1798:. It is relevant how transparent a market is, because a more concentrated structure could mean firms can coordinate their behavior more easily, whether firms can deploy deterrents and whether firms are safe from a reaction by their competitors and consumers. The entry of new firms to the market, and any barriers that they might encounter should be considered. If firms are shown to be creating an uncompetitive concentration, in the US they can still argue that they create efficiencies enough to outweigh any detriment, and similar reference to "technical and economic progress" is mentioned in Art. 2 of the ECMR. Another defense might be that a firm which is being taken over is about to fail or go insolvent, and taking it over leaves a no less competitive state than what would happen anyway. Mergers vertically in the market are rarely of concern, although in
993:(EEC). The Treaty of Rome established the enactment of competition law as one of the main aims of the EEC through the "institution of a system ensuring that competition in the common market is not distorted". The two central provisions on EU competition law on companies were established in article 85, which prohibited anti-competitive agreements, subject to some exemptions, and article 86 prohibiting the abuse of dominant position. The treaty also established principles on competition law for member states, with article 90 covering public undertakings, and article 92 making provisions on state aid. Regulations on mergers were not included as member states could not establish consensus on the issue at the time.
876:. Vast numbers of citizens became sufficiently aware and publicly concerned about how the trusts negatively impacted them that the Act became a priority for both major parties. A primary concern of this act is that competitive markets themselves should provide the primary regulation of prices, outputs, interests and profits. Instead, the Act outlawed anticompetitive practices, codifying the common law restraint of trade doctrine. Rudolph Peritz has argued that competition law in the United States has evolved around two sometimes conflicting concepts of competition: first that of individual liberty, free of government intervention, and second a fair competitive environment free of excessive
1687:
a firm has a dominant position, then there is "a special responsibility not to allow its conduct to impair competition on the common market". Similarly as with collusive conduct, market shares are determined with reference to the particular market in which the firm and product in question is sold. Then although the lists are seldom closed, certain categories of abusive conduct are usually prohibited under the country's legislation. For instance, limiting production at a shipping port by refusing to raise expenditure and update technology could be abusive. Tying one product into the sale of another can be considered abuse too, being restrictive of
403:
holders accumulate 80% of the control over the value of all ... network control is much more unequally distributed than wealth. In particular, the top ranked actors hold a control ten times bigger than what could be expected based on their wealth. ... Recent works have shown that when a financial network is very densely connected it is prone to systemic risk. Indeed, while in good times the network is seemingly robust, in bad times firms go into distress simultaneously. This knife-edge property was witnessed during the recent (2009) financial turmoil ..."
837:
1181:(ASEAN) pledged to enact competition laws and policies by the end of 2015. Today, all ten member states have general competition legislation in place. While there remains differences between regimes (for example, over merger control notification rules, or leniency policies for whistle-blowers), and it is unlikely that there will be a supranational competition authority for ASEAN (akin to the European Union), there is a clear trend towards increase in infringement investigations or decisions on cartel enforcement.
790:
disadvantage of the public should be punished as misdemeanours". Austria passed a law in 1870 abolishing the penalties, though such agreements remained void. However, in
Germany laws clearly validated agreements between firms to raise prices. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, ideas that dominant private companies or legal monopolies could excessively restrict trade were further developed in Europe. However, as in the late 19th century, a depression spread through Europe, known as the
1401:
commodities are most effectually provided for by leaving the producers and sellers perfectly free, under the sole check of equal freedom to the buyers for supplying themselves elsewhere. This is the so-called doctrine of Free Trade, which rests on grounds different from, though equally solid with, the principle of individual liberty asserted in this Essay. Restrictions on trade, or on production for purposes of trade, are indeed restraints; and all restraint, qua restraint, is an evil...
693:
1200:
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at its disposal to penalize violators. It could have, for example, required violators to compensate federal, state, and local governments for the estimated damage to their respective economies caused by the violations. But, this remedy was not selected. Instead, Congress chose to permit all persons to sue to recover three times their actual damages every time they were injured in their business or property by an antitrust violation.
