Xenotransplantation - Knowledge (XXG)

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host species, however the virus may become infectious in another species. PERVS were originally discovered as retrovirus particles released from cultured porcine kidney cells. Most breeds of swine harbor approximately 50 PERV genomes in their DNA. Although it is likely that most of these are defective, some may be able to produce infectious viruses so every proviral genome must be sequenced to identify which ones pose a threat. In addition, through complementation and genetic recombination, two defective PERV genomes could give rise to an infectious virus. There are three subgroups of infectious PERVs (PERV-A, PERV-B, and PERV-C). Experiments have shown that PERV-A and PERV-B can infect human cells in culture. To date no experimental xenotransplantations have demonstrated PERV transmission, yet this does not mean PERV infections in humans are impossible. Pig cells have been engineered to inactivate all 62 PERVs in the genome using

970:. Porcine herpesviruses and rotaviruses can be eliminated from the donor pool by screening, however others (such as parvovirus and circovirus) may contaminate food and footwear then re-infect the herd. Thus, pigs to be used as organ donors must be housed under strict regulations and screened regularly for microbes and pathogens. Unknown viruses, as well as those not harmful in the animal, may also pose risks. Of particular concern are PERVS (porcine endogenous retroviruses), vertically transmitted microbes that embed in swine genomes. The risks with xenosis are twofold, as not only could the individual become infected, but a novel infection could initiate an epidemic in the human population. Because of this risk, the FDA has suggested any recipients of xenotransplants shall be closely monitored for the remainder of their life, and quarantined if they show signs of xenosis. 1107:

donating blood, tissue or organs", "the use of barrier contraception when engaging in sexual intercourse", "keep both name and current address on register and to notify the relevant health authorities when moving abroad" and "divulge confidential information, including one's status as a xenotransplantation recipient to researchers, all health care professionals from whom one seeks professional services, and close contacts such as current and future sexual partners." The patient must abide by these rules throughout their lifetime or until the government determines that there is no need for public health safeguards.

603:. Xenozoonoses are one of the biggest threats to rejections, as they are xenogenetic infections. The introduction of these microorganisms are a big issue that lead to the fatal infections and then rejection of the organs. This response, which is generally more extreme than in allotransplantations, ultimately results in rejection of the xenograft, and can in some cases result in the immediate death of the recipient. There are several types of rejection organ xenografts are faced with, these include hyperacute rejection, acute vascular rejection, cellular rejection, and chronic rejection. 669:

in the recipient's blood that recognize and bind to antigens on the surface of the pig kidney cells. These antigens, which are foreign to the human immune system, include certain carbohydrates and proteins that are not present in human tissues. The binding of these antibodies activates the complement system, leading to a cascade of events that cause widespread clotting and inflammation in the transplanted organ's blood vessels. As a result, the kidney quickly becomes ischemic (lacking adequate blood flow) and undergoes acute damage, often resulting in the organ's immediate loss.

578:. Pig organs are anatomically comparable in size, and new infectious agents are less likely since they have been in close contact with humans through domestication for many generations. Treatments sourced from pigs have proven to be successful such as porcine-derived insulin for patients with diabetes mellitus. Increasingly, genetically engineered pigs are becoming the norm, which raises moral qualms, but also increases the success rate of the transplant. Current experiments in xenotransplantation most often use pigs as the donor, and baboons as human models. In 2020 the U.S. 876:. Lymphocytes, which were previously activated by antigens in the vessel wall of the graft, activate macrophages to secrete smooth muscle growth factors. This results in a build up of smooth muscle cells on the vessel walls, causing the hardening and narrowing of vessels within the graft. Chronic rejection leads to pathologic changes of the organ, and is why transplants must be replaced after so many years. It is also anticipated that chronic rejection will be more aggressive in xenotransplants as opposed to allotransplants. 951:, when an influenza A virus was passed from birds to humans. Xenotransplantation may increase the chance of disease transmission for 3 reasons: (1) implantation breaches the physical barrier that normally helps to prevent disease transmission, (2) the recipient of the transplant will be severely immunosuppressed, and (3) human complement regulators (CD46, CD55, and CD59) expressed in transgenic pigs have been shown to serve as virus receptors, and may also help to protect viruses from attack by the complement system. 985:(NHMRC) declared an eighteen-year moratorium on all animal-to-human transplantation, concluding that the risks of transmission of animal viruses to patients and the wider community had not been resolved. This was repealed in 2009 after an NHMRC review stated "... the risks, if appropriately regulated, are minimal and acceptable given the potential benefits.", citing international developments on the management and regulation of xenotransplantation by the World Health Organisation and the European Medicines Agency. 673:

loss of kidney function can result in the accumulation of waste products and fluids in the body, causing symptoms such as swelling, electrolyte imbalances, and potential life-threatening complications. Furthermore, hyperacute rejection necessitates immediate medical intervention, often leading to the removal of the rejected kidney and the need to explore alternative treatment options, such as returning to dialysis or seeking another transplant source. Yang S, Zhang M, Wei H, Zhang B, Peng J, Shang P, Sun S.

904:, may be initiated by preexisting antibodies that affect the protein C anticoagulant system. Due to this effect, porcine donors must be extensively screened before transplantation. Studies have also shown that some porcine transplant cells are able to induce human tissue factor expression, thus stimulating platelet and monocyte aggregation around the xenotransplanted organ, causing severe clotting. Additionally, spontaneous platelet accumulation may be caused by contact with pig von Willebrand factor. 1031:, however, have long espoused non-violence towards all living creatures. In general, the use of pig and cow tissue in humans has been met with little resistance, save some religious beliefs and a few philosophical objections. Experimentation without consent doctrines are now followed, which was not the case in the past, which may lead to new religious guidelines to further medical research on pronounced ecumenical guidelines. The "Common Rule" is the United States bio-ethics mandate as of 2011. 574:) are currently thought to be the best candidates for organ donation. The risk of cross-species disease transmission is decreased because of their increased phylogenetic distance from humans. Pigs have relatively short gestation periods, large litters, and are easy to breed, making them readily available. They are inexpensive and easy to maintain in pathogen-free facilities, and current gene editing tools are adapted to pigs to combat rejection and potential 974:

they could contain the outbreak even though they have measures for control. Another obstacle facing xenotransplants is that of the body's rejection of foreign objects by its immune system. These antigens (foreign objects) are often treated with powerful immunosuppressive drugs that could, in turn, make the patient vulnerable to other infections and actually aid the disease. This is the reason the organs would have to be altered to fit the patients' DNA (

7983: 47: 417:. This kidney has 69 genomic edits (3 gene knockout, 7 human gene insertion and 59 copies of the porcine retrovirus knockout) made by eGenesis, Inc. Mr. Slayman died a few months later of unrelated causes, with no apparent rejection of the kidney. Meanwhile, in April 2024, Lisa Pisano became the second person to receive such a kidney transplant. Because of "unique challenges" related to a mechanical 1119:(FDA) has also stated that if a transplantation takes place, the recipient must undergo monitoring for the rest of their lifetime and waive their right to withdraw. The reason for requiring lifelong monitoring is due to the risk of acute infections that may occur. The FDA suggests that a passive screening program should be implemented and should extend for the life of the recipient. 52: 51: 48: 53: 50: 1023:

and in turn, did not live much longer afterwards. Modern scientific supporters of xenotransplantation argue that the potential benefits to society outweigh the risks, making pursuing xenotransplantation the moral choice. None of the major religions object to the use of genetically modified pig organs for life-saving transplantation. Religions such as

354:. Past complaints of ethics violations during surgeries in Hong Kong by Baruah and Ho had occurred in 1992, when they had implanted heart valves, developed by Baruah, made of animal tissue. A year later, six patients died. The Asian Medical News reported that "grave concerns" were expressed "over the procedure and ethics of the implementation". 260:-to-human renal transplantations in six people who were near death; after this and several subsequent unsuccessful attempts to use primates as organ donors and the development of a working cadaver organ procuring program, interest in xenotransplantation for kidney failure dissipated. Out of 13 such transplants performed by 1055:

for the slaughter on demand by human will would lead to a world they would not prefer. Supporters of the transplant pushed back, claiming that saving a human life justifies the sacrifice of an animal one. Most animal rights activists found the use of primate organs more reprehensible than those of, for example, pigs. As

1051:, and some images showing emotionally distraught primates appeared – who Voronoff had deprived of their testicles – no serious attempts were yet made to question the science based on animal rights concerns. Xenotransplantation was not taken seriously, at least in France, during the first half of the 20th century. 809:

If hyperacute and acute vascular rejection are avoided accommodation is possible, which is the survival of the xenograft despite the presence of circulating XNAs. The graft is given a break from humoral rejection when the complement cascade is interrupted, circulating antibodies are removed, or their

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Also known as delayed xenoactive rejection, this type of rejection occurs in discordant xenografts within 2 to 3 days, if hyperacute rejection is prevented. The process is much more complex than hyperacute rejection and is currently not completely understood. Acute vascular rejection requires de novo

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Hyperacute rejection is a severe, immediate immune response that occurs when a transplanted organ, such as a pig kidney, is rapidly attacked and destroyed by the recipient's immune system. In the context of pig kidney xenotransplantation, this type of rejection is triggered by pre-existing antibodies

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are more readily available, but impractical as potential donors. Problems include their smaller body size, the infrequency of blood group O (the universal donor), their long gestation period, and their typically small number of offspring. In addition, a major problem with the use of nonhuman primates

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Due to its complexity, the use of immunosuppressive drugs along with a wide array of approaches are necessary to prevent acute vascular rejection, and include administering a synthetic thrombin inhibitor to modulate thrombogenesis, depletion of anti-galactose antibodies (XNAs) by techniques such as

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Hyperacute rejection can severely affect the recipient’s body by leading to the rapid and complete failure of the transplanted kidney. This failure not only undermines the purpose of the transplant, which is to restore kidney function, but also poses serious health risks to the recipient. The sudden

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A worldwide shortage of organs for clinical implantation causes about 20–35% of patients who need replacement organs to die on the waiting list. Certain procedures, some of which are being investigated in early clinical trials, aim to use cells or tissues from other species to treat life-threatening

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et al. have expressed, many primates exhibit greater social structure, communication skills, and affection than mentally deficient humans and human infants. Despite this, it is considerably unlikely that animal suffering will provide sufficient impetus for regulators to prevent xenotransplantation.

