Lingua franca - Knowledge (XXG)

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that have evolved into fully complex languages in the course of adaptation by subsequent generations. Pre-existing lingua francas such as French are used to facilitate intercommunication in large-scale trade or political matters, while pidgins and creoles often arise out of colonial situations and a specific need for communication between colonists and indigenous peoples. Pre-existing lingua francas are generally widespread, highly developed languages with many native speakers. Conversely, pidgins are very simplified means of communication, containing loose structuring, few grammatical rules, and possessing few or no native speakers.

1823: 1503: 3768: 1300: 1726: 950: 1687: 1085: 1160: 1701:-speaking tribal groups on the east coast of Africa with heavy influence from Arabic. The earliest examples of writing in Swahili are from 1711. In the early 19th century the use of Swahili as a lingua franca moved inland with the Arabic ivory and slave traders. It was eventually adopted by Europeans as well during periods of colonization in the area. German colonizers used it as the language of administration in 1954: 1940: 1636: 1416: 1060:, the medical community is primarily made up of workers from countries without English as a native language. In medical practices and hospitals, nurses typically communicate with other professionals in English as a lingua franca. This occurrence has led to interest in researching the consequences of the medical community communicating in a lingua franca. English is also sometimes used in 889:, standard Italian was spoken as a language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe, and among intellectuals. This lasted from the 14th century to the end of the 16th, when French replaced Italian as the usual lingua franca in northern Europe. Italian musical terms, in particular dynamic and tempo notations, have continued in use to the present day. 1450: 1569: 1536:

with the local languages. When Dutch, English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the lingua franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact. Portuguese remains an important lingua franca in the

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states that Tamil was also the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India. The language and its dialects were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration, literature and common usage until the 12th century AD. Tamil was also used widely in inscriptions found in

1618:

in which students are taught: "(a) Hindi (with Sanskrit as part of the composite course); (b) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu and (c) English or any other modern European language." The order in non-Hindi speaking states is: "(a) the major language of the state or region; (b) Hindi;

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served as lingua franca in the Portuguese Empire, Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of lingua franca

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historically served as a lingua franca throughout the majority of South Asia. The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggest that Sanskrit was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the

410:

has come to be interpreted as a general term for pidgins, creoles, and some or all forms of vehicular languages. This transition in meaning has been attributed to the idea that pidgin languages only became widely known from the 16th century on due to European colonization of continents such as The

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Lingua francas are often pre-existing languages with native speakers, but they can also be pidgins or creoles developed for that specific region or context. Pidgins are rapidly developed and simplified combinations of two or more established languages, while creoles are generally viewed as pidgins

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and it has been replaced as a primary foreign language in many schools by English and other languages. Parts of the Russian speaking minorities outside Russia have emigrated to Russia or assimilated into their countries of residence by learning the local language and using it preferably in daily

156:

Linguae francae have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called "trade languages" facilitated trade), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and

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emerging as the leading political, economic, and cultural power of Europe in the 16th century, the language was adopted by royal courts throughout the continent, including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Russia, and as the language of communication between European academics, merchants, and

517:

replaced Classical Chinese within China as both the written and spoken lingua franca for speakers of different Chinese dialects, and because of the declining power and cultural influence of China in East Asia, English has since replaced Classical Chinese as the lingua franca in East Asia.

1626:

Urdu is the lingua franca of Pakistan and had gained significant influence amongst its people, administration and education. While it shares official status with English, Urdu is the preferred and dominant language used for inter-communication between different ethnic groups of Pakistan.

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the variety of Quechua that was used in writing for religious and administrative purposes in the Andean territories of the Spanish Empire, mostly in the late 16th century and the first half of the 17th century and has sometimes been referred to, both historically and in academia, as

645:, Latin was the common language of communication, science, and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when other regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages) supplanted it in common academic and political usage, and it eventually became a 1436:, both of which are countries where multiple official languages are spoken, Arabic has emerged as a lingua franca in part thanks to the population of the region being predominantly Muslim and Arabic playing a crucial role in Islam. In addition, after having fled from Eritrea due to 1992: 3625:

Snow, Charles T., Louisa Rowell Stark. 1971. Ancash Quechua: A Pedagogical Grammar. P.V 'The Quechua language is generally associated with the "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, which was used as a lingua franca through Peru and Bolivia with the spread of the Inca

969:

English is sometimes described as the foremost global lingua franca, being used as a working language by individuals of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in a variety of fields and international organizations to communicate with one another. English is the

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Bills, Garland D., Bernardo Valejo. 1969. P. XV. 'Immediately following the Spanish Conquest the Quechua language, especially the prestigious "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, was used as a lingua franca throughout the Andean region by both missionaries and

1834:. Also called Prairie Sign Language, Plains Indian Sign Language, or First Nations Sign Language, this language functioned predominantly—and still continues to function—as a second language within most of the (now historical) countries of the Great Plains, from 411:

Americas, Africa, and Asia. During this time, the need for a term to address these pidgin languages arose, hence the shift in the meaning of Lingua Franca from a single proper noun to a common noun encompassing a large class of pidgin languages.

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functions, and across similar settings. The language has few set internal grammatical rules, instead co-opting national vocabularies of the speaker and audience, and modifying the words to bridge linguistic gaps, with heavy use of gestures and

1713:. Swahili is currently one of the national languages and it is taught in schools and universities in several East African countries, thus prompting it to be regarded as a modern-day lingua franca by many people in the region. Several 3406: 3276: 3234: 1118:, which also included parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. After the breakup of much of the empire in the Americas, its function as a lingua franca was solidified by the governments of the newly independent nations of what is now 1406:

is often used as the lingua franca instead, particularly in Southeast Asia, due to a longer history of immigration and trade networks with southern China, although Mandarin has also been adopted in some circles since the 2000s.

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countries, French has transitioned from being only a lingua franca to the native language among some communities, mostly in urban areas or among the elite class. In other regions such as the French-speaking countries of the

425:(as the name of the particular language) was first recorded in English during the 1670s, although an even earlier example of the use of it in English is attested from 1632, where it is also referred to as "Bastard Spanish". 2475: 5310: 3120:

Preservation of Classical Maori', from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-language/page-10 (accessed 16 Mar

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Any language regularly used for communication between people who do not share a native language is a lingua franca. Lingua franca is a functional term, independent of any linguistic history or language structure.

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language is the native language of a specific geographical community, a lingua franca is used beyond the boundaries of its original community, for trade, religious, political, or academic reasons. For example,

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colonial rule, most former colonies of these countries maintain French as an official language or lingua franca due to the many indigenous languages spoken in their territory. Notably, in most Francophone

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and gone to some of the nearby Arab countries, Eritrean emigrants are contributing to Arabic becoming a lingua franca in the region by coming back to their homelands having picked up the Arabic language.