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5849:
1671:
58:
685:
Hull J exclaimed, "per Dieu, if the plaintiff were here, he should go to prison until he had paid a fine to the King". The court denied the collection of a bond for the dyer's breach of agreement because the agreement was held to be a restriction on trade. English courts subsequently decided a range of cases which gradually developed competition related case law, which eventually were transformed into
860:. Trusts first appeared in the US railroads, where the capital requirement of railroad construction precluded competitive services in then scarcely settled territories. This trust allowed railroads to discriminate on rates imposed and services provided to consumers and businesses and to destroy potential competitors. Different trusts could be dominant in different industries. The
925:, mergers and acquisitions came into additional scrutiny from U.S. regulators. Under the act, parties must make a pre-merger notification to the U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission prior to the completion of a transaction. As of February 2, 2021, the FTC reduced the Hart-Scott-Rodino reporting threshold to $ 92 million in combined assets for the transaction.
785:, or group of artisans, with paid labourers and machine-based production. Commercial success became increasingly dependent on maximizing production while minimizing cost. Therefore, the size of a company became increasingly important, and a number of European countries responded by enacting laws to regulate large companies that restricted trade. Following the
1025:. Articles 106 and 107 provide that member state's right to deliver public services may not be obstructed, but that otherwise public enterprises must adhere to the same competition principles as companies. Article 107 lays down a general rule that the state may not aid or subsidize private parties in distortion of free competition and provides exemptions for
661:
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1004:. According to Article 101(2) any such agreements are automatically void. Article 101(3) establishes exemptions, if the collusion is for distributional or technological innovation, gives consumers a "fair share" of the benefit and does not include unreasonable restraints that risk eliminating competition anywhere (or compliant with the
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market can restrain a high-market-share firm's price increases. Competition law does not make merely having a monopoly illegal, but rather abusing the power that a monopoly may confer, for instance through exclusionary practices. Market dominance is connected with decreased innovation and increased political connectedness.
1609:
agreements and price discrimination on the grounds that it did not harm consumers. Running through the different critiques of US antitrust policy is the common theme that government interference in the operation of free markets does more harm than good. "The only cure for bad theory," writes Bork, "is better theory."
599:... we have ordained and established, that no merchant or other shall make Confederacy, Conspiracy, Coin, Imagination, or Murmur, or Evil Device in any point that may turn to the Impeachment, Disturbance, Defeating or Decay of the said Staples, or of anything that to them pertaineth, or may pertain.
789:
in 1789 the law of 14–17 June 1791 declared agreements by members of the same trade that fixed the price of an industry or labour as void, unconstitutional, and hostile to liberty. Similarly, the
Austrian Penal Code of 1852 established that "agreements ... to raise the price of a commodity ... to the
1779:
No person shall acquire, directly or indirectly, the whole or any part of the stock or other share capital... of the assets of one or more persons engaged in commerce or in any activity affecting commerce, where... the effect of such acquisition, of such stocks or assets, or of the use of such stock
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prevention of market dominance. In the United States merger regulation began under the
Clayton Act, and in the European Union, under the Merger Regulation 139/2004 (known as the "ECMR"). Competition law requires that firms proposing to merge gain authorization from the relevant government authority.
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First, it is necessary to determine whether a firm is dominant, or whether it behaves "to an appreciable extent independently of its competitors, customers and ultimately of its consumer". Under EU law, very large market shares raise a presumption that a firm is dominant, which may be rebuttable. If
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was passed. The history of competition law in India dates back to the 1960s when the first competition law, namely the
Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act (MRTP) was enacted in 1969. But after the economic reforms in 1991, this legislation was found to be obsolete in many aspects and as a
1850:
through enforcement of intellectual property rights may promote as well as limit competitiveness. The question rests on whether it is legal to acquire monopoly through accumulation of intellectual property rights. In which case, the judgment needs to decide between giving preference to intellectual
1728:
a broadband internet company was forced to pay $ 13.9 million for dropping its prices below its own production costs. It had "no interest in applying such prices except that of eliminating competitors" and was being cross-subsidized to capture the lion's share of a booming market. One last category
1719:
Forms of abuse relating directly to pricing include price exploitation. It is difficult to prove at what point a dominant firm's prices become "exploitative" and this category of abuse is rarely found. In one case however, a French funeral service was found to have demanded exploitative prices, and