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With the Baby Fae incident of 1984 as the impetus, animal rights activists began to protest, gathering media attention and proving that some people felt that it was unethical and a violation of the animal's own rights to use its organs to preserve a sick human's life. Treating animals as mere tools

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performed a heart transplant from a genetically modified pig to a terminally ill patient, David Bennett Sr., who was ineligible for a standard human heart transplant. The pig had undergone specific gene editing to remove enzymes responsible for producing sugar antigens that lead to hyperacute organ

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Beigel, J.; Farrar, J.; Han, A.; Hayden, F.; Hyer, R.; De Jong, M.; Lochindarat, S.; Nguyen, T.; Nguyen, T.; Tran, T. H.; Nicoll, A.; Touch, S.; Yuen, K. Y.; Writing Committee of the World Health Organization (WHO) Consultation on Human Influenza A/H5 (2005). "Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Infection in

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Xenografts have been a controversial procedure since they were first attempted. Many, including animal rights groups, strongly oppose killing animals to harvest their organs for human use. In the 1960s, many organs came from the chimpanzees, and were transferred into people that were deathly ill,

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are remnants of ancient viral infections, found in the genomes of most, if not all, mammalian species. Integrated into the chromosomal DNA, they are vertically transferred through inheritance. Due to the many deletions and mutations they accumulate over time, they usually are not infectious in the

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Baboons and pigs carry myriad transmittable agents that are harmless in their natural host, but extremely toxic and deadly in humans. HIV is an example of a disease believed to have jumped from monkeys to humans. Researchers also do not know if an outbreak of infectious diseases could occur and if

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hormone and protein differences – some proteins will be molecularly incompatible, which could cause malfunction of important regulatory processes. These differences also make the prospect of hepatic xenotransplantation less promising, since the liver plays an important role in the production of so

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Just as the α1,3G epitope is a major problem in xenotransplantation, so too is dysregulated coagulation a cause of concern. Transgenic pigs that can control for variable coagulant activity based on the specific organ transplanted would make xenotransplantation a more readily available solution for

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The strength of cellular rejection in xenografts remains uncertain, however, it is expected to be stronger than in allografts due to differences in peptides among different animals. This leads to more antigens potentially recognized as foreign, thus eliciting a greater indirect xenogenic response.

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On 20 September 2023, surgeons at the University of Maryland Medical Center in Baltimore performed a heart transplant from a genetically modified pig to Lawrence Faucette, a patient with terminal heart disease who was ineligible for a traditional heart transplant. On 30 October 2023, Faucette died

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immunoadsorption, to prevent endothelial cell activation, and inhibiting activation of macrophages (stimulated by CD4 T cells) and NK cells (stimulated by the release of Il-2). Thus, the role of MHC molecules and T cell responses in activation would have to be reassessed for each species combo.

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Binding of the previously mentioned XNAs to the donor endothelium leads to the activation of host macrophages as well as the endothelium itself. The endothelium activation is considered type II since gene induction and protein synthesis are involved. The binding of XNAs ultimately leads to the

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guidelines state that patients have to agree to "the periodic provision of bodily samples that would then be archived for epidemiological purposes", "post-mortem analysis in case of death, the storage of samples post-mortem, and the disclosure of this agreement to their family", "refrain from

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Though xenotransplantation may have future medical benefits, it also has the serious risk of introducing and spreading the infectious diseases, into the human population. Guidelines have been drafted by governments with the purpose of forming the foundation of infectious disease surveillance.

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Chronic rejection is slow and progressive, and usually occurs in transplants that survive the initial rejection phases. Scientists are still unclear how chronic rejection exactly works, research in this area is difficult since xenografts rarely survive past the initial acute rejection phases.

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A proposed strategy to avoid cellular rejection is to induce donor non-responsiveness using hematopoietic chimerism. Donor stem cells are introduced into the bone marrow of the recipient, where they coexist with the recipient's stem cells. The bone marrow stem cells give rise to cells of all

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sugars, which has been implicated in immune response to mammalian tissue. In order to ensure that renal function was only supported by the pig kidney, the team removed both of the patient's kidneys. The team has reported that the kidney has maintained optimal functioning for over a month, as

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are important when considering the future uses of xenotransplantation. A patient undergoing xenotransplantation should be fully aware of the procedure and should have no outside force influencing their choice. The patient should understand the risks and benefits of such a transplantation. A

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Successful efforts have been made to create knockout mice without α1,3GT; the resulting reduction in the highly immunogenic αGal epitope has resulted in the reduction of the occurrence of hyperacute rejection, but has not eliminated other barriers to xenotransplantation such as dysregulated

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and two of his associates, Jonathan Ho Kei-shing (of the Hong Kong-based Prince of Wales Medical Institute) and C.S. James, performed the surgeries. Baruah claimed that Saikia had failed to respond to conventional surgery, and that the patient and his family had consented to the procedure.

623:, which results in endothelial damage, inflammation, thrombosis and necrosis of the transplant. XNAs are first produced and begin circulating in the blood in neonates, after colonization of the bowel by bacteria with galactose moieties on their cell walls. Most of these antibodies are the 311:

replacement could not be found in time. While the procedure itself did not advance the progress on xenotransplantation, it did shed a light on the insufficient amount of organs for infants. The story made such an impact that the crisis of infant organ shortage improved for that time.

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This response is further perpetuated as normally binding between regulatory proteins and their ligands aid in the control of coagulation and inflammatory responses. However, due to molecular incompatibilities between the molecules of the donor species and recipient (such as porcine

854:. Lymphoid progenitor cells are created by this process and move to the thymus where negative selection eliminates T cells found to be reactive to self. The existence of donor stem cells in the recipient's bone marrow causes donor reactive T cells to be considered self and undergo 343:. Baruah was dismissed in medical circles as a "mad scientist" and the procedure was dubbed a "hoax". Baruah himself signed a statement saying he had done no transplant, but then alleged that the confession was forced from him. They were found guilty of unethical procedure and 513:

Xenotransplantation of human tumor cells into immunocompromised mice is a research technique frequently used in oncology research. It is used to predict the sensitivity of the transplanted tumor to various cancer treatments; several companies offer this service, including the

2203: 837:(IL-2). Indirect xenorecognition involves the presentation of antigens from the xenograft by recipient antigen presenting cells to CD4 T cells. Antigens of phagocytosed graft cells can also be presented by the host's class I MHC molecules to CD8 T cells. 4720: 49: 618:

This rapid and violent type of rejection occurs within minutes to hours from the time of the transplant. It is mediated by the binding of XNAs (xenoreactive natural antibodies) to the donor endothelium, causing activation of the human

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Healy, D. G.; Lawler, Z.; McEvoy, O.; Parlon, B.; Baktiari, N.; Egan, J. J.; Hurley, J.; McCarthy, J. F.; Mahon, N.; Wood, A. E. (2005). "Heart transplant candidates: Factors influencing waiting list mortality".

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with human genes to trick a patient's immune system into accepting it as a part of its own body. They have re-emerged because of the lack of organs available and the constant battle to keep immune systems from

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function is changed, or there is a change in the expression of surface antigens on the graft. This allows the xenograft to up-regulate and express protective genes, which aid in resistance to injury, such as

62:. Representative long axis view echocardiography, four weeks after myocardial infarction (MI), right before CMPC/placebo infusion. Thinning and akinesia of the septal apical wall due to MI can be appreciated. 871:

in the xenograft occurs as a result of immune reactions, cytokines (which stimulate fibroblasts), or healing (following cellular necrosis in acute rejection). Perhaps the major cause of chronic rejection is

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Rogel-Gaillard, C.; Bourgeaux, N.; Billault, A.; Vaiman, M.; Chardon, P. (1999). "Construction of a swine BAC library: Application to the characterization and mapping of porcine type C endoviral elements".

