
1859:which could amplify 20 dB or more. In 1922,
1745:used the light-sensitive property of selenium to
1712:and the concept of band gaps had been developed.
1564:Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
1419:. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an
590:, a primitive semiconductor diode used in early
546:to explain the movement of charge carriers in a
3142:Ćberlingen.), Josef Weiss (de (July 22, 1910).
1312:Electron-hole pairs are also apt to recombine.
1005:is what creates the plasma in the chamber. The
2862:"Band strcutre and carrier concentration (Ge)"
827:Certain ternary compounds, oxides, and alloys.
3468:
3430:Atomic Diffusion in Semiconductor Structures,
3216:A History of the World Semiconductor Industry
3036:A History of the World Semiconductor Industry
2574:As in the Mott formula for conductivity, see
1602:reported that the resistance of specimens of
1185:) and the band of states above the band gap (
366:
8:
2685:Louis Nashelsky, Robert L.Boylestad (2006).
2423:"How do thermoelectric coolers (TECs) work?"
1063:. Here, height is energy while width is the
721:of electronics. They play a crucial role in
1219:. An example of a common semi-insulator is
978:pumped in a low-pressure chamber to create
3475:
3461:
3453:
3349:Physics of Semiconductor Devices (2nd ed.)
2294:Light and Optics: Principles and Practices
373:
359:
44:
3058:
3056:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2101:"Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors"
2024:Semiconductor characterization techniques
1867:amplifiers for radio, but he died in the
631:. These modifications have two outcomes:
574:can have many p- and n-type regions; the
3323:A. A. Balandin & K. L. Wang (2006).
2236:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2224:
1571:
1339:at a given temperature is determined by
1141:). These states are associated with the
3432:Gordon & Breach Science Pub., 1987
2040:
1211:materials are sometimes referred to as
1051:Electrical resistivity and conductivity
47:
3391:Yu, Peter Y.; Cardona, Manuel (2004).
2925:Honsberg, Christiana; Bowden, Stuart.
1871:after successful completion. In 1926,
1041:Energy bands and electrical conduction
881:Preparation of semiconductor materials
453:. Some examples of semiconductors are
3372:The Essential Guide to Semiconductors
3033:Morris, Peter Robin (July 22, 1990).
3028:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3016:
2970:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
2687:Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
1499:. The opposite carrier is called the
1231:Charge carriers (electrons and holes)
974:. Plasma etching usually involves an
441:, at these junctions is the basis of
7:
2755:"Lesson 6: Extrinsic semiconductors"
2250:. Elizabeth A. Jones. Archived from
2174:"2.4.7.9 The "hot-probe" experiment"
1506:For example, the pure semiconductor
1291:Carrier generation and recombination
1285:Carrier generation and recombination
3443:Feynman's lecture on Semiconductors
2621:Introduction to Solid State Physics
1774:crystals, the principle behind the
1097:lies inside at least one band. In
794:Certain pure elements are found in
465:, and elements near the so-called "
3327:. American Scientific Publishers.
2048:Tatum, Jeremy (13 December 2016).
14:
2883:"Doping: n- and p-semiconductors"
2244:Semiconductor Physics and Devices
2073:Worzyk, Thomas (11 August 2009).
1463:holes. The addition of 0.001% of
1265:, and introduce concepts such as
689:and recombination, respectively.
2014:Semiconductor device fabrication
1993:
1386:is the absolute temperature and
611:Variable electrical conductivity
393:value falling between that of a
59:
3414:. World Scientific Publishing.
2391:10.1109/WiPDA46397.2019.8998802
1875:patented a device resembling a
1554:Early history of semiconductors
1527:results in an n-type material.
1328:) or radiation (in the form of
767:List of semiconductor materials
751:thermoelectric figures of merit
566:creating free holes, known as "
3288:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016).
2732:Y., Roshni (5 February 2019).
2552:Fundamentals of Semiconductors
854:hydrogenated amorphous silicon
25:Semiconductor (disambiguation)
1:
3353:. John Wiley and Sons (WIE).
2834:Van Zeghbroeck, Bart (2000).
2809:"Ohm's Law, Microscopic View"
2269:"Electron-Hole Recombination"
1967:fabricated the first silicon
1341:quantum statistical mechanics
1302:electron-hole pair generation
947:. Other processes are called
2787:"General unit cell problems"
2050:"Resistance and Temperature"
1879:, but it was not practical.