1362:
A monopoly granted either to an individual or to a trading company has the same effect as a secret in trade or manufactures. The monopolists, by keeping the market constantly under-stocked, by never fully supplying the effectual demand, sell their commodities much above the natural price, and raise
1323:. In some markets, a firm may successfully dominate, but it is because of superior skill or innovativeness. However, according to laissez-faire theorists, when it tries to raise prices to take advantage of its monopoly position it creates profitable opportunities for others to compete. A process of
1219:
Every violation of the antitrust laws is a blow to the free-enterprise system envisaged by
Congress. This system depends on strong competition for its health and vigor, and strong competition depends, in turn, on compliance with antitrust legislation. In enacting these laws, Congress had many means
643:
it is very hard and difficult to put certain prices to any such things ... prices of such victuals be many times enhanced and raised by the Greedy
Covetousness and Appetites of the Owners of such Victuals, by occasion of ingrossing and regrating the same, more than upon any reasonable or just
1381:
People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices. It is impossible indeed to prevent such meetings, by any law which either could be executed, or would be consistent
684:
is the first known restrictive trade agreement to be examined under
English common law. A dyer had given a bond not to exercise his trade in the same town as the plaintiff for six months but the plaintiff had promised nothing in return. On hearing the plaintiff's attempt to enforce this restraint,
1501:
Contrasting with the allocatively, productively and dynamically efficient market model are monopolies, oligopolies, and cartels. When only one or a few firms exist in the market, and there is no credible threat of the entry of competing firms, prices rise above the competitive level, to either a
980:
as it was felt that this dominance had contributed to the outbreak of the war. Article 65 of the agreement banned cartels and article 66 made provisions for concentrations, or mergers, and the abuse of a dominant position by companies. This was the first time that competition law principles were
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When firms hold large market shares, consumers risk paying higher prices and getting lower quality products than compared to competitive markets. However, the existence of a very high market share does not always mean consumers are paying excessive prices since the threat of new entrants to the
1400:
Again, trade is a social act. Whoever undertakes to sell any description of goods to the public, does what affects the interest of other persons, and of society in general; and thus his conduct, in principle, comes within the jurisdiction of society... both the cheapness and the good quality of
1357:
of tradespeople to carry on their livelihoods. Restraints were judged as permissible or not by courts as new cases appeared and in the light of changing business circumstances. Hence the courts found specific categories of agreement, specific clauses, to fall foul of their doctrine on economic
402:
included a range of limited provisions on various cross-border competition issues on a sector specific basis. Competition law has failed to prevent monopolization of economic activity. "The global economy is dominated by a handful of powerful transnational corporations (TNCs). ... Only 737 top
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Under EC law, a concentration is where a "change of control on a lasting basis results from (a) the merger of two or more previously independent undertakings... (b) the acquisition... if direct or indirect control of the whole or parts of one or more other undertakings". Art. 3(1), Regulation
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and scope. However often firms take advantage of their increase in market power, their increased market share and decreased number of competitors, which can adversely affect the deal that consumers get. Merger control is about predicting what the market might be like, not knowing and making a
1608:
of consumer welfare, the protection of competition rather than competitors. Furthermore, only a few acts should be prohibited, namely cartels that fix prices and divide markets, mergers that create monopolies, and dominant firms pricing predatorily, while allowing such practices as vertical
1741:
According to The World Bank's "Republic of
Armenia Accumulation, Competition, and Connectivity Global Competition" report which was published in 2013, the Global Competitiveness Index suggests that Armenia ranks lowest among ECA (Europe and Central Asia) countries in the effectiveness of
1477:
is perfected because resources can no longer be reallocated to make anyone better off without making someone else worse off; society has achieved allocative efficiency. Productive efficiency simply means that society is making as much as it can. Free markets are meant to reward those who
1137:
By 2008 111 countries had enacted competition laws, which is more than 50 percent of countries with a population exceeding 80,000 people. 81 of the 111 countries had adopted their competition laws in the past 20 years, signaling the spread of competition law following the collapse of the
453:. Transactions that are considered to threaten the competitive process can be prohibited altogether, or approved subject to "remedies" such as an obligation to divest part of the merged business or to offer licenses or access to facilities to enable other businesses to continue competing.