1056:, English has emerged as a lingua franca in certain situations where its use is perceived to be more efficient to communicate, especially among groups consisting of native speakers of many languages. In 4798: 683:

until English superseded it in the 1870s. The description of Māori language as New Zealand's 19th-century lingua franca has been widely accepted. The language was initially vital for all European and

3010: 907:(1438–1533) (or Inca lingua franca). Since the Incas didn't have writing, the evidence about the characteristics of this variety is scant and they have been a subject of significant disagreements. 1220:

was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. Nevertheless, it remains the second most used language in international affairs and is one of the

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may similarly be used for communication between language groups. But lingua franca is equally applicable to a non-creole language native to one nation (often a colonial power) learned as a

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writers and politicians have unsuccessfully called for Swahili to become the lingua franca of Africa as a means of unifying the African continent and overcoming the legacy of colonialism.

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Due to large numbers of immigrants from Latin America in the second half of the 20th century and resulting influence, Spanish has also emerged somewhat as a lingua franca in parts of the

1619:(c) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu but excluding (a) and (b) above; and (d) English or any other modern European language." Hindi has also emerged as a lingua franca in 4190: 4143: 687:

in New Zealand to learn, as Māori formed a majority of the population, owned nearly all the country's land and dominated the economy until the 1860s. Discriminatory laws such as the

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is the retrospective name for the language (formed out of many dialects, albeit all mutually intelligible) of both the North Island and the South Island for the 800 years before the

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languages are more developed than their ancestral pidgins, utilizing more complex structure, grammar, and vocabulary, as well as having substantial communities of native speakers.

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As recently as the late 20th century, some restricted the use of the generic term to mean only mixed languages that are used as vehicular languages, its original meaning.

5080: 4354: 3792: 2699: 1982: 1987: 1760:). It acts as a lingua franca in both Iran and Afghanistan between the various ethnic groups in those countries. The Persian language in South Asia, before the 1338:

is used as a lingua franca in Switzerland to some extent; however, English is generally preferred to avoid favoring it over the three other official languages.

971: 4795: 2253: 3676:

Cf. also Durston (2007: 17): 'The 1550–1650 period can be considered both formative and classical in relation to the late colonial and republican production'.

2223: 866:. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities ( 2332: 346:

came to be widely used as the "lingua franca" of the region, although some scholars claim that the Mediterranean Lingua Franca was just poorly used Italian.

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At present it is the second most used language in international trade, and the third most used in politics, diplomacy and culture after English and French.

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where it is recognized as an official language alongside Chinese though in practice not commonly spoken. Portuguese and Spanish have a certain degree of

2060: 4272: 3986: 3734: 899:, the exact relationship and degree of closeness between which is controversial, and which have sometimes been identified with each other. These are: 3569: 1428:

was used as a lingua franca across the Islamic empires, whose sizes necessitated a common language, and spread across the Arab and Muslim worlds. In

1359: 1221: 1148: 983: 1662:, with several nations codifying a local vernacular variety into several national literary standards: Indonesia notably adopts a variant spoken in 5483: 4504: 580:

in the fourth century BC, and served as the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries.

5119: 2420: 1324: German (or a German dialect) is a legally recognized minority language (Squares: Geographic distribution too dispersed/small for map scale) 5554: 4973:

Dzahene-Quarshie, Josephine (December 2013). "Ghana's Contribution to the Promotion of Kiswahili: Challenges and Prospects for African Unity".

4165: 2179: 3912: 3616:

See Itier (2000: 47) for the distinction between the first and second enumerated senses, and the quote below for their partial identification.

185: 5458: 5437: 4327: 4006: 3533: 3064: 3040: 2846: 2804: 2454:"An etymological dictionary of modern English : Weekley, Ernest, 1865–1954 : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive" 1537: 1202:

diplomats. With the expansion of Western colonial empires, French became the main language of diplomacy and international relations up until

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Up to now have all proved transient and none has actually achieved the status of lingua franca with a large community of fluent speakers.

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until the 12th century AD. Tamil was used for inscriptions from the 10th through 14th centuries in southern Karnataka districts such as

4333: 5564: 4577: 4296: 4247: 2749: 2578: 1482: 5396: 5377: 4877: 4687: 4040: 3506: 3451: 3381: 3302: 3144: 2414: 2173: 2091: 2035: 1790:

is the lingua franca and most widely spoken language in Ethiopia, and is known by most people who speak another Ethiopian language.

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can also be seen as a lingua franca because it is the language of communication between speakers of different languages in Northern

1674:

having more native speakers; this standard is the sole official language spoken throughout the vast country despite being the first

5142: 4453: 3653:

Beyersdorff, Margot, Sabine Dedenbach-Salazar Sáenz. 1994. Andean Oral Traditions: Discourse and Literature. P.275. 'the primarily

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remained the common language of a large part of Western Asia from several earlier empires, until it was supplanted in this role by

5528: 5499: 642: 433:

The term is well established in its naturalization to English and so major dictionaries do not italicize it as a "foreign" term.

279: 4773: 4744: 4706:... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the lingua franca of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ... 1690:

Geographic extent of Swahili. Dark green: native range. Medium green: official use. Light green: bilingual use but not official.

1265:, French is the lingua franca in professional sectors and education, even though it is not the native language of the majority. 4934: 1486: 3591: 1915:

parliamentary or committee sittings, during certain United Nations affairs, conducting international sporting events like the

1822: 4618: 3942: 3782: 2781: 2765: 1623:, a linguistically diverse state in Northeast India. It is estimated that nine-tenths of the state's population knows Hindi. 1015: 31: 4901: 4693: 4651: 4379: 2852: 2810: 2367: 1887:, though a pidgin language, is present at most significant international gatherings, from which interpretations of national 1358:

along the Baltic and North Seas. German remains a widely studied language in Central Europe and the Balkans, especially in

779:

in 893. Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably

1920: 1437: 5052: 3084: 1831: 1076:

dialect has emerged. In the fields of technology and science, English emerged as a lingua franca in the 20th century.

859: 638: 299: 158: 3886:"Listening instruction and patient safety: Exploring medical English as a lingua franca (MELF) for nursing education" 4619:"Department for General Assembly and Conference Management – What are the official languages of the United Nations?" 3521: 3475: 2219: 1134: 944: 656: 514: 153:

or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers' native languages.

2339: 5559: 5216: 3136: 177:—a language spoken internationally and by many people—is a language that may function as a global lingua franca. 5280: 3160: 2636: 2308:

Dursteler, Eric R. (2012). "Speaking in Tongues: Language and Communication in the Early Modern Mediterranean".