1722:metalāsemiconductor junction
1479:. Semiconductors doped with
1122:
1105:the Fermi level is inside a
743:thermoelectric power factors
733:, among other applications.
425:is created. The behavior of
3101:European Journal of Physics
3065:"History of Semiconductors"
2554:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
2159:Feynman Lectures on Physics
1209:wider-bandgap semiconductor
1065:density of available states
1016:The last process is called
3640:
3214:Peter Robin Morris (1990)
3121:10.1088/0143-0807/10/4/002
2385:. IEEE. pp. 265ā271.
2241:Neamen, Donald A. (2003).
2203:Shockley, William (1950).
1825:
1810:crystal detector in 1901.
1608:Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
1557:
1404:
1288:
1234:
1223:. Some materials, such as
1044:
764:
741:Semiconductors have large
389:is a material that has an
18:
3572:Characterization analysis
3269:. Computer History Museum
3243:. Computer History Museum
3049:– via Google Books.
2982:10.1088/0022-3727/5/5/205
2927:"Semiconductor Materials"
2493:10.1038/s41563-018-0189-z
2207:. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co.
1828:History of the transistor
1487:, while those doped with
1251:Pauli exclusion principle
1143:electronic band structure
1139:Pauli exclusion principle
1047:Electronic band structure
1036:Physics of semiconductors
986:, or more commonly known
889:(IC), which are found in
747:thermoelectric generators
737:Thermal energy conversion
713:High thermal conductivity
506:Cross-linked polyethylene
3586:Material characteristics
2950:Amorphous semiconductors
2598:10.1103/PhysRev.181.1336
2367:. Vol. 5530. SPIE, 2004.
1927:point-contact transistor
1863:developed two-terminal,
1857:point contact transistor
1849:point-contact transistor
1629:observed conduction and
1542:Amorphous semiconductors
1491:impurities are known as
1353:conservation of momentum
1119:intrinsic semiconductors
1069:FermiāDirac distribution
842:metalāorganic frameworks
537:extrinsic semiconductors
3483:Fundamental aspects of
3195:Computer History Museum
3166:Computer History Museum
2905:"Silicon and Germanium"
2296:." 2007. March 4, 2016.
1877:field-effect transistor
1873:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
1664:. The discovery of the
1147:Electrical conductivity
1117:. "intrin." indicates
1079:: no state filled). In
982:. A common etch gas is
391:electrical conductivity
40:monocrystalline silicon
2712:"Doped Semiconductors"
2530:Arora, Himani (2020).
2273:Engineering LibreTexts
2019:Semiconductor industry
1943:field-effect amplifier
1935:Walter Houser Brattain
1852:
1847:developed the bipolar
1760:cat's-whisker detector
1588:
1483:impurities are called
1407:Doping (semiconductor)
1349:conservation of energy
1314:Conservation of energy
1163:FermiāDirac statistics
1129:
1075:: all states filled,
935:on the surface of the
831:Organic semiconductors
787:
755:thermoelectric coolers
753:making them useful in
745:making them useful in
588:cat's-whisker detector
481:, microwave-frequency
423:semiconductor junction
42:
23:. For other uses, see
3410:Sadao Adachi (2012).
3376:. Prentice Hall PTR.
3296:John Wiley & Sons
2311:www.sciencedirect.com
2292:By Abdul Al-Azzawi. "
1835:
1792:semiconductor devices
1756:Jagadish Chandra Bose
1743:Alexander Graham Bell
1592:Thomas Johann Seebeck
1575:
1170:electrical conductors
1058:
959:is used along with a
774:
703:light-emitting diodes
668:across the junction.
508:) with carbon black.
493:Semiconductor devices
33:
3598:Electronic structure
3515:Classes of materials
3368:Turley, Jim (2002).
2257:on October 27, 2022.
1977:junction transistors
1776:light-emitting diode
1764:development of radio
1647:William Grylls Adams
1627:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1585:semiconductor device
1577:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1200:with impurities and
1032:is almost prepared.