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temperature – the body temperature of pigs is 39 °C (2 °C above the average human body temperature). Implications of this difference, if any, on the activity of important enzymes are currently

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protein synthesis and is driven by interactions between the graft endothelial cells and host antibodies, macrophages, and platelets. The response is characterized by an inflammatory infiltrate of mostly

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Plasmaphoresis, on humans to remove 1,3 galactosyltransferase, reduces the risk of activation of effector cells such as CTL (CD8 T cells), complement pathway activation and delayed type hypersensitivity

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United States Food and Drug Administration. Guidance for Industry: Source Animal, Product, Preclinical, and Clinical Issues Concerning the Use of XTx Products in Humans. Washington, DC: US FDA, 2001

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The first serious attempts at xenotransplantation (then called heterotransplantation) appeared in the scientific literature in 1905, when slices of rabbit kidney were transplanted into a child with

657:. Complement activation causes a cascade of events leading to: destruction of endothelial cells, platelet degranulation, inflammation, coagulation, fibrin deposition, and hemorrhage. The result is 328:

in mid-December 1996, and was announced in January 1997. The recipient was Purno Saikia, a 32-year-old terminally-ill man; he died shortly after the operation of multiple infections. The Indian

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without harming human patients. This technique has also been proposed as an alternative source of human organs for future transplantation into human patients. For example, researchers from the

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1,3 galactosyl transferase gene knockouts – These pigs do not contain the gene that codes for the enzyme responsible for expression of the immunogeneic gal-α-1,3Gal moiety (the α-Gal epitope).

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but maintained on a respirator. The patient had previously consented to be an organ donor, but his tissues were not considered suitable for transplant. The kidney came from an animal with a

264:, one kidney recipient lived for nine months, returning to work as a schoolteacher. At autopsy, the chimpanzee kidneys appeared normal and showed no signs of acute or chronic rejection. 702:(C1-INH). Disadvantages of this approach include the toxicity of cobra venom factor, and most importantly these treatments would deprive the individual of a functional complement system. 5858: 2204:"University of Maryland School of Medicine Faculty Scientists and Clinicians Perform Historic First Successful Transplant of Porcine Heart into Adult Human with End-Stage Heart Disease" 947:

or xenosis, is the transmission of infectious agents between species via xenograft. Animal to human infection is normally rare, but has occurred in the past. An example of such is the

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In direct xenorecognition, antigen presenting cells from the xenograft present peptides to recipient CD4 T cells via xenogeneic MHC class II molecules, resulting in the production of

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were originally considered the best option since their organs are of similar size, and they have good blood type compatibility with humans, which makes them potential candidates for

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Van Der Windt, D. J.; Bottino, R; Kumar, G; Wijkstrom, M; Hara, H; Ezzelarab, M; Ekser, B; Phelps, C; Murase, N; Casu, A; Ayares, D; Lakkis, F. G.; Trucco, M; Cooper, D. K. (2012).

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Critics said Dhani Bam Baruah's claims and medical procedures were neither taken seriously nor accepted by the scientific community because he never got his findings scientifically

213:-derived, but the cells are killed by glutaraldehyde treatment before insertion, therefore technically not fulfilling the WHO definition of xenotransplantation of being live cells. 7382: 1722: 1039:

At the beginning of the 20th century when studies in xenotransplantation were just beginning, few questioned the morality of it, turning to animals as a "natural" alternative to

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performed two genetically modified pig heart transplants into recently deceased humans. The hearts were from pigs that had the identical 10 genetic modifications used in the

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in 1954 and scientists, facing the ethical questions of organ donation for the first time, accelerated their effort in looking for alternatives to human organs.

202:, animal rights activists have also objected to xenotransplantation on ethical grounds. A few temporarily successful cases of xenotransplantation are published. 2286: 1922: 650:

by primates, which lack the galactosyl transferase enzyme. In pig to primate xenotransplantation, XNAs recognize porcine glycoproteins of the integrin family.

1301: 153:, that is, a human with a subset of animal cells. In contrast, an individual where each cell contains genetic material from a human and an animal is called a 5242: 4670: 1255: 982: 2176: 7209: 7153: 498:

can be perfected, it could allow for long-term storage of xenogenic cells, tissues and organs so that they would be more readily available for transplant.

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Since they are the closest relatives to humans, non-human primates were first considered as a potential organ source for xenotransplantation to humans.

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size – with pigs for example, organs are taken from young pigs to be of suitable size for donation, and these may still be able to grow afterwards

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In July 2023, surgeons from the NYU Langone Transplant Institute completed a transplant of a genetically modified pig kidney (along with the pig's

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Extensive research is required to determine whether animal organs can replace the physiological functions of human organs. Many issues include:

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heart xenotransplantation in January 2022. All three hearts came from Revivicor, Inc., a facility based in Blacksburg, Va., and a subsidiary of

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Kemter, Elisabeth; Denner, Joachim; Wolf, Eckhard (2018). "Will Genetic Engineering Carry Xenotransplantation of Pig Islets to the Clinic?".

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Bailey, L. L.; Nehlsen-Cannarella, S. L.; Concepcion, W.; Jolley, W. B. (1985). "Baboon-to-human cardiac xenotransplantation in a neonate".

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Since hyperacute rejection presents such a barrier to the success of xenografts, several strategies to overcome it are under investigation:

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To date, no xenotransplantation trials have been entirely successful due to the many obstacles arising from the response of the recipient's

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Tentler, J. J.; Tan, A. C.; Weekes, C. D.; Jimeno, A; Leong, S; Pitts, T. M.; Arcaroli, J. J.; Messersmith, W. A.; Eckhardt, S. G. (2012).

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Different organ xenotransplants result in different responses in clotting. For example, kidney transplants result in a higher degree of

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mismatch, considered unavoidable due to the rarity of type O baboons. The graft was meant to be temporary, but unfortunately a suitable

225:. In the first two decades of the 20th century, several subsequent efforts to use organs from lambs, pigs, and primates were published. 7830: 7173: 7083: 4395: 3998: 501:

Xenotransplants could save thousands of patients waiting for donated organs. The animal organ, probably from a pig or baboon could be

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Sykes M; D'Apice A; Sandrin M (2003). "Position Paper of the Ethics Committee of the International Xenotransplantation Association".

413:, a patient whose transplanted human kidney had failed, received a genetically engineered pig kidney xenotransplant from surgeons at 7898: 7374: 7334: 7257: 7214: 7068: 6993: 6467: 5222: 5212: 4478: 4298: 4273: 3908: 3264: 1084: 145:

transplantation or isotransplantation (grafts transplanted between two genetically identical individuals of the same species) and

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environment – for example, pig hearts work in a different anatomical site and under different hydrostatic pressure than in humans

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Latemple, D. C.; Galili, U. (1998). "Adult and neonatal anti-Gal response in knock-out mice for alpha1,3galactosyltransferase".

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and weekly biopsies. The team plans to monitor the patient for another month, pending approval by ethics board and his family.

277: 8016: 7486: 5848: 5558: 5227: 4859: 4830: 4804: 4414: 3112:"Reduction in the level of Gal(alpha1,3)Gal in transgenic mice and pigs by the expression of an alpha(1,2)fucosyltransferase" 1474: 414: 149:(from one part of the body to another in the same person). Xenotransplantation is an artificial method of creating an animal- 5298: 646:. Most non-primates contain this enzyme thus, this epitope is present on the organ epithelium and is perceived as a foreign 2636: 7123: 7008: 5828: 5360: 4735: 4715: 3596: 1001: 639: 583: 398: 379: 363: 31: 1287: 8011: 7225: 7183: 7003: 6397: 5328: 5273: 4773: 4700: 1116: 654: 579: 347:

and imprisoned for 40 days. Dhani Ram Baruah's surgical institute was also found to be without necessary registration.

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Cooper, David K. C.; Groth, Carl G.; McKenzie, Ian F. C.; Goldman, Emanuel; Fano, Alix; Vanderpool, Harold Y. (2000).

1869:"After pig's heart transplant in the US, controversial Assam doctor points out had done historic surgery 24 years ago" 232:

basis of the organ rejection process was described. The next waves of studies on the topic came with the discovery of

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principles is standardized in the moral conduct of laboratories. The four principles emphasize informed consent, the

716: 719:), an enzyme that competes with galactosyl transferase. Experiments have shown this reduces α-Gal expression by 70%. 7923: 7795: 7590: 7526: 7462: 7113: 7073: 7043: 6171: 6166: 5568: 4783: 4639: 4561: 2654: 1802:

Bioethics in India: Proceedings of the International Bioethics Workshop in Madras: Biomanagement of Biogeoresources

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was transplanted as well). The kidney was procured from a pig with only a single gene modification: the removal of

186:. It also raises many novel medical, legal and ethical issues. A continuing concern is that many animals, such as 4531: 3171:"Protection of xenogeneic cells from human complement-mediated lysis by the expression of human DAF, CD59 and MCP" 2126: 1263: 923:

longevity – the lifespan of most pigs is roughly 15 years, currently it is unknown how xenotransplanted organs age

198:) and permanent alteration to the genetic code of animals are also causes for concern. Similarly to objections to 7907: 7745: 7582: 7018: 6312: 6231: 6091: 5671: 5126: 4665: 4536: 3662:

Patience, C.; Takeuchi, Y.; Weiss, R. A. (1997). "Infection of human cells by an endogenous retrovirus of pigs".