1858:, the latter of which is now extinct (though Ktunaxa Sign Language is still used). Although unrelated, perhaps 1065: 3806:

Tan, Jason (1997). "Education and Colonial Transition in Singapore and Hong Kong: Comparisons and Contrasts".

2133: 1502: 4959:, London, 1975.., pp. 98–99 ; T. Vernet, "Les cités-Etats swahili et la puissance omanaise (1650–1720), 275:

serve similar purposes as industrial and educational lingua francas across regional and national boundaries.

5549: 5303:"A Disability-Inclusive Response to COVID-19 – Policy Brief Executive Summary (International Sign Language)" 5022: 3430: 2048: 1478: 1228: 1130:, being the main language of government and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. 772: 3726: 3767: 2632: 1972: 1896: 1878: 1811: 1706: 1675: 1615: 1549: 1194: 1053: 800: 776: 684: 453: 4264: 4548: 4214: 2923: 1900: 1855: 1851: 1663: 1659: 680: 534: 5491: 5066: 2662: 2160: 1686: 5111: 3209: 1892: 1457:

Russian is in use and widely understood in Central Asia and the Caucasus, areas formerly part of the

1391: 1217: 863: 804: 720: 713:, thanks to their ability to communicate to many people in the region through their native language. 595: 506: 4822:"Multilingual Language Practices in Education in Pakistan: The Conflict Between Policy and Practice" 4721:. Government of India Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Education. Archived from 4162: 1318: German is a co-official language, but not the first language of the majority of the population 1299: 497:

served as both the written lingua franca and the diplomatic language in East Asia, including China,

310:

and the eastern Mediterranean Sea used as the main language of commerce and diplomacy from the late

1859: 1667: 1595: 1577: 1532: 1330: German (or a variety of German) is spoken by a sizable minority, but has no legal recognition 1190: 1030: 999: 848: 840: 716: 577: 546: 170: 4487: 1764:, was the region's lingua franca and a widely used official language in north India and Pakistan. 5332: 5246: 4993:"Hausa Language: 4 interesting things you should know about Nigeria's most widely spoken dialect" 4806: 4770:"Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India" 4435: 4126: 4085: 4077: 3859: 3787: 3561: 2892: 2110:. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 14. 1975. pp. 70–72 – via JSTOR. 2002: 1993:

List of languages by the number of countries in which they are recognized as an official language

1959: 1884: 1702: 1466: 1395: 896: 832: 676: 565: 4417: 1850:. The relationship remains unknown between Hand Talk and other manual Indigenous languages like 1802:

in Nigeria, are used as lingua francas across the world. This is especially true in Africa, the

1725: 1560:

are used to facilitate communication in areas like the border area between Brazil and Uruguay.

1147:

It is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world and is also one of the

1126:, where it is still spoken by a small minority, Spanish became the lingua franca of what is now 949: 463: 4058:"Spanish as the Second National Language of the United States: Fact, Future, Fiction, or Hope?" 3885: 1141:, especially in communities where native Spanish speakers form the majority of the population. 149:

systematically used to make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a

5454: 5433: 5392: 5373: 5172: 4873: 4843: 4683: 4413: 4401: 4323: 4243: 4036: 4002: 3938: 3529: 3502: 3447: 3355: 3327: 3140: 3060: 3036: 2842: 2832: 2800: 2777: 2761: 2745: 2514: 2410: 2169: 2087: 2031: 1877:

in pockets, but it has also been employed to create new or revive old languages, such as with

1671: 1620: 1470: 1453:

Areas where Russian is the majority language (medium blue) or a minority language (light blue)

1339: 1212: 1127: 892: 844: 748: 744: 727:. Between 9th and 11th century, it was the lingua franca of a great part of the predominantly 724: 652: 604: 561: 476: 388: 370: 252: 215:

and used for communication between diverse language communities in a colony or former colony.

162: 4722: 4470: 3998: 3057:

Essays on Indian History and culture: Felicitation volume in Honour of Professor B. Sheik Ali

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Areas with significant numbers of people whose first language is Persian (including dialects)

1049:, English is the primary medium of education and serves as the lingua franca among citizens. 5034: 4833: 4536: 4317: 4202: 4116: 4069: 3994: 3967: 3815: 2603:

A Compleat History of the Present Seat of War in Africa, Between the Spaniards and Algerines

2545: 2504: 2313: 2007: 1997: 1977: 1945: 1835: 1787: 1737: 1733: 1694: 1399: 1379: 1367: 1355: 1262: 1119: 836: 828: 827:

is used for various languages across Eurasia, and as the national script in various Slavic,

732: 694: 608: 573: 560:), also known as Alexandrian dialect, common Attic, Hellenistic, or Biblical Greek, was the 494: 396: 343: 335: 323: 319: 272: 268: 264: 232: 204: 146: 53: 4569: 4293: 2574: 1489:, its usage has declined significantly in the post-Soviet states and former members of the 903:

the variety of Quechua that was used as a lingua franca and administrative language in the

5509: 4861: 4802: 4751: 4432:"Modernism and Authenticity as Reflected in Language Attitudes : The Case of Tunisia" 4300: 4169: 4150: 2974: 2695: 2479: 2453: 2140: 2026:

Viacheslav A. Chirikba, "The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund" in Pieter Muysken, ed.,

1870: 1799: 1709:, which influenced the choice to use it as a national language in what is now independent 1698: 1335: 768: 502: 315: 260: 256: 220: 212: 166: 38: 2776:

Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East p.180

1370:

of the EU along English and French, but it is used less in that role than the other two.

705:. The Sogdians also ended up circulating spiritual beliefs and texts, including those of 660: 27:

Language used to facilitate communication between groups without a common native language

2275: 1362:. It is recognized as an official language in countries outside of Europe, specifically 1312:": German is (co-)official language and first language of the majority of the population 5532: 5503: 5367: 2954: 1912: 1874: 1863: 1830:

The majority of pre-colonial North American nations communicated internationally using

1772: 1757: 1643: 1611: 1553: 1458: 1288: 1237: 1115: 1084: 1069: 1026: 1022: 975: 824: 796: 736: 688: 634: 612: 600: 556: 525: 331: 240: 208: 174: 150: 3187:

Salient. Victoria University Student Newspaper. Volume 36, Number 21. 5 September 1973

1159: 1122:. While its usage in Spain's Asia-Pacific colonies has largely died out except in the 286:

have not had a great degree of adoption, so they are not described as lingua francas.