939:. This is used as a
21:Semiconductor device
3113:1989EJPh...10..254B
3074:: 3. Archived from
2836:"Carrier densities"
2767:on January 28, 2023
2656:1960Natur.187..403A
2590:1969PhRv..181.1336C
2485:2018NatMa..17.1027D
1969:junction transistor
1865:negative resistance
1798:, including German
1718:Nevill Francis Mott
1710:Alan Herries Wilson
1678:Johan Koenigsberger
1654:solid-state physics
1612:photovoltaic effect
1455:free electrons and
1255:dispersion relation
1111:thermally populated
871:negative resistance
679:ambipolar diffusion
502:high-voltage cables
487:electronic circuits
483:integrated circuits
467:metalloid staircase
3267:The Silicon Engine
3241:The Silicon Engine
3191:The Silicon Engine
3162:The Silicon Engine
2550:Yu, Peter (2010).
2539:. Dresden: Qucosa.
2156:Feynman, Richard.
2001:Electronics portal
1921:The first working
1869:Siege of Leningrad
1853:
1802:Ferdinand Braun's
1714:Walter H. Schottky
1658:Edwin Herbert Hall
1589:
1439:Ā°C contains about
1380:Boltzmann constant
1345:quantum mechanical
1297:ionizing radiation
1130:
1113:with electrons or
984:chlorofluorocarbon
887:integrated circuit
788:
749:, as well as high
725:, high-brightness
719:thermal management
699:electrical current
664:, which causes an
600:integrated circuit
449:, and most modern
43:
3611:
3610:
3593:Crystal structure
3492:Materials science
3485:materials science
3438:978-2-88124-152-9
3421:978-981-4405-97-3
3402:978-3-540-41323-3
3383:978-0-13-046404-0
3360:978-0-471-05661-4
3334:978-1-58883-073-9
2696:978-81-203-2967-6
2624:, 7th ed. Wiley,
2561:978-3-642-00709-5
2479:(11): 1027ā1032.
2400:978-1-7281-3761-2
2345:978-953-51-2637-9
2214:978-0-88275-382-9
2178:ecee.colorado.edu
2086:978-3-642-01270-9
1975:. However, early
1903:cut-off frequency
1822:Early transistors
1267:electron mobility
1145:of the material.
1127:
957:Ultraviolet light
929:thermal oxidation
835:organic compounds
723:electric vehicles
672:Excited electrons
498:energy conversion
419:crystal structure
383:
382:
3631:
3565:Analysis methods
3477:
3470:
3463:
3454:
3425:
3406:
3387:
3375:
3364:
3352:
3338:
3310:
3309:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3233:
3227:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3086:
3080:
3069:
3060:
3051:
3050:
3030:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2838:. Archived from
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2811:. Archived from
2804:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2760:. Archived from
2759:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2664:10.1038/187403b0
2650:(4735): 403ā05.
2639:
2633:
2613:
2602:
2601:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2473:Nature Materials
2464:
2458:
2449:, Springer 2003
2443:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2374:
2368:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2303:
2297:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2249:
2238:
2219:
2218:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2180:. Archived from
2170:
2164:
2163:
2153:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2125:"Joshua Halpern"
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2045:
2029:Transistor count
2003:
1998:
1997:
1965:Morris Tanenbaum
1962:physical chemist
1939:William Shockley
1911:William Shockley
1900:
1889:
1841:William Shockley
1804:crystal detector
1707:
1686:
1616:Willoughby Smith
1581:crystal detector
1536:ion implantation
1501:minority carrier
1497:majority carrier
1462:
1460:
1454:
1452:
1447:atoms, but only
1446:
1444:
1438:
1373:
1320:larger than the
1225:titanium dioxide
1221:gallium arsenide
1155:partially filled
1123:
953:photolithography
856:and mixtures of
818:gallium arsenide
814:Binary compounds
780:microelectronics
705:and fluorescent
598:in 1947 and the
523:) or trivalent (
463:gallium arsenide
429:, which include
375:
368:
361:
331:Transistor count
284:
266:
257:
248:
239:
230:
221:
212:
203:
194:
185:
176:
131:
122:
113:
104:
95:
86:
63:
45:
3639:
3638:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3607:
3581:
3560:
3510:
3487:
3481:
3451:
3422:
3409:
3403:
3390:
3384:
3367:
3361:
3341:
3335:
3322:
3319:
3317:Further reading
3314:
3313:
3306:
3298:. p. 168.