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The first transplant of a non-genetically modified pig's heart, lungs and kidneys into a human was performed in

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she received along with the kidney, her kidney had to be removed due to "insufficient blood flow" late in May.

68: 7837: 7809: 154: 3563: 2014: 8026: 8021: 7958: 7729: 7633: 7446: 7422: 7299: 7178: 7133: 7028: 6915: 6724: 5400: 5318: 4897: 4842: 4593: 4501: 2287:"Successful Heart Xenotransplant Experiments at NYU Langone Set Protocol for Pig-to-Human Organ Transplants" 1006: 206: 4291:

The Transplant Imaginary Mechanical Hearts, Animal Parts, and Moral Thinking in Highly Experimental Science

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The Transplant Imaginary Mechanical Hearts, Animal Parts, and Moral Thinking in Highly Experimental Science

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The Transplant Imaginary Mechanical Hearts, Animal Parts, and Moral Thinking in Highly Experimental Science

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Takeuchi, Y.; Patience, C.; Magre, S.; Weiss, R. A.; Banerjee, P. T.; Le Tissier, P.; Stoye, J. P. (1998).

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Takahashi, T.; Saadi, S.; Platt, J. L. (1997). "Recent advances in the immunology of xenotransplantation".

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The recipient's complement cascade can be inhibited through the use of cobra venom factor (which depletes

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rejection in humans. The US medical regulator gave special dispensation to carry out the procedure under

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Takeuchi, Y.; Weiss, R. A. (2000). "Xenotransplantation: Reappraising the risk of retroviral zoonosis".

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190:, have a shorter lifespan than humans, meaning that their tissues age at a quicker rate. (Pigs have a 7761: 7566: 7494: 7245: 7188: 7058: 6910: 6895: 6769: 6669: 6629: 6624: 6477: 5699: 5540: 5308: 5288: 4918: 4675: 4551: 4516: 3557:"The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council's 2005 statement on xenotransplantation" 3123: 2078: 753: 507: 339:

All three involved in the surgery were arrested on January 9, 1997, for the alleged violation of the

183: 3458: 822:

Rejection of the xenograft in hyperacute and acute vascular rejection is due to the response of the

610:

present in the host organism. These antibodies are known as xenoreactive natural antibodies (XNAs).

7855: 7802: 7219: 6830: 6442: 6437: 6317: 6292: 6011: 5868: 5757: 5651: 5646: 5011: 4506: 4463: 4451: 4389:

The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council's 2005 statement on xenotransplantation

1128: 1040: 908:

the 70,000 patients per year who do not receive a human donation of the organ or tissue they need.

502: 462: 430: 146: 138: 7753: 7574: 7398: 7275: 7251: 7163: 6789: 6196: 5689: 5641: 5631: 5442: 5350: 4882: 4334: 4246: 4176: 4068: 3953: 3731: 3687: 3235: 3092: 2944: 2881: 2752: 2291: 975: 556: 515: 454: 371: 285: 7869: 7816: 7406: 6865: 6206: 4014: 1923:"Pig Kidneys to the Rescue? Groundbreaking Transplant a Step Toward Solving our Organ Shortage" 1087:

pointed out in 2003 that one major ethical issue is the societal response to such a procedure.

521:

Human organs have been transplanted into animals as a powerful research technique for studying

7939: 7713: 7673: 7625: 7617: 7502: 7269: 7168: 7143: 7108: 6855: 6764: 6704: 6619: 6071: 6046: 6036: 6016: 5742: 5626: 5535: 5370: 5116: 5096: 5091: 4990: 4892: 4644: 4342: 4294: 4269: 4238: 4203: 4168: 4133: 4115: 4076: 4060: 3994: 3971: 3945: 3904: 3780: 3723: 3679: 3641: 3525: 3471: 3425: 3371: 3319: 3260: 3227: 3192: 3151: 3084: 3049: 2993: 2936: 2928: 2889: 2873: 2829: 2744: 2706: 2619: 2570: 2560: 2529: 2480: 2431: 2379: 2104: 1992: 1672: 1637: 1585: 1537: 1431: 1380: 1353: 1236: 827: 620: 447: 344: 257: 253: 191: 168: 118: 900:, causing recipient death within a few days due to bleeding. An alternate clotting disorder, 17: 7883: 7609: 7158: 6825: 6729: 6689: 6679: 6609: 6472: 6412: 6367: 6332: 6236: 6191: 6131: 6081: 5905: 5863: 5823: 5793: 5783: 5778: 5717: 5520: 5283: 5252: 4938: 4496: 4378: 4230: 4160: 4123: 4107: 3961: 3937: 3770: 3762: 3715: 3671: 3631: 3517: 3463: 3415: 3407: 3361: 3353: 3309: 3301: 3268: 3219: 3182: 3141: 3131: 3076: 3039: 2983: 2975: 2920: 2865: 2819: 2809: 2736: 2696: 2688: 2609: 2601: 2552: 2519: 2511: 2470: 2462: 2421: 2413: 2094: 2086: 1984: 1664: 1627: 1619: 1575: 1527: 1517: 1421: 1413: 1343: 1335: 1226: 1218: 1148: 1143: 1095: 1072: 897: 896:, or impaired clotting, than cardiac transplants, whereas liver xenografts result in severe 873: 811: 564:

is the increased risk of disease transmission, since they are so closely related to humans.

495: 297: 110: 59: 1973:"P112 Correlation between clinical findings and laboratory tests for alpha gal sensitivity" 7697: 6805: 6759: 6754: 6604: 6569: 6554: 6492: 6382: 6327: 6307: 6246: 6156: 6066: 6006: 5981: 5636: 5510: 4923: 4763: 4621: 4603: 4521: 4511: 4021: 3886: 2181: 1165: 948: 552: 410: 332: 300: 122: 2796:

Cooper, David; Ekser, Burcin; Ramsoondar, Jagdeece; Phelps, Carol; Ayares, David (2015).

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Nonetheless, it is known that XNAs and the complement system are not primarily involved.

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Xenotransplantation Action Plan: FDA Approach to the Regulation of Xenotransplantation

3521: 1897:"Progress in Xenotransplantation Opens Door to New Supply of Critically Needed Organs" 1231: 1206: 1098:

to do no harm, using skills to help others, and protecting the right to quality care.

8005: 7915: 7033: 6900: 6875: 6810: 6779: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6719: 6684: 6599: 6574: 6544: 6447: 6417: 6272: 6226: 6221: 6186: 6181: 6136: 6121: 6101: 6076: 6041: 6021: 5986: 5889: 5722: 5465: 5425: 5323: 5293: 5168: 5053: 5043: 4964: 4928: 4758: 4616: 4611: 4573: 4486: 4234: 3879: 3766: 3146: 3111: 2988: 2963: 2948: 2908: 1668: 1400:"A short life on the farm: aging and longevity in agricultural, large-bodied mammals" 1160: 1077: 851: 834: 691: 600: 522: 487: 394: 237: 229: 179: 150: 3691: 3239: 3169:

Huang, J.; Gou, D.; Zhen, C.; Jiang, D.; Mao, X.; Li, W.; Chen, S.; Cai, C. (2001).

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allotransplants. Xenotransplants are thus potentially a more effective alternative.

7093: 6935: 6925: 6774: 6749: 6654: 6649: 6634: 6594: 6584: 6457: 6377: 6372: 6352: 6342: 6337: 6277: 6216: 6211: 6161: 6151: 6141: 6051: 5976: 5833: 5788: 5747: 5709: 5694: 5656: 5475: 5455: 5375: 4980: 4954: 4250: 4180: 3751:"Host range and interference studies of three classes of pig endogenous retrovirus" 3735: 2127:"The first person to receive a genetically modified pig kidney transplant has died" 1623: 1056: 893: 886: 699: 567: 375: 195: 3272: 1482: 3357: 2466: 2315:"After a Flurry of Firsts, Xenotransplantation is Suddenly Back in the Spotlight" 1948:"Pig Kidney Xenotransplantation Performing Optimally After 32 Days in Human Body" 1775:"Why the US Pig Heart Transplant Was Different From the 1997 Assam Doc's Surgery" 74: 7657: 7103: 6930: 6920: 6905: 6845: 6674: 6579: 6549: 6524: 6462: 6452: 6241: 6126: 6111: 6096: 6061: 6056: 6026: 5996: 5991: 5803: 5737: 5608: 5583: 5480: 5385: 5380: 5058: 4710: 4649: 2556: 1404: 955: 749: 586:

sugars. Pig organs have been used for kidney and heart transplants into humans.

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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technology, and eliminated infection from the pig to human cells in culture.