5543: 5517: 4865: 4769: 4524: 4236: 4130: 4089: 2928: 2874: 2509: 2492: 1967: 1888: 1749: 1485:. Russian is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Since the 1474: 1207: 1072:, the use of English as a lingua franca has led researchers to investigate whether a 1011: 979: 803:

linguistic features. It spread also to not completely Slavic territories between the

792: 755:. It was the first national and also international Slavic literary language (autonym 646: 4926: 4599:

Simeone-Sinelle, Marie-Claude (2005). "Arabic Lingua Franca in the Horn of Africa".

2705: 1911:. International Sign, or IS and formerly Gestuno, interpreters can be found at many 1029:. In the post-colonial period, most of the newly independent nations which had many 1025:

became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the

5426: 4622: 4509: 4032:

El Español en Tres Mundos: Retenciones y Contactos Lingüísticos en América y África

3258:

Benton, Richard A. "CHANGES IN LANGUAGE USE IN A RURAL MAORI COMMUNITY 1963-1978."

3196: 2969: 1462: 1343: 1203: 1189:

as the prestige language of politics, trade, education, diplomacy, and military in

1073: 1038: 927: 710: 702: 697:

was used to facilitate trade between those who spoke different languages along the

569: 2744:

The Last Lingua Franca: English Until the Return of Babel. Nicholas Ostler. Ch.7.

2147:– Notes for LG102, – University of Essex, Peter L. Patrick – Week 11, Autumn term. 1268:

French continues to be used as a lingua franca in certain cultural fields such as

1185:

French is sometimes regarded as the first global lingua franca, having supplanted

5448: 4893: 4677: 4645: 4371: 4030: 2836: 2794: 2564:

Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, Simon and Schuster, 1980

2550: 2533: 2359: 5247:"Oneida Sign language created to connect deaf community with culture | CBC News" 4153:– Copyright 2003 Quaderns Digitals Todos los derechos reservados ISSN 1575-9393. 1916: 1761: 1745: 1714: 1647: 1635: 1557: 1490: 1415: 1233: 1123: 1061: 986:

and many other international and regional organizations and has also become the

919: 904: 886: 521: 467: 311: 248: 3657:

domain of this lingua franca – sometimes referred to as "classical" Quechua'...

1953: 1939: 157:

other scholars of different nationalities. The term is taken from the medieval

5340: 5250: 5038: 4838: 4821: 4540: 4206: 3760: 3654: 3033:

Precolonial India in practice: Society, Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra

1935: 1842:

in the East, down into what are now the northern states of Mexico and up into

1753: 1541: 1351: 1309: 1258: 672: 387:) as well as the equivalent Italian—in all three cases, the literal sense is ' 227: 17: 4847: 4820:

Ashraf, Muhammad Azeem; Turner, David A.; Laar, Rizwan Ahmed (January 2021).

4073: 3755: 2518: 1105: Culturally important or secondary language (> 20% of the population) 743:

and church organization, culture, literature, education and diplomacy, as an

4755: 3971: 2245: 1807: 1803: 1639:

Countries where pluricentric Malay is spoken, regardless of standard variety

1581: 1507: 1403: 1347: 1111: 1042: 991: 816: 812: 698: 624: 591: 587: 583: 283: 3819: 2317: 1033:

opted to continue using English as one of their official languages such as

767:). The Glagolitic alphabet was originally used at both schools, though the 641:

and subsequently throughout the realms of the Roman Empire. Even after the

444:, with the former being first-listed or only-listed in major dictionaries. 4121: 4104: 2949: 2049:"Speaking in Tongues: Science's centuries-long hunt for a common language" 1826:

Rough territorial extent of Hand Talk (in purple) within the US and Canada

1779:

and other West African countries, including the northern region of Ghana.

1193:

Europe and later spreading around the world with the establishment of the

701:, which is why native speakers of Sogdian were employed as translators in 5475: 5053:"Amharic Language: How it become Ethiopia's Lingua Franca – Addis Herald" 3431:

https://teara.govt.nz/en/te-maori-i-te-ohanga-maori-in-the-economy/page-3

1847: 1710: 1655: 1607: 1429: 1291:

and its institutions either alongside or at times, in place, of English.

1007: 923: 882:) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim. 871: 852: 820: 752: 706: 486: 327: 4439: 4081: 4057: 4035:(in Spanish). Universidad de Valladolid, Secretariado de Publicaciones. 3467: 3055:

Murthy, Srinivasa; Rao, Surendra; Veluthat, Kesavan; Bari, S.A. (1990),

1449: 4431: 3913:"English as a common language in Switzerland: a positive or a problem?" 3833: 2406:, G.Babiniotes, Kentro Lexikologias(Legicology Center) LTD Publications 1776: 1568: 1433: 1363: 1273: 1269: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1138: 1003: 995: 922:

functioned as lingua franca in the Caucasus region and in southeastern

788: 780: 740: 510: 480: 2084:

Scientific Babel: How Science Was Done Before and After Global English

1068:, or with foreigners who are not fluent in the local language. In the 974:

in the world, primarily due to the historical global influence of the

524:

was the lingua franca of the Hellenistic culture. Koine Greek (Modern

2642: 1908: 1904: 1839: 1651: 1646:

is understood across a cultural region in Southeast Asia called the "

1425: 1387: 1284: 1198: 808: 784: 620: 616: 392: 339: 307: 200: 3350: 3348: 3161:"New Zealand literature - Modern Maori, Poetry, Novels | Britannica" 2989:

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1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants.

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Schools Teaching in Creole Instead of French on the Rise in Haiti

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A history of Ancient Greek: from the beginnings to late antiquity

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Brexit: English is losing its importance in Europe, says Juncker

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A History of Cookbooks From Kitchen to Page over Seven Centuries

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contributed to the demise of Māori language as a lingua franca.

4745:"How Hindi Became the Language of Choice in Arunachal Pradesh." 3382:"Demand For Māori Language Skills at Work Rises in New Zealand" 3303:"Demand For Māori Language Skills at Work Rises in New Zealand" 3210:"LibGuides: The Polynesian expansion across the Pacific: Maori" 3266:, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20705517. Accessed 15 Mar. 2024. 1287:, French has been increasingly used as a lingua franca in the 664: 5529:"An introduction to the original Mediterranean Lingua Franca" 4434:. Vol. 30, no. 1/2. Civilisations. pp. 37–59. 3958:

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as dual standard varieties, serves as the lingua franca of

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4242:. Translated by Richard Howard. New York Review of Books. 3987:"The Spanish Language in Latin America since Independence" 3524:(2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), 2493:"English as a lingua franca: A threat to multilingualism?" 1210:

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shared a common language that was used for trade, inter-

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Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts

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Dark green: majority; light green: significant minority

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The use of lingua francas has existed since antiquity.