3287:
3286:
3282:
3272:
3270:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3244:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3197:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3170:
3168:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3054:
3047:
3032:
3031:
3014:
3006:
3002:
3001:
2997:
2967:
2966:
2962:
2954:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2909:
2907:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2843:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2818:
2816:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2738:
2736:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2716:
2714:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2614:
2605:
2578:Physical Review
2575:
2573:
2569:
2562:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2536:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2444:
2440:
2431:
2429:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2401:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2362:
2358:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2315:
2313:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2291:
2287:
2278:
2276:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2254:
2247:
2240:
2239:
2222:
2215:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2185:
2184:on 6 March 2021
2172:
2171:
2167:
2155:
2154:
2143:
2134:
2132:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2109:
2107:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2058:
2056:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2037:
1999:
1992:
1989:
1981:mass-production
1894:
1883:
1845:Walter Brattain
1830:
1824:
1772:silicon carbide
1701:
1680:
1643:Arthur Schuster
1600:Michael Faraday
1566:
1556:
1544:
1458:
1456:
1450:
1448:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1413:crystal lattice
1409:
1403:
1392:
1367:
1360:
1293:
1287:
1239:
1233:
1213:semi-insulators
1194:semi-insulators
1187:conduction band
1128:
1096:
1053:
1045:Main articles:
1043:
1038:
1011:anisotropically
992:radio-frequency
933:silicon dioxide
914:stacking faults
883:
840:Semiconducting
822:silicon carbide
769:
763:
739:
715:
695:
674:
649:Heterojunctions
645:
643:Heterojunctions
613:
608:
580:hot-point probe
548:crystal lattice
544:quantum physics
427:charge carriers
379:
350:
346:Nanoelectronics
297:
291:
282:
273:
264:
255:
246:
237:
228:
219:
210:
201:
192:
183:
174:
129:
120:
111:
102:
93:
84:
71:
52:
50:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3637:
3635:
3627:
3626:
3624:Semiconductors
3616:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3605:
3603:Microstructure
3600:
3595:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3574:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3541:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3532:Semiconductors
3529:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3493:
3489:
3488:
3482:
3480:
3479:
3472:
3465:
3457:
3450:
3449:External links
3447:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3426:
3420:
3407:
3401:
3388:
3382:
3365:
3359:
3339:
3333:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3304:
3280:
3254:
3228:
3207:
3178:
3149:
3134:
3091:
3052:
3045:
3012:
2995:
2960:
2939:
2917:
2895:
2874:
2853:
2842:on May 3, 2021
2826:
2815:on May 3, 2021
2799:
2778:
2746:
2724:
2702:
2695:
2677:
2634:
2616:Charles Kittel
2603:
2567:
2560:
2542:
2522:
2459:
2445:B. G. Yacobi,
2438:
2414:
2399:
2369:
2356:
2344:
2338:, IntechOpen,
2322:
2298:
2285:
2260:
2220:
2213:
2195:
2165:
2141:
2116:
2092:
2085:
2065:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1988:
1985:
1947:Herbert MatarƩ
1826:Main article:
1823:
1820:
1751:Charles Fritts
1747:transmit sound
1618:observed that
1604:silver sulfide
1596:Seebeck effect
1579:developed the
1555:
1552:
1543:
1540:
1405:Main article:
1402:
1399:
1390:
1365:
1343:. The precise
1307:thermal energy
1289:Main article:
1286:
1283:
1259:effective mass
1235:Main article:
1232:
1229:
1135:quantum states
1103:semiconductors
1094:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
972:plasma etching
941:gate insulator
931:, which forms
882:
879:
846:
845:
838:
828:
825:
811:
800:periodic table
765:Main article:
762:
759:
738:
735:
714:
711:
694:
693:Light emission
691:
673:
670:
666:electric field
644:
641:
612:
609:
607:
604:
554:creating free
471:periodic table
439:electron holes
381:
380:
378:
377:
370:
363:
355:
352:
351:
349:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
313:
308:
303:
296:
293:
292:
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289:
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235:
226:
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199:
190:
181:
172:
166:
160:
154:
148:
142:
136:
127:
118:
109:
100:
91:
81:
78:
77:
69:MOSFET scaling
65:
64:
56:
55:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3636:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3578:
3577:Phase diagram
3575:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3563:
3557:
3554:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3517:
3513:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3478:
3473:
3471:
3466:
3464:
3459:
3458:
3455:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3417:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3379:
3374:
3373:
3366:
3362:
3356:
3351:
3350:
3344:
3343:Sze, Simon M.