826:, since the response is elicited by the XNAs. Cellular rejection is based on 280:

was the first infant recipient of a xenotransplantation, when she received a

7862: 7721: 7317: 7088: 6694: 6559: 6534: 6422: 6201: 6146: 5798: 5598: 5505: 5485: 5460: 5395: 4111: 3136: 3044: 3027: 2869: 2319: 1522: 1133: 1091: 959: 855: 765: 308: 4346: 4242: 4207: 4172: 4137: 4080: 3975: 3863:"Startup eGenesis pushes toward goal: transplanting pig organs into humans" 3727: 3529: 3475: 3429: 3375: 3323: 3196: 3053: 2997: 2940: 2893: 2833: 2748: 2692: 2623: 2574: 2547:

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M. Gnanapragasam (16–19 Jan 1997). "Perspectives in Medical Ethics".

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Human xenotransplantation offers a potential treatment for end-stage

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Ruth Mathewson (16 Feb 1997). "Transplant surgeon to lose licence".

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development of a procoagulant state, the secretion of inflammatory

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criteria. The recipient died two months after the transplantation.

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Kress, J. M. (1998). "Xenotransplantation: Ethics and economics".

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into rats which demonstrated life supporting function and growth.

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mice, and is a research technique frequently used in pre-clinical

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Ellison T. (2006). "Xenotransplantation—ethics and regulation".

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Armstrong, J. A.; Porterfield, J. S.; De Madrid, A. T. (1971).

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molecules and human natural killer cells), this may not occur.

653:

The binding of XNAs initiate complement activation through the

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A rapid, violent, and hyperacute response comes as a result of

582:

approved a genetic modification of pigs so they do not produce

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Scientific interest in xenotransplantation declined when the

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with no sign of immediate rejection (partly because the pig

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Anand RP, Layer JV, Heja D, et al. (11 October 2023).

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The epitope XNAs target is an α-linked galactose moiety,

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University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid

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Krishna, N.; Krishna, S.; Krishna, R. (November 2017).

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In January 2022, doctors led by cardiothoracic surgeon

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Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994

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JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association

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to another. Such cells, tissues or organs are called

4323:"Are Xenotransplantation Safeguards Legally Viable?" 954:

Examples of viruses carried by pigs include porcine

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Xenotransplantation guidelines in the United States