391:', leading to the direct translation: 'language of the 4679:

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85: 59: 5476:"English – the universal language on the Internet?" 5067:"Amharic as a lingua franca and tool of domination" 2799:. BRILL Academic. pp. 197–223 with footnotes. 1862:played and continues to play a similar role across 915:('common language') (or Standard Colonial Quechua). 539: 356: 350: 79: 5425: 4488:Push to bid adieu to English as EU’s lingua franca 4235: 3838:The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English 2086:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 1110:The Spanish language spread mainly throughout the 403:was a term that applied to all Western Europeans. 5205:. New York : Dover Publications 1969. (p. 7) 4553:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 4219:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 4144:"¿Por qué los brasileños deben aprender español?" 1390:, which are home to many mutually unintelligible 4568:M. A., Geography; B. A., English and Geography. 3592:"Why Italian is the language of music and opera" 3197:https://teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/page-2 2993:. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 342–345. 2793:Sheldon Pollock (1996). Jan E. M. Houben (ed.). 2690: 2688: 2686: 4864:(1992). "Malay as a pluricentric language". In 4601:Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics 3698:Following the terminology of Durston (2007: 40) 1481:China. It remains the official language of the 586:was once the lingua franca for most of ancient 278:Even though they are used as bridge languages, 4402:The Syndrome of the French Language in Algeria 3783:"How the English Language Conquered the World" 3109:Ko Aotearoa Tēnei, Te Taumata Tuarua - Wai 262 1983:List of languages by number of native speakers 1810:, Southeast Asia and in parts of Australia by 1658:, and certain parts of the Philippines. It is 679:, Māori language was the lingua franca of the 306:), the pidgin language that people around the 4981:: 69–85 – via Academic Search Complete. 4525:"Chinese as a lingua franca in Greater China" 3635:Following the terminology of Durston 2007: 40 1988:List of languages by total number of speakers 1697:developed as a lingua franca between several 1342:used to be the Lingua franca during the late 314:to the 18th century, most notably during the 8: 2333:"Studies on translation and multilingualism" 1576:(red) is a linguistic region in India where 1222:six official languages of the United Nations 1149:six official languages of the United Nations 382: 376: 5339:. H3 WORLD TV. 26 July 2019. Archived from 3133:Making Peoples: A History of New Zealanders 2667:, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, archived from 2538:Apples: Journal of Applied Language Studies 1654:, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, southern 406:Through changes of the term in literature, 106: 4410:International Journal of Arts and Sciences 3852:"Why Does Everyone Speak English in Fiji?" 3708:Lars Johanson; Éva Á. Castó (1998). "14". 2838:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics 2394:online dictionary, Greek Language Center ( 2168:. Publ. Office of the Europ. Union. 2010. 2028:From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics 1521: Official and administrative language 1346:till the mid-15th century periods, in the 1052:Even in countries not associated with the 984:co-official language of the United Nations 349:In Lingua Franca (the specific language), 189:Trade languages of the world in 1908 from 4837: 4794:Roychowdhury, Adrija (27 February 2018). 4294:The World's 10 Most Influential Languages 4184: 4182: 4120: 3528:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2893:"Reclaiming a Common Language | BU Today" 2641:, Oxford University Press, archived from 2549: 2508: 1873:. The original Hand Talk is found across 1762:British colonized the Indian subcontinent 1180: Administrative or cultural language 5419:(48 ed.). São Paulo: Hucitec Press. 5389:Status and Use of African Lingua Francas 184: 4957:Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa 3879: 3877: 3727:"The Linguistic Colonialism of English" 3468:"Who Were the Sogdians, | The Sogdians" 2108:Italian-Based Pidgins and Lingua Franca 2019: 1394:and, in the case of Taiwan, indigenous 1354:when extensive trading was done by the 564:of Greek spoken and written during the 173:from the 11th to the 19th centuries. A 5486:Lingua franca del Mediterraneo o Sabir 5333:"DEAFGPS: International Sign Connects" 5173:"Indian Sign Language Council of 1930" 4921: 4919: 4546: 4471:How French Cuisine Took Over the World 4212: 3999:10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.371 3834:"Pure Fiji English (Basilectal FijiE)" 3478:from the original on 11 September 2021 3059:, New Delhi: Mittal, pp. 85–106, 2701:MerriamWebster's Collegiate Dictionary 2656: 2654: 2652: 355:is from the Italian for 'a language'. 5217:"Indigenous sign languages in Canada" 5122:from the original on 15 February 2020 4776:from the original on 13 November 2019 4743:Chandra, Abhimanyu (22 August 2014). 4372:"Why the future of French is African" 3935:Euro-English assessing variety status 3721: 3719: 3260:The Journal of the Polynesian Society 2303: 2301: 2185:from the original on 27 February 2020 1538:Portuguese-speaking African countries 895:is either of two historical forms of 649:in the modern linguistic definition. 555: 7: 5183:from the original on 17 October 2022 5153:from the original on 17 October 2022 4696:from the original on 17 October 2022 4654:from the original on 17 October 2022 4580:from the original on 17 October 2022 4529:Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 4336:from the original on 17 October 2022 4195:Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 4029:Granda, Germán de (1 January 1991). 3689:and Adelaar 2007: 183 for the dating 3572:from the original on 17 October 2022 3444:Interpreters in Early Imperial China 3262:, vol. 89, no. 4, 1980, pp. 455–78. 3013:from the original on 8 February 2015 3006:Scroll.in – News. Politics. Culture. 2855:from the original on 17 October 2022 2813:from the original on 17 October 2022 2610:from the original on 17 October 2022 2433:Franc and (prefix) franco- (Φράγκος 2256:from the original on 5 December 2014 2155: 2153: 1527: Cultural or secondary language 1465:. Its use remains prevalent in many 1303:Legal statuses of German in Europe: 3884:Tweedie, Gregory; Johnson, Robert. 3356:"Revitalizing Endangered Languages" 3328:"Revitalizing Endangered Languages" 2226:from the original on 21 August 2020 2220:"Lingua Franca, Pidgin, and Creole" 799:while retaining characteristically 377: 5524:, Diego de Haedo and other sources 5179:. Grande Polpo Deaf. 9 June 2012. 