729:
to declare void the sole right that Queen
Elizabeth I had granted to Darcy to import playing cards into England. Darcy, an officer of the Queen's household, claimed damages for the defendant's infringement of this right. The court found the grant void and that three characteristics of
1784:
What amounts to a substantial lessening of, or significant impediment to competition is usually answered through empirical study. The market shares of the merging companies can be assessed and added, although this kind of analysis only gives rise to presumptions, not conclusions. The
583:
of 1349 fixed wages of artificers and workmen and decreed that foodstuffs should be sold at reasonable prices. On top of existing penalties, the statute stated that overcharging merchants must pay the injured party double the sum he received, an idea that has been replicated in
717:, the system was reputedly much abused and used merely to preserve privileges, encouraging nothing new in the way of innovation or manufacture. In response English courts developed case law on restrictive business practices. The statute followed the unanimous decision in
1431:
After Mill, there was a shift in economic theory, which emphasized a more precise and theoretical model of competition. A simple neo-classical model of free markets holds that production and distribution of goods and services in competitive free markets maximizes
1760:
of another. The reasons for oversight of economic concentrations by the state are the same as the reasons to restrict firms who abuse a position of dominance, only that regulation of mergers and acquisitions attempts to deal with the problem before it arises,
1331:
1472:
of possible output – or alternatively rational producers will be reduce their output to the margin at which buyers will buy the same amount as produced – there is no waste, the greatest number wants of the greatest number of people become satisfied and
1789:
is used to calculate the "density" of the market, or what concentration exists. Aside from the maths, it is important to consider the product in question and the rate of technical innovation in the market. A further problem of collective dominance, or
1885:
Some scholars suggest that a prize instead of patent would solve the problem of deadweight loss, when innovators got their reward from the prize, provided by the government or non-profit organization, rather than directly selling to the market, see
1417:
1715:
drugs market, Commercial
Solvents were forced to continue supplying a company named Zoja with the raw materials for the drug. Zoja was the only market competitor, so without the court forcing supply, all competition would have been eliminated.
888:, or attempts and conspiracies to monopolize. Following the enactment in 1890 US court applies these principles to business and markets. Courts applied the Act without consistent economic analysis until 1914, when it was complemented by the
3986:
Judgment of the Court (Sixth Chamber) of 4 May 1988. Corinne Bodson v SA Pompes funèbres des régions libérées. Reference for a preliminary ruling: Cour de cassation - France. Competition - Funeral services - Exclusive special rights. Case
1553:
1775:, if it went ahead, "significantly impede effective competition... in particular as a result of the creation or strengthening off a dominant position..." and the corresponding provision under US antitrust states similarly,
939:
Competition law gained new recognition in Europe in the inter-war years, with Germany enacting its first anti-cartel law in 1923 and Sweden and Norway adopting similar laws in 1925 and 1926 respectively. However, with the
898:
analysis was frequently applied by courts to competition cases. However, the period was characterized by the lack of competition law enforcement. From 1936 to 1972 courts' application of antitrust law was dominated by the
1724:. This is the practice of dropping prices of a product so much that one's smaller competitors cannot cover their costs and fall out of business. The Chicago school considers predatory pricing to be unlikely. However, in
708:
had just been opened up, overseas trade and plunder was pouring wealth through the international economy and attitudes among businessmen were shifting. In 1561 a system of Industrial Monopoly Licenses, similar to modern
381:
in competition cases based on so-called "effects doctrine". The protection of international competition is governed by international competition agreements. In 1945, during the negotiations preceding the adoption of the
361:
and governments have always been subject to scrutiny, and sometimes severe sanctions. Since the 20th century, competition law has become global. The two largest and most influential systems of competition regulation are
883:
Section 1 of the Sherman Act declared illegal "every contract, in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations." Section 2 prohibits
1382:
with liberty and justice. But though the law cannot hinder people of the same trade from sometimes assembling together, it ought to do nothing to facilitate such assemblies; much less to render them necessary.
3238:
1277:
Director and Richard Whish wrote sceptically that it "seems unlikely at the current stage of its development that the WTO will metamorphose into a global competition authority". Despite that, at the ongoing
478:
argued that competition laws can produce adverse effects when they reduce competition by protecting inefficient competitors and when costs of legal intervention are greater than benefits for the consumers.