3340:
3336:
3330:
3326:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3307:
3305:9780470508923
3301:
3297:
3293:
3292:
3284:
3281:
3268:
3264:
3258:
3255:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3224:0-86341-227-0
3221:
3217:
3211:
3208:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3182:
3179:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3150:
3145:
3138:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3107:(4): 254ā64.
3106:
3102:
3095:
3092:
3081:on 2013-06-22
3077:
3073:
3066:
3059:
3057:
3053:
3048:
3046:9780863412271
3042:
3038:
3037:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3005:
2999:
2996:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2976:(5): 865ā82.
2975:
2971:
2964:
2961:
2953:
2951:
2943:
2940:
2928:
2921:
2918:
2906:
2899:
2896:
2884:
2878:
2875:
2863:
2857:
2854:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2827:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2800:
2788:
2782:
2779:
2763:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2735:
2728:
2725:
2713:
2706:
2703:
2698:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2630:0-471-11181-3
2627:
2623:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2543:
2535:
2534:
2526:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2455:0-306-47361-5
2452:
2448:
2442:
2439:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
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2373:
2370:
2366:
2360:
2357:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2323:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2286:
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2270:
2264:
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2253:
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2245:
2237:
2235:
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2231:
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2227:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2196:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2166:
2161:
2160:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2130:
2129:Chemistry 003
2126:
2120:
2117:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2093:
2088:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2069:
2066:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2041:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
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1916:
1912:
1908:
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1874:
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1811:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1758:in 1904; the
1757:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1691:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1674:Karl Baedeker
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1631:rectification
1628:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1586:
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1578:
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1468:
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1432:
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1414:
1408:
1400:
1398:
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1371:
1364:
1356:
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1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1292:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1274:electron hole
1270:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1243:recombination
1238:
1237:Electron hole
1230:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1179:
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1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
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1120:
1116:
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1074:
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1052:
1048:
1040:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1007:silicon wafer
1004:
1000:
996:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
964:
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954:
950:
946:
942:
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923:
919:
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911:
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880:
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876:
872:
867:
863:
859:
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843:
839:
836:
832:
829:
826:
823:
819:
815:
812:
809:
805:
801:
797:
796:group 14
793:
792:
791:
785:
784:photovoltaics
781:
777:
773:
768:
760:
758:
756:
752:
748:
744:
736:
734:
732:
731:power modules
728:
724:
720:
712:
710:
708:
704:
700:
692:
690:
688:
684:
680:
671:
669:
667:
663:
659:
658:recombination
655:
651:
650:
642:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
621:valence bands
618:
610:
605:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
583:
581:
577:
576:pān junctions
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
540:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
499:
494:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
387:semiconductor
376:
371:
369:
364:
362:
357:
356:
354:
353:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
336:Semiconductor
334:
332:
329:
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321:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
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302:
299:
298:
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287:
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128:
125:
119:
116:
110:
107:
101:
98:
92:
89:
83:
82:
80:
79:
75:
74:process nodes
70:
67:
66:
62:
58:
57:
54:
49:Semiconductor
46:
41:
37:
32:
26:
22:
3531:
3429:
3411:
3395:. Springer.
3392:
3371:
3348:
3324:
3290:
3283:
3271:. Retrieved
3266:
3257:
3245:. Retrieved
3240:
3231:
3215:
3210:
3198:. Retrieved
3190:
3181:
3169:. Retrieved
3161:
3152:
3137:
3104:
3100:
3094:
3083:. Retrieved
3076:the original
3071:
3035:
2998:
2973:
2969:
2963:
2949:
2942:
2930:. Retrieved
2920:
2908:. Retrieved
2898:
2886:. Retrieved
2877:
2865:. Retrieved
2856:
2844:. Retrieved
2840:the original
2829:
2817:. Retrieved
2813:the original
2802:
2790:. Retrieved
2781:
2769:. Retrieved
2762:the original
2749:
2737:. Retrieved
2727:
2715:. Retrieved
2705:
2686:
2680:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2619:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2551:
2545:
2532:
2525:
2476:
2472:
2462:
2446:
2441:
2430:. Retrieved
2426:
2417:
2382:
2372:
2364:
2359:
2349:, retrieved
2335:
2325:
2314:. Retrieved
2310:
2301:
2288:
2277:. Retrieved
2275:. 2016-07-28
2272:
2263:
2252:the original
2243:
2204:
2198:
2186:. Retrieved
2182:the original
2177:
2168:
2158:
2133:. Retrieved
2131:. 2015-01-12
2128:
2119:
2108:. Retrieved
2104:
2095:
2079:. Springer.