5091:from the original on 24 April 2021 5003:from the original on 21 April 2021 4382:from the original on 11 April 2021 3892:from the original on 3 August 2020 3858:. 26 February 2018. Archived from 3795:from the original on 1 March 2022. 3737:from the original on 24 April 2021 3562:"Italian: The Language That Sings" 2404:Lexico tes Neas Hellenikes Glossas 2063:from the original on 3 August 2020 1483:Commonwealth of Independent States 657:European settlement of New Zealand 637:, became the dominant language in 191:The Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer 169:used especially by traders in the 25: 5141:Hilleary, Cecily (3 April 2017). 4937:from the original on 23 July 2019 4263:Meisler, Stanley (1 March 1986). 3911:Stephens, Thomas (4 April 2021). 3111:(2011), Waitangi Tribunal, pp. 41 2704:, Merriam-Webster, archived from 2370:from the original on 31 July 2020 2162:LINGUA FRANCA:CHIMERA OR REALITY? 1469:. Russian has some presence as a 862:was largely based on Italian and 855:, Central, North, and East Asia. 322:in the eastern Mediterranean and 280:international auxiliary languages 5313:from the original on 11 May 2021 5227:from the original on 11 May 2021 4904:from the original on 16 May 2021 4898:Asian Languages & Literature 4872:. Gruyter. pp. 402–3, 413. 4644:Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi (1994), 4621:. United Nations. Archived from 4275:from the original on 2 July 2015 3766: 3499:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 3360:THE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REVIEW 3332:THE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REVIEW 2581:from the original on 11 May 2015 2510:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2003.00242.x 2286:from the original on 15 May 2021 2246:"Language – Pidgins and creoles" 1952: 1938: 643:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 122: 52: 5408:The Lingua Franca in the Levant 5110:Graber, Jennifer (9 May 2018). 4412:. 3(3): 77 – 89 (2009) CD-ROM. 4062:Review of Research in Education 3985:Stavans, Ilan (26 April 2017). 3549:The Lingua Franca in the Levant 3214:libguides.stalbanssc.vic.edu.au 3085:"History of the Māori language" 2796:Ideology and Status of Sanskrit 2760:A Dictionary of Buddhism p.350 1666:specifically as the basis for " 1487:dissolution of the Soviet Union 5406:Kahane, Henry Romanos (1958). 5027:African Languages and Cultures 4975:Journal of Pan African Studies 4486:Chazan, Guy and Jim Brunsden. 3712:. Routledge. pp. 248–261. 3526:English Pronouncing Dictionary 3009:, scroll.in, 6 February 2015, 2975:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary 1740:, is the official language of 1168: Majority native language 1088:Spanish language distribution 958: Majority native language 953:English language distribution 771:was developed early on at the 723:language, is the first Slavic 493:Until the early 20th century, 203:are therefore lingua francas; 32:Lingua franca (disambiguation) 1: 5555:Languages by place in society 5488:of professor Francesco Bruni" 5415:Melatti, Julio Cezar (1983). 5081:"Plains Indian Sign Language" 3781:Chua, Amy (18 January 2022). 3596:I Virtuosi dell'Opera Di Roma 2575:"Online Etymology Dictionary" 2360:"lingua franca | linguistics" 1544:, and to a certain extent in 1163:French language distribution 513:. In the early 20th century, 5490:(in Italian). Archived from 5372:. Cornell University Press. 4900:. University of Washington. 4543:(inactive 8 September 2024). 4209:(inactive 8 September 2024). 1921:World Federation of the Deaf 1366:. German is also one of the 1216:said that the fact that the 795:, and principalities of the 5369:Pidgin and Creole Languages 5118:. Oxford University Press. 4963:, 72(2), 2002, pp. 102–105. 4650:, University of Wisconsin, 4238:When The World Spoke French 4191:"French as a lingua franca" 2661:Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2497:Journal of Sociolinguistics 2206:Pidgin and Creole Languages 2082:Gordin, Michael D. (2015). 1670:" for national use despite 860:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 763: 675:. After the signing of the 633:, through the power of the 540: 436:Its plurals in English are 419:Online Etymology Dictionary 383: 300:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 159:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 5581: 5277:European Union of the Deaf 4810:. Retrieved 12 March 2019. 4759:. Retrieved 12 March 2019. 4452:Felicien, Marie Michelle. 4306:. Retrieved 11 April 2011. 4109:Journal of World Languages 3135:(1st ed.). Auckland: 2638:Oxford Dictionaries Online 2551:10.17011/apples/2015090104 2276:"Definition of VERNACULAR" 1227:As a legacy of French and 1135:Southwestern United States 1099: Co-official language 945:English as a lingua franca 942: 731:states and populations in 562:common supra-regional form 557:[elinistiˈciciˈni] 515:vernacular written Chinese 451: 363: 36: 29: 5565:Italian words and phrases 5447:Ostler, Nicholas (2010). 5424:Ostler, Nicholas (2005). 5249:. NewsHub. Archived from 5039:10.1080/09544169708717813 4839:10.1177/21582440211004140 4607:– via Academia.edu. 4541:10.1017/S0267190506000080 4207:10.1017/S0267190506000031 4056:Macías, Reynaldo (2014). 3501:(3rd ed.), Longman, 3137:Penguin Books New Zealand 2955:Dictionary.com Unabridged 2398:), lemma Franc ( Φράγκος 2396:Kentro Hellenikes Glossas 2204:Romaine, Suzanne (1988). 1380:Standard Mandarin Chinese 823:. Nowadays, the Cyrillic 757: 529: 459:Historical lingua francas 5514:Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme 4961:Journal des Africanistes 4719:"Three Language Formula" 4322:. Taylor & Francis. 4074:10.3102/0091732X13506544 3185:High or Classical Māori: 3031:Talbot, Cynthia (2001), 2735:Ostler, 2010 pp. 163–167 1846:Country stopping before 1382:is the lingua franca of 671:, and education through 551:'Common Greek'; 37:Not to be confused with 5366:Hall, R.A. Jr. (1966). 4931:Encyclopædia Britannica 4400:Maamri, Malika Rebai. " 4168:6 February 2021 at the 4149:17 October 2022 at the 3972:10.1109/MC.2017.3001253 3933:Mollin, Sandra (2005). 3497:Wells, John C. (2008), 2491:House, Juliane (2003). 2478:12 October 2014 at the 2409:. Komvos.edu.gr. 2002. 2364:Encyclopædia Britannica 2280:www.merriam-webster.com 2250:Encyclopedia Britannica 1093: Official language 1066:four official languages 847:-speaking countries in 773:Preslav Literary School 689:Native Schools Act 1867 369: 357: 351: 5522:L'Impresario da Smyrna 5450:The Last Lingua Franca 4870:Pluricentric Languages 4832:(1): 215824402110041. 4801:21 August 2020 at the 4750:21 August 2020 at the 4430:Stevens, Paul (1980). 4234:Marc Fumaroli (2011). 