469:
of state owned assets and the establishment of independent sector regulators, among other market-oriented supply-side policies. In recent decades, competition law has been viewed as a way to provide better
518:
of 483 A.D., which can be traced into Florentine municipal laws of 1322 and 1325. This provided for confiscation of property and banishment for any trade combination or joint action of monopolies private
1020:
governs mergers between firms. The general test is whether a concentration (i.e. merger or acquisition) with a community dimension (i.e. affects a number of EU member states) might significantly impede
4110:
wrote merger control is there "to avoid the establishment of market structures which may create or strengthen a dominant position and not need to control directly possible abuses of dominant positions"
905:
paradigm of the Harvard School. From 1973 to 1991, the enforcement of antitrust law was based on efficiency explanations as the Chicago School became dominant, and through legal writings such as Judge
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2648:
2609:
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1486:. Dynamic efficiency refers to the idea that business which constantly competes must research, create and innovate to keep its share of consumers. This traces to Austrian-American political scientist
1048:
3958:
Order of the President of the Court of First Instance of 22 December 2004. Microsoft Corp. v Commission of the European Communities. Proceedings for interim relief - Article 82 EC. Case T-201/04 R
1258:
guidelines which are clear and specific to the courts, regulators and business but leave little room for discretion that prevents the application of laws from resulting in unintended consequences.
514:
imposed the death penalty for anyone violating a tariff system, for example by buying up, concealing, or contriving the scarcity of everyday goods. More legislation came under the constitution of
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1705:
platform. A refusal to supply a facility which is essential for all businesses attempting to compete to use can constitute an abuse. One example was in a case involving a medical company named
3593:
4001:
see, e.g. Posner (1998) p. 332; "While it is possible to imagine cases in which predatory pricing would be a rational stragy, it should be apparent by now why confirmed cases of it are rare."
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758:
it was decided that exclusive rights to trade only outside the realm were legitimate, on the grounds that only large and powerful concerns could trade in the conditions prevailing overseas.
120:
3050:
1875:
Bundling of intellectual property rights to long-term business transactions or agreements to extend the market exclusiveness of intellectual property rights beyond their statutory duration.
1756:
A merger or acquisition involves, from a competition law perspective, the concentration of economic power in the hands of fewer than before. This usually means that one firm buys out the
652:
had been developing, and enjoyed many concessions and exemptions from the laws against monopolies. The privileges conferred were not abolished until the Municipal Corporations Act 1835.
2756:
892:
which specifically prohibited exclusive dealing agreements, particularly tying agreements and interlocking directorates, and mergers achieved by purchasing stock. From 1915 onwards the
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4065:
1576:, advocate an approach to competition law guided by the proposition that some actions that were originally considered to be anticompetitive could actually promote competition. The
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era. As a result, Indian market faces competition from within and outside the country. This led to the need of a strong legislation to dispense justice in commercial matters and
948:
when the United Kingdom and Germany, following pressure from the United States, became the first European countries to adopt fully fledged competition laws. At a regional level
5901:
3231:"European Commission – PRESS RELEASES – Press release – European Commission Green Paper on damages actions for breach of EC Treaty antitrust rules – frequently asked questions"
3020:
3140:
1733:. An example of this could be a company offering rebates to industrial customers who export their sugar, but not to customers who are selling their goods in the same market.
1580:
has used the Chicago school approach in several recent cases. One view of the Chicago school approach to antitrust is found in United States Circuit Court of Appeals Judge
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676:
is the direct predecessor to modern competition law later developed in the US. It is based on the prohibition of agreements that ran counter to public policy, unless the
373:
Modern competition law has historically evolved on a national level to promote and maintain fair competition in markets principally within the territorial boundaries of
4435:
1150:
of many states closely co-operate, on everyday basis, with foreign counterparts in their enforcement efforts, also in such key area as information / evidence sharing.
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of 1890 attempted to outlaw the restriction of competition by large companies, who co-operated with rivals to fix outputs, prices and market shares, initially through
377:. National competition law usually does not cover activity beyond territorial borders unless it has significant effects at nation-state level. Countries may allow for
2449:"... the modern common law of England passed directly into the legislation and thereafter into the judge-made law of the United States." Wilberforce (1966) p. 7
1261:
guidelines which are broad, hence allowing administrators to sway between improving economic outcomes versus succumbing to political policies to redistribute wealth.