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Medical Center) 1564:"Xenotransplantation: A Historical Perspective" 1151: – Offspring of cross-species reproduction 850:hematopoietic lineages, through the process of 707:Transgenic organs (Genetically engineered pigs) 366:performed the first genetically engineered pig 194:of about 27 years.) Disease transmission ( 182:, a significant health problem in parts of the 5072:List of organ transplant donors and recipients 4293:. University of California Press. p. 18. 4268:. University of California Press. p. 45. 4096:"Xenotransplantation: A Bioethical Evaluation" 3903:. University of California Press. p. 38. 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1317: 1315: 1306:The Embryo Project at Arizona State University 555:. However, since chimpanzees are listed as an 316:Non-human heart, lungs, and kidneys to a human 284:heart in 1984. The procedure was performed by 5153: 4422: 3589:"Xenotransplantation ban lifted in Australia" 3283: 3281: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2008: 2006: 1290:. Definition by the World Health Organization 1085:International Xenotransplantation Association 8: 5243:Moral status of animals in the ancient world 4671:Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder 4316: 4314: 4312: 4310: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3335: 3333: 3251: 3249: 2339: 2337: 2148: 2146: 1300:Sarah Taddeo, Jason S. Robert (2014-11-04). 993:"PERVS" redirects here. For other uses, see 983:National Health and Medical Research Council 694:), soluble complement receptor type 1, anti- 163:are created by xenotransplantation of human 7210:Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society 7154:People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals 5181:Topics (overviews, concepts, issues, cases) 4196:Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica. 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(2008). 2449:Platt JL, Cascalho M (2013). 1002:Porcine endogenous retrovirus 845:Overcoming cellular rejection 640:galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose 543:Potential animal organ donors 32:Xenotransplantation (journal) 18:Transplantation, heterologous 7184:UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics 5329:Argument from marginal cases 4774:Halachic Organ Donor Society 4701:Gift of Life Marrow Registry 4013:von Derdidas, Ihrwir (2009) 3930:BMJ: British Medical Journal 3358:10.1097/MOT.0b013e3283446c65 2681:Emerging Infectious Diseases 2467:10.1097/MOT.0b013e32835f0887 2153:Rob Stein (April 24, 2024). 2125:Emma Bowman (May 12, 2024). 1117:Food and Drug Administration 1090:The application of the four 1083:The Ethics Committee of the 1047:mocked xenografters such as 943:Xenozoonosis, also known as 655:classical complement pathway 580:Food and Drug Administration 7471:Morals, Reason, and Animals 7099:Farm Animal Rights Movement 7049:Anonymous for the Voiceless 5733:International primate trade 5208:Anarchism and animal rights 4779:Kidney Foundation of Canada 3989:Rothblatt, Martine (2004). 3394:Ekser B, Cooper DK (2010). 2907:Dolgin, Elie (2021-04-01). 2653:Lewis, Tanya (2015-01-21). 2557:10.1007/978-1-61779-845-0_1 2400:David H. Sachs (May 2018). 1606:Cooper, DK (January 2012). 1064:Informed consent of patient 885:coagulation, also known as 248:Non-human kidney to a human 8043: 7591:Making a Stand for Animals 7463:The Case for Animal Rights 7114:Hunt Saboteurs Association 7074:Cruelty Free International 7044:Anti-Vivisection Coalition 5569:Animal testing regulations 4836:harvesting from Falun Gong 4784:National Kidney Foundation 4640:Non-heart-beating donation 4024:. Hotel St. George Press. 3637:10.1099/0022-1317-10-2-195 3288:Vanderpool, H. Y. (1999). 2980:10.1128/CMR.14.1.1-14.2001 2925:10.1038/s41587-021-00885-9 2852:REISS, MICHAEL J. (2000). 2091:10.1038/s41586-023-06594-4 1989:10.1016/j.anai.2017.08.136 1418:10.1007/s11357-020-00190-4 1223:10.1177/014107680309600303 1012:CRISPR Cas9 genome editing 999: 992: 527:Ganogen Research Institute 268:Non-human heart to a human 161:Patient derived xenografts 29: 7977: 7746:The Ghosts in Our Machine 7583:Animal Ethics in the Wild 7362: 7351: 7019:Animal Legal Defense Fund 6975: 6961: 6313:William Hamilton Drummond 5951: 5937: 5672:Welfare of farmed insects 5299:Animal–industrial complex 5186: 5175: 5067: 4666:Graft-versus-host disease 4100:Journal of Medical Ethics 3306:10.1136/bmj.319.7220.1311 2741:10.1007/s11892-018-1074-5 1373:Food and Drug Law Journal 1340:10.1038/nrclinonc.2012.61 81: 44: 7824:Journal of Animal Ethics 7690:Your Mommy Kills Animals 7079:Direct Action Everywhere 6483:Johann Heinrich Winckler 6428:Nathaniel Peabody Rogers 5885:Direct Action Everywhere 5589:Huntingdon Life Sciences 5574:Labcorp Drug Development 5531:Feedback (pork industry) 5496:Intensive animal farming 5233:History of animal rights 4731:NHS Blood and Transplant 4047:Rémy, Catherine (2009). 3942:10.1136/bmj.320.7238.868 2802:The Journal of Pathology 2729:Current Diabetes Reports 1758:South China Morning Post 1703:South China Morning Post 1450:"Interviews - Dan Lyons" 1155:Horizontal gene transfer 981:In 2005, the Australian 880:Dysregulated coagulation 743:Acute vascular rejection 717:α-1,2-fucosyltransferase 627:class, but also include 137:. It is contrasted with 7959:Holocaust on your Plate 7730:An Apology to Elephants 7511:Do Animals Have Rights? 7447:Animals, Men and Morals 7423:Better-World Philosophy 7300:Italian Animalist Party 7179:United Poultry Concerns 7134:Last Chance for Animals 7029:Animal Liberation Front 6916:Maud Ingersoll Probasco 5401:Replaceability argument 5319:Animal-free agriculture 5107:Immunosuppressive drugs 4843:Organ donation in India 4112:10.1136/jme.2005.012914 3137:10.1073/pnas.93.14.7190 2870:10.1111/1468-5930.00160 1846:The Sentinel (Guwahati) 1804:. University of Madras. 1523:10.3389/fcvm.2019.00047 1007:Endogenous retroviruses 756:(with small numbers of 234:immunosuppressive drugs 207:artificial heart valves 107:heterologous transplant 7932:Salvation of Innocents 7479:Zoos and Animal Rights 7054:Beauty Without Cruelty 7014:Animal Justice Project 6348:John Zephaniah Holwell 6002:Stephen St. C. Bostock 5579:Great ape research ban 5198:Animal rights movement 5127:Frankenstein's monster 5122:Total body irradiation 4848:Gurgaon kidney scandal 4706:Human Tissue Authority 4289:Sharp, Leslie (2013). 4264:Sharp, Leslie (2013). 4020:July 12, 2011, at the 4015:A More Modest Proposal 3899:Sharp, Leslie (2013). 3885:June 26, 2010, at the 2693:10.3201/eid0201.960111 2643:Issue 508, Winter 2008 397:for the production of 330:cardiothoracic surgeon 294:Loma Linda, California 223:chronic kidney disease 8017:Organ transplantation 7951:Fairs and exhibitions 7838:The Animals' Defender 7810:Cahiers antispécistes 7738:Speciesism: The Movie 7559:Animal (De)liberation 7519:Striking at the Roots 7431:The Universal Kinship 7391:The Rights of Animals 7312:People Animals Nature 7306:Party for the Animals 7119:In Defense of Animals 6881:Nina Douglas-Hamilton 6268:David Renaud Boullier 5854:Silver Spring monkeys 5753:Wild animal suffering 5662:Pain in invertebrates 5501:Intensive pig farming 5391:Opposition to hunting 5356:Ethics of eating meat 5112:Lung allocation score 5049:Jean-Michel Dubernard 4438:Organ transplantation 4094:Anderson, M. (2006). 3926:"Xenotransplantation" 3045:10.1093/qjmed/93.2.63 2372:Irish Medical Journal 1000:Further information: 824:humoral immune system 644:galactosyltransferase 572:Sus scrofa domesticus 435:Muhammad M. Mohiuddin 242:renal transplantation 209:are generally pig or 30:For the journal, see 7567:Sentientist Politics 7495:The Lives of Animals 7246:Animal Justice Party 7059:Born Free Foundation 6896:Lizzy Lind af Hageby 6770:Wendy Turner-Webster 6478:Adam Gottlieb Weigen 5700:Recreational fishing 5541:Ventilation shutdown 5309:Animal protectionism 5289:Animal consciousness 4919:J. Hartwell Harrison 4676:Transplant rejection 3468:10.1056/NEJMra052211 3212:Immunologic Research 2913:Nature Biotechnology 2675:Michler, R. (1996). 1562:Reemtsma, K (1995). 1510:Front Cardiovasc Med 1485:on December 10, 2007 754:natural killer cells 614:Hyperacute rejection 595:Immunologic barriers 252:In 1963, doctors at 240:'s first successful 184:industrialized world 8012:Xenotransplantation 7991:( 139 ) 7817:Etica & Animali 7803:Between the Species 7527:An American Trilogy 7220:Humanitarian League 6831:Frances Power Cobbe 6443:Arthur Schopenhauer 6438:Henry Stephens Salt 6318:Edward Payson Evans 6012:Stephen R. L. Clark 5869:War of the currents 5758:Wildlife management 5652:Pain in crustaceans 5647:Pain in cephalopods 5028:André van der Merwe 5012:Richard C. Lillehei 4685:Transplant networks 4469:Xenotransplantation 4464:Autotransplantation 4452:Allotransplantation 4223:Xenotransplantation 4153:Xenotransplantation 3755:Journal of Virology 3128:1996PNAS...93.7190S 3069:Xenotransplantation 2784:Xenotransplantation 2549:Xenotransplantation 2406:Xenotransplantation 2083:2023Natur.622..393A 1581:10.1093/ilar.37.1.9 1288:Xenotransplantation 1129:Bartley P. Griffith 665:of the xenograft. 590:Barriers and issues 503:genetically altered 492:Parkinson's disease 463:United Therapeutics 431:Bartley P. Griffith 155:human–animal hybrid 147:autotransplantation 139:allotransplantation 95:Xenotransplantation 40:Xenotransplantation 7754:Unlocking the Cage 7575:Wild Animal Ethics 7399:The Ethics of Diet 7276:Animalist Movement 7252:Animal Politics EU 7164:Sentience Politics 6790:That Vegan Teacher 6403:Siobhan O'Sullivan 6388:José Ferrater Mora 6197:Steve F. Sapontzis 5690:Commercial fishing 5642:Pain in amphibians 5632:Cruelty to animals 5604:Operation Backfire 5443:Animal agriculture 5351:Emotion in animals 4883:Christiaan Barnard 4479:Organs and tissues 3830:The New York Times 3676:10.1038/nm0397-282 3224:10.1007/BF02786395 2782:Taylor, L. (2007) 2606:10.1242/dmm.000976 2292:NYU Langone Health 2240:. January 11, 2022 1873:The Indian Express 1848:. October 23, 2021 1781:. January 13, 2022 976:histocompatibility 818:Cellular rejection 557:endangered species 516:Jackson Laboratory 455:NYU Langone Health 372:NYU Langone Health 286:Leonard Lee Bailey 7999: 7998: 7992: 7973: 7972: 7969: 7968: 7940:Onward to Freedom 7908:Animal Liberation 7893: 7892: 7714:Forks Over Knives 7666:Peaceable Kingdom 7626:Shores of Silence 7618:A Cow at My Table 7503:Eternal Treblinka 7455:Animal Liberation 7347: 7346: 7343: 7342: 7234: 7233: 7169:Uncaged Campaigns 7144:Mercy for Animals 7109:Great Ape Project 7024:Animal Liberation 6970:(groups, parties) 6957: 6956: 6953: 6952: 6949: 6948: 6856:Elizabeth Farians 6765:Christine Townend 6705:Heather Nicholson 6630:Brigitte Gothière 6620:Antoine Goetschel 6506: 6505: 6167:Charles Patterson 6072:Gary L. Francione 6047:Josephine Donovan 6037:Daniel Dombrowski 6017:Alasdair Cochrane 5933: 5932: 5929: 5928: 5812: 5811: 5743:Predation problem 5627:Animal euthanasia 5536:Foam depopulation 5371:Insects in ethics 5135: 5134: 5117:Machine perfusion 5097:Edmonton protocol 5092:Biomedical tissue 5080: 5079: 4991:Vladimir Demikhov 4893:Adrian Kantrowitz 4645:Organ procurement 3991:Your Life or Mine 3936:(7238): 868–869. 3761:(12): 9986–9991. 3720:10.1159/000015294 3452:(13): 1374–1385. 3412:10.1586/eci.09.81 3122:(14): 7190–7195. 2815:10.1002/path.4635 2566:978-1-61779-844-3 2516:10.2337/db12-0033 2418:10.1111/xen.12420 2077:(7982): 393–401. 1663:(23): 3321–3329. 