2075:
2068:
2057:. Retrieved
2053:
2043:
1959:
1931:John Bardeen
1929:invented by
1920:
1854:
1837:John Bardeen
1812:
1789:
1787:rectifiers.
1741:
1738:
1733:John Bardeen
1730:
1726:pān junction
1689:
1688:
1670:J.J. Thomson
1651:
1633:in metallic
1590:
1583:, the first
1567:
1545:
1529:
1505:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1469:
1433:
1427:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1395:
1393:is bandgap.
1387:
1383:
1375:
1369:
1362:
1357:
1337:steady state
1334:
1311:
1301:
1294:
1277:
1271:
1240:
1212:
1206:
1193:
1191:
1183:valence band
1167:
1154:
1131:
1102:
1091:
1076:
1072:
1026:pān junction
1015:
997:between the
965:
926:
906:dislocations
903:
897:, scanners,
884:
847:
789:
740:
716:
707:quantum dots
696:
675:
647:
646:
636:
632:
614:
584:
558:, known as "
541:
510:
491:
475:laser diodes
417:") into the
386:
384:
335:
288: ~ 2025
270: ā 2022
261: ā 2020
252: ā 2018
243: ā 2016
234: ā 2014
225: ā 2012
216: ā 2010
207: ā 2009
198: ā 2007
189: ā 2005
180: ā 2003
171: ā 2001
165: ā 1999
159: ā 1996
153: ā 1993
147: ā 1990
141: ā 1987
135: ā 1984
126: ā 1981
117: ā 1977
108: ā 1974
99: ā 1971
90: ā 1968
3507:Performance
3226:, pp. 11ā25
2771:January 28,
2584:(3): 1336.
2188:27 November
2105:www.mks.com
1951:Transistron
1915:Russell Ohl
1895: [
1884: [
1785:vacuum tube
1702: [
1695:Felix Bloch
1681: [
1662:Hall effect
1614:. In 1873,
1532:manufacture
1263:Drude model
1159:Fermi level
1151:delocalized
1089:Fermi level
1061:equilibrium
968:photoresist
961:photoresist
945:field oxide
899:cell-phones
479:solar cells
451:electronics
447:transistors
411:resistivity
326:Moore's law
169:130 nm
163:180 nm
157:250 nm
151:350 nm
145:600 nm
139:800 nm
124:1.5 Ī¼m
53:fabrication
3539:Composites
3504:Processing
3501:Properties
3158:"Timeline"
3085:2012-08-03
2457:, pp. 1ā3.
2432:2021-11-08
2351:2024-01-24
2316:2023-12-14
2279:2024-04-01
2135:2024-04-01
2110:2024-04-01
2059:2023-12-22
2054:LibreTexts
2035:References
1955:transistor
1923:transistor
1892:R. W. Pohl
1861:Oleg Losev
1790:The first
1780:Oleg Losev
1768:H.J. Round
1690:Halbleiter
1587:, in 1874.
1558:See also:
1525:phosphorus
1174:Insulators
1099:insulators
1085:semimetals
949:photomasks
833:, made of
687:generation
606:Properties
596:transistor
517:phosphorus
405:, such as
397:, such as
320:multi-gate
301:Half-nodes
241:10 nm
232:14 nm
223:22 nm
214:28 nm
205:32 nm
196:45 nm
187:65 nm
178:90 nm
97:10 Ī¼m
88:20 Ī¼m
3498:Structure
3273:23 August
3247:23 August
3200:23 August
3171:22 August
3129:250888128
3004:"Kirj.ee"
2990:250874071
2903:Nave, R.
2807:Nave, R.
2710:Nave, R.