3230:
1766:
The theory behind mergers is that transaction costs can be reduced compared to operating on an open market through bilateral contracts. Concentrations can increase
415:
prohibiting agreements or practices that restrict free trading and competition between business. This includes in particular the repression of free trade caused by
639:
reintroduced tariffs for foodstuffs, designed to stabilize prices, in the face of fluctuations in supply from overseas. So the legislation read here that whereas,
1286:, discussion includes the prospect of competition law enforcement moving up to a global level. While it is incapable of enforcement itself, the newly established
1119:
came into effect in 2008. For years, it was enforced by three different branches of government, but since 2018 its enforcement has been the responsibility of the
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5938:
3080:
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465:
are often treated as important objectives. Competition law is closely connected with law on deregulation of access to markets, state aids and subsidies, the
4133:
1544:". This follows the theory that if one cannot achieve the ideal, then go for the second best option by using the law to tame market operation where it can.
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fairness, and they did not contrive an overarching conception of market power. Earlier theorists like Adam Smith rejected any monopoly power on this basis.
3576:
1890:. However, innovators may accept the prize only when it is at least as much as how much they earn from patent, which is a question difficult to determine.
734:
were (1) price increases, (2) quality decrease, (3) the tendency to reduce artificers to idleness and beggary. This put an end to granted monopolies until
635:
a law was passed "to prevent losses resulting from monopolies and improper contracts which many merchants and artisans made in the Netherlands". In 1553,
1120:
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2913:
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For example one John Manley paid p.a. from 1654 to the Crown for a tender on the "postage of letters both inland and foreign" Wilberforce (1966) p. 18
298:
3208:
Council Regulation (EC) No 1/2003 of 16 December 2002 on the implementation of the rules on competition laid down in Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty
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3188:
1918:
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1911:
1005:
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1933:
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and Germany in 1951 following the Second World War. The agreement aimed to prevent Germany from re-establishing dominance in the production of
383:
2748:
575:. A 14th-century statute labelled forestallers as "oppressors of the poor and the community at large and enemies of the whole country". Under
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1617:, who favours more aggressive antitrust policy, in at least one Supreme Court case challenged Robert Bork's preference for non-intervention.
1319:, antitrust is seen as unnecessary as competition is viewed as a long-term dynamic process where firms compete against each other for market
623:
between 1283 and 1305, condemning combination of ore traders increasing prices; the Municipal Statutes of Florence in 1322 and 1325 followed
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880:. Since the enactment of the Sherman Act enforcement of competition law has been based on various economic theories adopted by Government.
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2091:
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anti-monopoly policy and the intensity of competition. This low ranking somehow explains the low employment and low incomes in Armenia.
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economies, driving enterprise at the market's mercy. This led Schumpeter to argue that monopolies did not need to be broken up (as with
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Council Regulation (EC) No 139/2004 of 20 January 2004 on the control of concentrations between undertakings (the EC Merger Regulation)
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3627:
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1814:, where companies acquire a large portfolio of related products, though without necessarily dominant shares in any individual market.
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726:
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1436:. This model assumes that new firms can freely enter markets and compete with existing firms, or to use legal language, there are no
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The classical perspective on competition was that certain agreements and business practice could be an unreasonable restraint on the
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Intellectual properties that are collaboratively designed with consequence of violating antitrust laws (intentionally or otherwise).
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a market, or anti-competitive practices that tend to lead to such a dominant position. Practices controlled in this way may include
267:
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macroeconomic intervention. He advocated the general success of the market but backed the American government's antitrust policies.
4566:
4272:, 2nd Ed, West Group, St. Paul, Minnesota. Unlike the authorities however, the courts take a dim view of the efficiencies defense.
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who argued that the Act "does not announce a new principle of law, but applies old and well recognised principles of common law".
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Campbell R. McConnell, Stanley L. Brue. Economics: Principles, Problems, and Policies. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2005. pp. 601–02
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begins which erodes the monopoly. Therefore, government should not try to break up monopoly but should allow the market to work.
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by the voting or granting of proxies or otherwise, may be substantially to lessen competition, or to tend to create a monopoly.
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1153:
In many of Asia's developing countries, including India, Competition law is considered a tool to stimulate economic growth. In
1098:
1065:
985:
regional agreement and established the trans-European model of competition law. In 1957 competition rules were included in the
547:" (i.e. forestalling, the practice of buying up goods before they reach market and then inflating the prices) was one of three
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105:
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this was justified on the basis that prices of funeral services outside the region could be compared. A more tricky issue is
1233:
1165:. In addition, competition law has promoted fairness in China and Indonesia as well as international integration in Vietnam.