862:Chronic rejection 828:cellular immunity 621:complement system 448:compassionate use 364:Robert Montgomery 345:culpable homicide 254:Tulane University 192:maximum life span 169:immunocompromised 92: 91: 54: 16:(Redirected from 8034: 7990: 7985: 7984: 7796:Animal Sentience 7785: 7650:Legally Blonde 2 7610:The Animals Film 7364: 7353: 7159:Rise for Animals 6984: 6977: 6963: 6826:Edith Carrington 6730:Craig Rosebraugh 6690:Virginia McKenna 6680:Jo-Anne McArthur 6610:Juliet Gellatley 6515: 6473:Mary Anne Warren 6413:Humphrey Primatt 6398:Edward Nicholson 6368:Charles R. Magel 6333:Thomas G. Gentry 6192:Richard D. Ryder 6132:Thomas Lepeltier 5962: 5953: 5939: 5906:World Animal Day 5864:Unnecessary Fuss 5824:Brown Dog affair 5794:Animals in sport 5784:Animal slaughter 5779:Animal sacrifice 5718:Culling wildlife 5521:Wildlife farming 5439: 5284:Animal cognition 5253:Total liberation 5188: 5177: 5162: 5155: 5148: 5139: 4939:Michael Woodruff 4873: 4604:Medical grafting 4431: 4424: 4417: 4408: 4403: 4367: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4318: 4305: 4304: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4131: 4091: 4085: 4084: 4059:(3/4): 405–428. 4044: 4025: 4011: 4005: 4004: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3969: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3896: 3890: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3867:The Boston Globe 3858: 3852: 3851: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3821: 3815: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3795: 3789: 3788: 3778: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3714:(3–4): 205–211. 3702: 3696: 3695: 3659: 3650: 3649: 3639: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3595:. 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Archived from 1251: 1245: 1244: 1234: 1202: 1149:Hybrid (biology) 1144:Medical grafting 1096:Hippocratic Oath 1073:informed consent 898:thrombocytopenia 874:arteriosclerosis 812:heme oxygenase-1 553:xenotransfusions 395:knocked-out gene 333:Dhani Ram Baruah 85:edit on Wikidata 77: 60:echocardiography 56: 55: 37: 21: 8042: 8041: 8037: 8036: 8035: 8033: 8032: 8031: 8002: 8001: 8000: 7995: 7965: 7946: 7889: 7870:Muutoksen kevät 7843: 7776: 7682:Behind the Mask 7597: 7407:Animals' Rights 7358: 7339: 7323: 7230: 7198: 6971: 6945: 6806:Cleveland Amory 6794: 6760:Darren Thurston 6755:Marianne Thieme 6605:Bruce Friedrich 6570:Joey Carbstrong 6555:Brigitte Bardot 6502: 6493:Jon Wynne-Tyson 6383:J. Howard Moore 6328:John Galsworthy 6308:Wilhelm Dietler 6251: 6247:Corey Lee Wrenn 6157:Martha Nussbaum 6067:Lawrence Finsen 6007:Paola Cavalieri 5982:Kristin Andrews 5957: 5947: 5925: 5894: 5873: 5808: 5762: 5704: 5676: 5637:Pain in animals 5613: 5545: 5511:Poultry farming 5430: 5262: 5182: 5171: 5166: 5136: 5131: 5076: 5063: 5032: 5016: 5000: 4969: 4943: 4924:John P. Merrill 4907: 4864: 4819: 4798:Joint societies 4793: 4764:Blood Cancer UK 4751: 4745: 4688: 4686: 4680: 4654: 4626: 4622:Vascular bypass 4598: 4473: 4440: 4435: 4400:Singularity Hub 4393: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4349: 4320: 4319: 4308: 4301: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4276: 4263: 4262: 4258: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4093: 4092: 4088: 4046: 4045: 4028: 4022:Wayback Machine 4012: 4008: 4001: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3898: 3897: 3893: 3887:Wayback Machine 3878: 3874: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3848:egenesisbio.com 3842: 3841: 3837: 3823: 3822: 3818: 3808: 3806: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3664:Nature Medicine 3661: 3660: 3653: 3617: 3616: 3612: 3602: 3600: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3572: 3570: 3566: 3559: 3555: 3554: 3550: 3541: 3537: 3507: 3506: 3497: 3480: 3459:10.1.1.730.7890 3442: 3441: 3437: 3393: 3392: 3383: 3339: 3338: 3331: 3287: 3286: 3279: 3254: 3247: 3209: 3208: 3204: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3109: 3108: 3104: 3066: 3065: 3061: 3025: 3024: 3005: 2961: 2960: 2956: 2906: 2905: 2901: 2851: 2850: 2841: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2786:. Emedicine.com 2781: 2764: 2726: 2725: 2718: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2660: 2658: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2635: 2631: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2567: 2546: 2545: 2541: 2510:(12): 3046–55. 2497: 2496: 2492: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2399: 2398: 2391: 2378:(10): 235–237. 2368: 2367: 2363: 2354: 2352: 2349:www.nbcnews.com 2343: 2342: 2335: 2325: 2323: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2297: 2295: 2284: 2283: 2279: 2269: 2267: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2241: 2232: 2231: 2224: 2214: 2212: 2201: 2200: 2196: 2187: 2185: 2182:The Independent 2174: 2173: 2169: 2160: 2158: 2152: 2151: 2144: 2135: 2133: 2124: 2123: 2116: 2064: 2063: 2059: 2049: 2047: 2038: 2037: 2033: 2023: 2021: 2012: 2011: 2004: 1970: 1969: 1965: 1956: 1954: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1931: 1929: 1920: 1919: 1915: 1905: 1903: 1895: 1894: 1887: 1877: 1875: 1866: 1865: 1861: 1851: 1849: 1840: 1839: 1835: 1825: 1823: 1814: 1813: 1809: 1799: 1798: 1794: 1784: 1782: 1773: 1772: 1765: 1755: 1754: 1750: 1745: 1741: 1731: 1729: 1720: 1719: 1710: 1700: 1699: 1684: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1605: 1604: 1597: 1561: 1560: 1549: 1504:Li KYC (2019). 1503: 1502: 1498: 1488: 1486: 1473: 1472: 1468: 1458: 1456: 1448: 1447: 1443: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1370: 1369: 1365: 1321: 1320: 1313: 1299: 1298: 1294: 1286: 1279: 1269: 1267: 1253: 1252: 1248: 1204: 1203: 1178: 1174: 1166:Xenotransfusion 1125: 1113: 1066: 1045:satirical plays 1037: 1020: 1004: 998: 991: 949:avian influenza 941: 914: 882: 864: 847: 820: 807: 798: 745: 698:antibodies, or 679: 616: 597: 592: 545: 475: 427: 411:Richard Slayman 409:In March 2024, 360: 318: 301:graft rejection 270: 250: 219: 135:xenotransplants 111:transplantation 88: 73: 63: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8040: 8038: 8030: 8029: 8027:Life extension 8024: 8022:Animal testing 8019: 8014: 8004: 8003: 7997: 7996: 7994: 7993: 7978: 7975: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7967: 7966: 7964: 7963: 7954: 7952: 7948: 7947: 7945: 7944: 7936: 7928: 7920: 7912: 7903: 7901: 7895: 7894: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7887: 7880: 7873: 7866: 7859: 7851: 7849: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7834: 7827: 7820: 7813: 7806: 7799: 7791: 7789: 7782: 7778: 7777: 7775: 7774: 7766: 7758: 7750: 7742: 7734: 7726: 7718: 7710: 7702: 7694: 7686: 7678: 7670: 7662: 7654: 7646: 7642:Meet Your Meat 7638: 7630: 7622: 7614: 7605: 7603: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7595: 7587: 7579: 7571: 7563: 7555: 7547: 7539: 7531: 7523: 7515: 7507: 7499: 7491: 7483: 7475: 7467: 7459: 7451: 7443: 7439:The New Ethics 7435: 7427: 7419: 7411: 7403: 7395: 7387: 7379: 7370: 7368: 7360: 7359: 7356: 7349: 7348: 7345: 7344: 7341: 7340: 7338: 7337: 7331: 7329: 7325: 7324: 7322: 7321: 7315: 7309: 7303: 7297: 7291: 7285: 7279: 7273: 7270:Animals' Party 7267: 7261: 7255: 7249: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7229: 7228: 7223: 7217: 7212: 7206: 7204: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7039:AnimaNaturalis 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7009:Animal Justice 7006: 7001: 6996: 6990: 6988: 6981: 6973: 6972: 6966: 6959: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6941:Gretchen Wyler 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6871:Lewis Gompertz 6868: 6863: 6861:Emarel Freshel 6858: 6853: 6851:Muriel Dowding 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6802: 6800: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6792: 6787: 6785:Gary Yourofsky 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6700:Ingrid Newkirk 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6640:Charlotte Laws 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6565:Yves Bonnardel 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6540:Martin Balluch 6537: 6532: 6527: 6521: 6519: 6512: 6508: 6507: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6488:Steven M. Wise 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6433:Bernard Rollin 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6393:Leonard Nelson 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6298:Herman Daggett 6295: 6290: 6288:Priscilla Cohn 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6263:Jeremy Bentham 6259: 6257: 6253: 6252: 6250: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6177:Jessica Pierce 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6107:Kyle Johannsen 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6032:David DeGrazia 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5972:Carol J. Adams 5968: 5966: 5959: 5949: 5948: 5942: 5935: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5902: 5900: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5881: 5879: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5844:Pit of despair 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5820: 5818: 5814: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5774:Abandoned pets 5770: 5768: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5714: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5686: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5623: 5621: 5619:Animal welfare 5615: 5614: 5612: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5594:Model organism 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5555: 5553: 5551:Animal testing 5547: 5546: 5544: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5526:Working animal 5523: 5518: 5516:Slaughterhouse 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5491:Insect farming 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5451:Animal product 5447: 5445: 5436: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5406:Sentiocentrism 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5314:Animal welfare 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5270: 5268: 5264: 5263: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5194: 5192: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5173: 5172: 5167: 5165: 5164: 5157: 5150: 5142: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5088: 5086: 5085:Related topics 5082: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5075: 5074: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5040: 5038: 5034: 5033: 5031: 5030: 5024: 5022: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5014: 5008: 5006: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4998: 4996:James D. Hardy 4993: 4988: 4986:Joel D. Cooper 4983: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4960:James D. Hardy 4957: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4944: 4942: 4941: 4936: 4934:Elizabeth Ward 4931: 4926: 4921: 4915: 4913: 4909: 4908: 4906: 4905: 4903:Norman Shumway 4900: 4895: 4890: 4888:James D. Hardy 4885: 4879: 4877: 4870: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4851: 4850: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4827: 4825: 4821: 4820: 4818: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4801: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4755: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4696:Eurotransplant 4692: 4690: 4687:and government 4682: 4681: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4662: 4660: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4636: 4634: 4632:Organ donation 4628: 4627: 4625: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4608: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4483: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4460: 4459: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4441: 4436: 4434: 4433: 4426: 4419: 4411: 4405: 4404: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4374: 4373:External links 4371: 4369: 4368: 4359: 4306: 4299: 4281: 4274: 4256: 4229:(3): 194–203. 