4103:Lynch, Andrew (2023). 3856:Raiwasa Private Resort 3820:10.1080/03050069728587 3731:Brown Political Review 3547:Henry Romanos Kahane. 3131:Belich, Jamie (1996). 2835:; Chaofen Sun (2015). 2726:Ostler, 2005 pp. 38–40 2392:Lexico Triantaphyllide 2134:Intro Sociolinguistics 1973:Global language system 1891:are given, such as in 1827: 1812:Indigenous Australians 1730: 1691: 1640: 1616:three-language formula 1591: 1550:mutual intelligibility 1529: 1454: 1422: 1332: 1195:French colonial empire 1182: 1107: 1054:English-speaking world 966: 851:, Eastern Europe, the 470: 454:List of lingua francas 193: 5387:Heine, Bernd (1970). 5221:University of Calgary 5203:Indian sign language. 4299:12 March 2008 at the 4269:The Los Angeles Times 4122:10.1515/jwl-2022-0048 3808:Comparative Education 3644:Durston 2007: 40, 322 3442:Lung, Rachel (2011). 2924:CollinsDictionary.com 2879:The Sanskrit Language 2345:on 15 November 2012. 2047:Nye, Mary Jo (2016). 1856:Plateau Sign Language 1852:Keresan Sign Language 1825: 1728: 1689: 1678:of some Indonesians. 1638: 1571: 1515: Native language 1505: 1452: 1418: 1302: 1162: 1087: 952: 681:Colony of New Zealand 466: 421:states that the term 188: 5453:. New York: Walker. 5273:"International Sign" 5087:. 21 December 2017. 4458:Global Press Journal 4189:Wright, Sue (2006). 4163:Spanish in the World 3710:The Turkic Languages 2671:on 25 September 2015 2318:10.1093/pastj/gts023 1879:Oneida Sign Language 1392:varieties of Chinese 1283:As a consequence of 1218:Treaty of Versailles 1031:indigenous languages 972:most spoken language 805:Carpathian Mountains 721:Eastern South Slavic 361:is related to Greek 243:but it is used as a 30:For other uses, see 5428:Empires of the Word 5283:on 28 November 2018 5023:Obeng, Samuel Gyasi 4725:on 22 February 2012 4361:, 23 December 2023. 4176:, 18 November 2019. 3139:. pp. 57, 67. 2633:Oxford Dictionaries 2600:Morgan, J. (1632). 2532:Brosch, C. (2015). 2139:22 May 2018 at the 1860:Inuit Sign Language 1596:Hindustani language 1419:Arabic language map 1261:) and parts of the 1000:international trade 849:Southeastern Europe 815:, corresponding to 717:Old Church Slavonic 578:Alexander the Great 395:'. During the late 171:Mediterranean Basin 125:), also known as a 5432:. London: Harper. 5343:on 30 October 2021 5309:. United Nations. 5253:on 30 October 2021 5201:Tomkins, William. 5069:. 12 January 2022. 5041:– via JSTOR. 4933:. 27 August 2014. 4927:"Swahili language" 4807:The Indian Express 4625:on 12 October 2007 4523:Li, David (2006). 4503:Rankin, Jennifer. 4460:, 13 November 2019 3937:. Tübingen: Narr. 3822:– via JSTOR. 3788:The New York Times 3165:www.britannica.com 2978:. Merriam-Webster. 2833:William S.-Y. Wang 2708:on 10 October 2020 2577:. Etymonline.com. 2320:– via JSTOR. 2310:Past & Present 2120:"vehicular, adj." 2003:Universal language 1960:Linguistics portal 1885:International Sign 1828: 1731: 1703:German East Africa 1692: 1641: 1592: 1530: 1467:post-Soviet states 1455: 1423: 1396:Formosan languages 1333: 1183: 1108: 967: 758:словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ 677:Treaty of Waitangi 566:Hellenistic period 471: 194: 139:auxiliary language 123:§ Usage notes 121:; for plurals see 5494:on 28 March 2009. 5460:978-0-8027-1771-9 5439:978-0-00-711871-7 4999:. 23 March 2021. 4866:Clyne, Michael G. 4329:978-0-203-41796-6 4174:Language Magazine 4008:978-0-19-936643-9 3862:on 27 August 2022 3764:(22nd ed., 2019) 3733:. 25 April 2017. 3535:978-3-12-539683-8 3411:www.thepost.co.nz 3281:www.thepost.co.nz 3239:www.thepost.co.nz 3089:nzhistory.govt.nz 3066:978-81-7099-211-0 3042:978-0-19-513661-6 2897:Boston University 2848:978-0-19-985633-6 2806:978-90-04-10613-0 1798:Creoles, such as 1705:, later becoming 1621:Arunachal Pradesh 1471:minority language 1368:working languages 1360:former Yugoslavia 1340:Middle Low German 1213:Los Angeles Times 1128:Equatorial Guinea 893:Classical Quechua 764:slověnĭskŭ językŭ 749:National language 745:Official language 725:literary language 550: 538: 530:Ελληνιστική Κοινή 417:Douglas Harper's 16:(Redirected from 5572: 5560:Interlinguistics 5536: 5535:on 8 April 2010. 5531:. Archived from 5507: 5506:on 9 April 2009. 5502:. Archived from 5495: 5479: 5464: 5443: 5431: 5420: 5417:Índios do Brasil 5411: 5402: 5383: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5318: 5299: 5293: 5292: 5290: 5288: 5279:. Archived from 5269: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5258: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5212: 5206: 5199: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5158: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5127: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5096: 5085:Sam Noble Museum 5077: 5071: 5070: 5063: 5057: 5056: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5019: 5013: 5012: 5010: 5008: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4970: 4964: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4923: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4841: 4817: 4811: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4766: 4760: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4732: 4730: 4715: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4701: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4661: 4659: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4565: 4559: 4558: 4552: 4544: 4520: 4514: 4501: 4495: 4484: 4478: 4469:Notaker, Henry. 4467: 4461: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4427: 4421: 4398: 4392: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4378:. 7 April 2019. 4368: 4362: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4313: 4307: 4291: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4241: 4231: 4225: 4224: 4218: 4210: 4186: 4177: 4160: 4154: 4141: 4135: 4134: 4124: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4015: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3881: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3778: 3772: 3771: 3770: 3753: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3723: 3714: 3713: 3705: 3699: 3696: 3690: 3683: 3677: 3674: 3668: 3667:administrators.' 3664: 3658: 3651: 3645: 3642: 3636: 3633: 3627: 3623: 3617: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3598:. 