2501:1476-4660
2427:ii-vi.com
2409:211227341
2009:Deathnium
1973:Bell Labs
1960:In 1954,
1907:Bell Labs
1881:R. Hilsch
1800:physicist
1699:B. Gudden
1623:resistors
1512:group III
1473:acceptors
1428:extrinsic
1422:intrinsic
1247:ideal gas
1178:band gaps
1018:diffusion
990:. A high
875:thin film
866:tellurium
850:amorphous
808:germanium
761:Materials
654:germanium
602:in 1958.
564:acceptors
556:electrons
469:" on the
459:germanium
431:electrons
403:insulator
401:, and an
395:conductor
286:2 nm
268:3 nm
259:5 nm
250:7 nm
133:1 Ī¼m
115:3 Ī¼m
106:6 Ī¼m
3618:Category
3556:Polymers
3522:Ceramics
3345:(1981).
2517:53027396
2509:30323335
1987:See also
1851:in 1947.
1666:electron
1635:sulfides
1620:selenium
1489:acceptor
1374:, where
1322:band gap
1278:negative
1107:band gap
976:etch gas
891:desktops
862:selenium
513:antimony
341:Industry
3218:, IET,
3109:Bibcode
3039:. IET.
2672:4183332
2652:Bibcode
2618:(1995)
2586:Bibcode
2481:Bibcode
1816:silicon
1530:During
1516:group V
1508:silicon
1465:arsenic
1378:is the
1330:photons
1326:phonons
999:cathode
995:voltage
937:silicon
895:laptops
858:arsenic
804:silicon
798:of the
776:Silicon
683:photons
617:current
572:crystal
529:gallium
521:arsenic
455:silicon
306:Density
279:Future
3549:Alloys
3436:
3418:
3399:
3380:
3357:
3331:
3302:
3222:
3127:
3043:
2988:
2932:May 3,
2910:May 3,
2888:May 3,
2867:May 3,
2846:May 3,
2819:May 3,
2792:May 3,
2739:May 3,
2717:May 3,
2693:
2670:
2644:Nature
2628:
2558:
2515:
2507:
2499:
2453:
2407:
2397:
2342:
2211:
2083:
1937:, and
1925:was a
1796:galena
1562:, and
1493:p-type
1485:n-type
1477:donors
1437:
1417:doping
1401:Doping
1318:energy
1202:gating
1198:doping
1081:metals
1022:doping
980:plasma
922:wafers
918:ingots
912:, and
864:, and
637:p-type
633:n-type
629:gating
625:doping
568:p-type
560:n-type
552:donors
533:indium
443:diodes
437:, and
415:doping
409:. Its
399:copper
316:Device
121:
51:device
3544:Metal
3527:Glass
3125:S2CID
3079:(PDF)
3068:(PDF)
3007:(PDF)
2986:S2CID
2955:(PDF)
2952:1968"
2765:(PDF)
2758:(PDF)
2668:S2CID
2537:(PDF)
2513:S2CID
2405:S2CID
2255:(PDF)
2248:(PDF)
1899:]
1888:]
1808:radio
1794:used
1706:]
1685:]
1521:boron
1481:donor
1361:exp(ā
1295:When
1207:Some
1161:(see
1115:holes
1077:white
1073:black
1030:wafer
1003:anode
988:Freon
910:twins
592:radio
525:boron
519:, or
407:glass
36:ingot
3434:ISBN
3416:ISBN
3397:ISBN
3378:ISBN
3355:ISBN
3329:ISBN
3300:ISBN
3275:2019
3249:2019
3220:ISBN
3202:2019
3173:2019
3041:ISBN
2934:2021
2912:2021
2890:2021
2869:2021
2848:2021
2821:2021
2794:2021
2773:2023
2741:2021
2719:2021
2691:ISBN
2626:ISBN
2556:ISBN
2505:PMID
2497:ISSN
2451:ISBN
2395:ISBN
2340:ISBN
2209:ISBN
2190:2020
2081:ISBN
1890:and
1843:and
1716:and
1514:and
1351:and
1217:HEMT
1125:edit
1101:and
1087:the
1083:and
1049:and
1001:and
951:and
943:and
806:and
782:and
729:and
727:LEDs
662:ions
635:and
435:ions
311:CMOS
3117:doi
2978:doi
2660:doi
2648:187
2594:doi
2582:181
2489:doi
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