4213: 4186: 4143: 4106:(4): 205–208. 4086: 4026: 4006: 4000:978-0754623915 3999: 3981: 3916: 3909: 3891: 3872: 3853: 3835: 3816: 3790: 3741: 3697: 3670:(3): 282–286. 3651: 3630:(2): 195–198. 3610: 3593:Life Scientist 3579: 3548: 3535: 3516:(5): 504–507. 3495: 3435: 3381: 3329: 3300:(7220): 1311. 3277: 3245: 3218:(3): 273–297. 3202: 3181:(3): 203–209. 3161: 3102: 3075:(3): 191–196. 3059: 3003: 2954: 2919:(4): 397–400. 2899: 2864:(3): 253–262. 2839: 2808:(2): 288–299. 2788: 2762: 2716: 2667: 2645: 2629: 2600:(2–3): 78–82. 2580: 2565: 2539: 2490: 2441: 2389: 2361: 2333: 2305: 2277: 2251: 2222: 2194: 2167: 2142: 2114: 2057: 2031: 2019:New York Times 2002: 1963: 1939: 1913: 1885: 1859: 1833: 1807: 1792: 1763: 1748: 1739: 1708: 1682: 1647: 1595: 1547: 1496: 1466: 1441: 1412:(3): 909–922. 1390: 1379:(2): 353–384. 1363: 1311: 1292: 1277: 1246: 1217:(3): 111–117. 1175: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1152: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1124: 1121: 1112: 1109: 1104:United Kingdom 1065: 1062: 1049:Serge Voronoff 1036: 1033: 1019: 1016: 990: 987: 940: 937: 936: 935: 931: 928: 924: 921: 913: 910: 881: 878: 863: 860: 846: 843: 819: 816: 806: 803: 797: 794: 744: 741: 740: 739: 735: 720: 713: 704: 703: 678: 675: 615: 612: 596: 593: 591: 588: 544: 541: 474: 473:Potential uses 471: 426: 423: 359: 356: 322:Sonapur, Assam 317: 314: 269: 266: 262:Keith Reemtsma 249: 246: 218: 215: 205:Bioprosthetic 200:animal testing 90: 89: 82: 79: 78: 71: 65: 64: 57: 42: 41: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8039: 8028: 8025: 8023: 8020: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8009: 8007: 7988: 7980: 7979: 7976: 7961: 7960: 7956: 7955: 7953: 7949: 7942: 7941: 7937: 7934: 7933: 7929: 7926: 7925: 7921: 7918: 7917: 7916:Tame Yourself 7913: 7910: 7909: 7905: 7904: 7902: 7900: 7896: 7886: 7885: 7881: 7879: 7878: 7877:No Compromise 7874: 7872: 7871: 7867: 7865: 7864: 7860: 7858: 7857: 7853: 7852: 7850: 7846: 7840: 7839: 7835: 7833: 7832: 7828: 7826: 7825: 7821: 7819: 7818: 7814: 7812: 7811: 7807: 7805: 7804: 7800: 7798: 7797: 7793: 7792: 7790: 7786: 7783: 7779: 7772: 7771: 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7308:(Netherlands) 7307: 7304: 7301: 7298: 7295: 7292: 7289: 7286: 7283: 7280: 7277: 7274: 7271: 7268: 7265: 7262: 7259: 7256: 7253: 7250: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7241: 7237: 7227: 7224: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7207: 7205: 7201: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7034:Animal Rising 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7004:Animal Ethics 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6960: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6901:Jessie Mackay 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6876:James Granger 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6811:Henry B. Amos 6809: 6807: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6797: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6780:Louise Wallis 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6745:Kim Stallwood 6743: 6741: 6740:Jasmin Singer 6738: 6736: 6735:Nathan Runkle 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6720:David Olivier 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6600:John Feldmann 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6575:Aymeric Caron 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6545:Carole Baskin 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6516: 6513: 6509: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6448:Laurids Smith 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6418:James Rachels 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6363:John Lawrence 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6273:Brigid Brophy 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6258: 6254: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6237:Tatjana Višak 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6227:David Sztybel 6225: 6223: 6222:Cass Sunstein 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6187:Mark Rowlands 6185: 6183: 6182:Evelyn Pluhar 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6137:Andrew Linzey 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6122:Will Kymlicka 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6102:Dale Jamieson 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6082:Valéry Giroux 6080: 6078: 6077:Robert Garner 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6042:Sue Donaldson 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6022:J. M. Coetzee 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5987:Tom Beauchamp 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5963: 5960: 5954: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5936: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5890:Hunt sabotage 5888: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5880: 5878:Methodologies 5876: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5765: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5723:Hare coursing 5721: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5711: 5707: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5679: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5552: 5548: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5466:Chick culling 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5448: 5446: 5444: 5440: 5437: 5433: 5427: 5426:Vegetarianism 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5336: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5324:Anthrozoology 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5294:Animal ethics 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5169:Animal rights 5163: 5158: 5156: 5151: 5149: 5144: 5143: 5140: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5083: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5066: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5054:Donna Mansell 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5044:Alexis Carrel 5042: 5041: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5019: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4978: 4976: 4972: 4966: 4965:Thomas Starzl 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4946: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4929:Joseph Murray 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4914: 4910: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4898:Richard Lower 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4759:Anthony Nolan 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752:organizations 4748: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4683: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4663: 4661: 4659:Complications 4657: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4617:Skin grafting 4615: 4613: 4612:Bone grafting 4610: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4476: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4458: 4455: 4454: 4453: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4432: 4427: 4425: 4420: 4418: 4413: 4412: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4376: 4372: 4363: 4360: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4300:9780520277960 4296: 4292: 4285: 4282: 4277: 4275:9780520277960 4271: 4267: 4260: 4257: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4214: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4090: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4016: 4010: 4007: 4002: 3996: 3992: 3985: 3982: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3917: 3912: 3910:9780520277960 3906: 3902: 3895: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3881: 3876: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3857: 3854: 3849: 3845: 3839: 3836: 3831: 3827: 3820: 3817: 3805:on 2018-11-06 3804: 3800: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3742: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3701: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3614: 3611: 3599:on 2009-12-15 3598: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3580: 3569:on 2008-07-22 3565: 3558: 3552: 3549: 3545: 3539: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3485: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3439: 3436: 3431: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3406:(2): 219–30. 3405: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3352:(2): 214–21. 3351: 3347: 3343: 3336: 3334: 3330: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3265:0-7216-0008-5 3262: 3258: 3252: 3250: 3246: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3206: 3203: 3198: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3165: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3106: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3063: 3060: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2958: 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Forster 6283:Mona Caird 6256:Historical 6117:Hilda Kean 6087:Lori Gruen 5421:Vegaphobia 5411:Speciesism 5304:Animal law 4562:islet cell 4532:Heart–lung 3573:2008-11-06 2661:2015-09-26 2657:. CBS News 2641:JAX® NOTES 2355:2023-11-01 2188:2024-06-02 2161:2024-05-13 2136:2024-05-13 1983:(5): S37. 1957:2023-08-17 1172:References 1041:allografts 968:circovirus 964:parvovirus 912:Physiology 902:thrombosis 774:E-selectin 770:chemokines 659:thrombosis 608:antibodies 419:heart pump 404:creatinine 391:brain dead 305:blood type 258:chimpanzee 256:attempted 175:research. 131:xenografts 113:of living 58:Long axis 7924:Manifesto 7863:Bite Back 7848:Magazines 7722:Vegucated 7320:(Germany) 7318:V-Partei³ 7296:(Germany) 7290:(Belgium) 7266:(Finland) 7089:Equanimal 6695:Morrissey 6670:Jim Mason 6625:Mark Gold 6560:Gene Baur 6535:Matt Ball 6511:Activists 6423:Tom Regan 6202:Jeff Sebo 6147:Dan Lyons 5956:Academics 5944:Advocates 5799:Live food 5599:Nafovanny 5506:Livestock 5486:Fur trade 5461:Bile bear 5396:Personism 5191:Overviews 4824:Countries 4537:Intestine 4202:: 65–73. 4120:0306-6800 4065:0391-9714 3950:0959-8138 3454:CiteSeerX 3444:Humans". 2949:233223010 2933:1546-1696 2878:0264-3758 2320:Stat News 1997:1081-1206 1927:USA Today 1821:The Hindu 1134:Allograft 1092:bioethics 960:rotavirus 856:apoptosis 766:cytokines 584:alpha-gal 508:rejecting 399:alpha gal 380:alpha-gal 309:allograft 143:syngeneic 125:from one 109:, is the 101:from the 7987:Category 7856:Arkangel 7788:Journals 7762:Dominion 7698:The Cove 7328:Activism 7272:(Sweden) 7260:(Canada) 7254:(Europe) 6968:Movement 6498:Voltaire 5416:Veganism 5366:Ethology 5267:Concepts 5102:Eye bank 5005:Pancreas 4789:ORGANIZE 4750:Advocacy 4557:Pancreas 4347:15212014 4339:24116896 4243:12694539 4208:15347151 4173:17059575 4138:16574873 4081:20586139 4073:23334492 4018:Archived 3976:10731189 3958:25187509 3883:Archived 3728:10449899 3692:33977939 3530:11007351 3476:16192482 3430:20402385 3376:21415824 3324:10559062 3240:46479950 3197:11720816 3097:39194181 3054:10700475 2998:11148000 2941:33846652 2894:11765766 2886:24354019 2834:26365762 2757:52308812 2749:30229378 2624:19048064 2575:22565986 2534:23172951 2504:Diabetes 2485:23449347 2436:29913045 2384:16445141 2238:BBC News 2109:37821590 2100:10567564 2050:22 March 2024:22 March 1642:22275786 1590:11528018 1542:31032263 1436:32361879 1385:10346691 1358:22508028 1241:12612110 1139:Isograft 1123:See also 1069:Autonomy 1043:. 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