4 January 2022 3588: 3582: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3558: 3552: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3518: 3512: 3511: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3439: 3433: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3352: 3343: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3273: 3267: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3205: 3199: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3128: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3081: 3070: 3069: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3020: 3018: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2986: 2980: 2979: 2966: 2960: 2959: 2946: 2940: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2889: 2883: 2882: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2790: 2784: 2774: 2768: 2758: 2752: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2727: 2724: 2718: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2692: 2681: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2658: 2647: 2646: 2629: 2620: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2588: 2586: 2571: 2565: 2562: 2556: 2555: 2553: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2512: 2488: 2482: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2430: 2428: 2423:on 24 March 2012 2419:. Archived from 2386: 2380: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2344: 2337: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2305: 2296: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2242: 2236: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2222:. 3 April 2015. 2216: 2210: 2209: 2201: 2195: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2184: 2167: 2157: 2148: 2131: 2125: 2118: 2112: 2111: 2104: 2098: 2097: 2079: 2073: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2044: 2038: 2024: 2008:Working language 1998:Interlinguistics 1978:Language contact 1962: 1957: 1956: 1948: 1946:Languages portal 1943: 1942: 1866:and the various 1794:Creole languages 1738:Iranian language 1584:) serves as the 1526: 1520: 1514: 1400:Chinese diaspora 1356:Hanseatic League 1329: 1323: 1317: 1307: 1263:French Caribbean 1179: 1173: 1167: 1120:Hispanic America 1104: 1098: 1092: 963: 957: 766: 760: 759: 685:Chinese migrants 574:Byzantine Empire 559: 554: 545: 543: 541:Ellinistikí Kiní 533: 531: 495:Literary Chinese 397:Byzantine Empire 386: 380: 379: 374: 366: 365: 360: 354: 336:Slavic languages 265:Standard Chinese 120: 117: 114: 111: 108: 104: 103: 100: 99: 96: 93: 90: 87: 84: 81: 77: 76: 73: 70: 67: 64: 61: 58: 21: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5574: 5573: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5540: 5539: 5527: 5510:Juan del Encina 5498: 5482: 5474: 5471: 5461: 5446: 5440: 5423: 5414: 5405: 5399: 5386: 5380: 5365: 5362: 5360:Further reading 5357: 5356: 5346: 5344: 5331: 5330: 5326: 5316: 5314: 5301: 5300: 5296: 5286: 5284: 5271: 5270: 5266: 5256: 5254: 5245: 5244: 5240: 5230: 5228: 5214: 5213: 5209: 5200: 5196: 5186: 5184: 5171: 5170: 5166: 5156: 5154: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5125: 5123: 5109: 5108: 5104: 5094: 5092: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5006: 5004: 4991: 4990: 4986: 4972: 4971: 4967: 4954: 4950: 4940: 4938: 4925: 4924: 4917: 4907: 4905: 4892: 4891: 4887: 4880: 4862:Asmah Haji Omar 4860: 4859: 4855: 4819: 4818: 4814: 4803:Wayback Machine 4793: 4789: 4779: 4777: 4768: 4767: 4763: 4752:Wayback Machine 4742: 4738: 4728: 4726: 4717: 4716: 4712: 4699: 4697: 4690: 4675: 4674: 4670: 4657: 4655: 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3575: 3573: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3546: 3542: 3536: 3520: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3481: 3479: 3472:sogdians.si.edu 3466: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3441: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3405: 3404: 3400: 3390: 3388: 3380:Coffey, Clare. 3379: 3378: 3374: 3364: 3362: 3354: 3353: 3346: 3336: 3334: 3326: 3325: 3321: 3311: 3309: 3301:Coffey, Clare. 3300: 3299: 3295: 3285: 3283: 3275: 3274: 3270: 3257: 3253: 3243: 3241: 3233: 3232: 3228: 3218: 3216: 3208:Brar, Atarjit. 3207: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3169: 3167: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3119: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3093: 3091: 3083: 3082: 3073: 3067: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3016: 3014: 3003: 3002: 2998: 2988: 2987: 2983: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2933: 2931: 2917: 2916: 2912: 2902: 2900: 2899:. 28 April 2015 2891: 2890: 2886: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2858: 2856: 2849: 2831: 2830: 2826: 2816: 2814: 2807: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2775: 2771: 2759: 2755: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2711: 2709: 2696:Merriam-Webster 2694: 2693: 2684: 2674: 2672: 2660: 2659: 2650: 2645:on 16 May 2001. 2631: 2630: 2623: 2613: 2611: 2599: 2598: 2594: 2584: 2582: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2531: 2530: 2526: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2480:Wayback Machine 2472: 2468: 2458: 2456: 2452: 2451: 2447: 2426: 2424: 2417: 2388: 2387: 2383: 2373: 2371: 2358: 2357: 2353: 2342: 2335: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2307: 2306: 2299: 2289: 2287: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2259: 2257: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2229: 2227: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2188: 2186: 2182: 2176: 2165: 2159: 2158: 2151: 2141:Wayback Machine 2132: 2128: 2119: 2115: 2106: 2105: 2101: 2094: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2066: 2064: 2046: 2045: 2041: 2030:, 2008, p. 31. 2025: 2021: 2016: 1958: 1951: 1944: 1937: 1934: 1840:Anishinaabewaki 1838:in the West to 1820: 1800:Nigerian Pidgin 1796: 1785: 1770: 1723: 1684: 1633: 1566: 1554:mixed languages 1528: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1500: 1494:communication. 1447: 1438:ongoing warfare 1420: 1413: 1376: 1331: 1327: 1325: 1321: 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A. Alpers, 4948: 4915: 4885: 4878: 4853: 4812: 4787: 4761: 4736: 4710: 4688: 4668: 4636: 4610: 4591: 4560: 4515: 4496: 4479: 4462: 4445: 4422: 4393: 4363: 4347: 4328: 4308: 4286: 4255: 4249:978-1590173756 4248: 4226: 4178: 4155: 4136: 4115:(1): 111–132. 4095: 4048: 4041: 4021: 4007: 3977: 3950: 3943: 3925: 3903: 3873: 3843: 3825: 3814:(2): 303–312. 3798: 3773: 3748: 3715: 3700: 3691: 3687:lengua general 3678: 3669: 3659: 3646: 3637: 3628: 3618: 3609: 3583: 3553: 3540: 3534: 3513: 3507: 3489: 3459: 3452: 3434: 3423: 3398: 3372: 3344: 3319: 3293: 3268: 3251: 3226: 3200: 3189: 3177: 3152: 3145: 3123: 3113: 3101: 3071: 3065: 3047: 3041: 3023: 2996: 2981: 2961: 2958:(Online). n.d. 2941: 2910: 2884: 2875:Burrow, Thomas 2866: 2847: 2824: 2805: 2785: 2769: 2753: 2750:978-0802717719 2737: 2728: 2719: 2682: 2648: 2621: 2606:. p. 98. 2592: 2566: 2557: 2524: 2483: 2466: 2445: 2415: 2381: 2351: 2323: 2312:(217): 47–77. 2297: 2267: 2237: 2211: 2196: 2174: 2149: 2126: 2113: 2099: 2092: 2074: 2039: 2018: 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