934:
370:. National and regional competition authorities across the world have formed international support and enforcement networks.
367:
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2121:
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457:
Substance and practice of competition law varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Protecting the interests of consumers (
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291:
210:
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could carry out through England. But concern for fair prices also led to attempts to directly regulate the market. Under
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to pay for them. Because rational producers will keep producing and selling, and buyers will keep buying up to the last
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Competition law is enforced at the national level through competition authorities, as well as private enforcement. The
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5473:
1958:
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was highly critical of court decisions on United States antitrust law in a series of law review articles and his book
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By the latter half of the 19th century, it had become clear that large firms had become a fact of the market economy.
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990:
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363:
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of an agreement could be shown. It effectively prohibited agreements designed to restrain another's trade. The 1414
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1236:. This was done to facilitate quicker resolution of competition-related inquiries. In 2005 the Commission issued a
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139:
74:
38:
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1094:
1089:
1061:
1037:
1017:
761:
The development of early competition law in England and Europe progressed with the diffusion of writings such as
580:
552:
326:
conduct by companies. Competition law is implemented through public and private enforcement. It is also known as
4627:
3828:
6018:
5948:
5326:
5308:
3448:
3407:
1943:
1751:
1283:
1204:
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284:
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3990:
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3110:
2909:
2061:
5981:
5701:
5488:
4962:
4107:
3957:
1839:
1526:
to be efficient for a variety of reasons, so the exception of competition law's intervention to the rule of
901:
511:
814:
was passed one year before the United States enacted the most famous legal statute on competition law, the
559:
an act was passed in 1266 to fix bread and ale prices in correspondence with grain prices laid down by the
5756:
5741:
3184:
2966:
2806:
2779:
2710:
2671:
2632:
2593:
2551:
2472:
1644:
1567:
1411:
1299:
1274:
1162:
506:, heavy fines were imposed on anyone directly, deliberately, and insidiously stopping supply ships. Under
184:
1604:. Bork argued that both the original intention of antitrust laws and economic efficiency was the pursuit
1251:, these types of sanctions engender a number of significant theoretical, legal and practical challenges.
5969:
5860:
5453:
5131:
4942:
4532:
4372:
3985:
3837:
3670:
3653:
3644:
3636:
3619:
3602:
3585:
3218:
3169:
1948:
1928:
1923:
1823:
1661:
1600:
1573:
1479:
1445:
1441:
1369:
1320:
1248:
1022:
1013:
1009:
911:
763:
751:
739:
636:
576:
423:
272:
3207:
2870:
5581:
4927:
2253:
1989:
Li, Rita Yi Man; Li, Yi Lut (1 June 2013). "The Role of Competition Law(Act): An Asian Perspective".
1730:
1698:
1541:
1324:
861:
819:
747:
556:
227:
222:
110:
535:
Legislation in England to control monopolies and restrictive practices was in force well before the
5736:
4876:
4793:
3973:
1900:
1811:
1803:
1707:
1537:
1310:
1229:
1075:
1502:
monopolistic or oligopolistic equilibrium price. Production is also decreased, further decreasing
1377:
also pointed out the cartel problem, but did not advocate specific legal measures to combat them.
5551:
5210:
5064:
5049:
5027:
4771:
4751:
4704:
4694:
4619:
Georg Erber, Georg, Kooths, Stefan, '"Windows Vista: Securing Itself against Competition?'," in:
4609:
Faull, Jonathan, Nikpay, Ali (eds) (2007) "Faull & Nikpay : The EC Law of Competition,"
3543:
3535:
3493:
3457:
2243:
1767:
1610:
1533:
1519:
1354:
1338:
949:
806:
While the development of competition law stalled in Europe during the late 19th century, in 1889
735:
722:
673:
319:
246:
168:
4586:
2897:
1423:, author of the 20th century's most successful economics text, combined mathematical models and
794:, ideas of competition lost favour, and it was felt that companies had to co-operate by forming
692:
4567:
https://anali.rs/the-klobuchar-bill-is-something-rotten-in-the-us-antitrust-legislative-reform/
3281:
3261:
The Criminalization of European Cartel Enforcement: Theoretical, Legal and Practical Challenges
648:
Around this time organizations representing various tradesmen and handicrafts people, known as
5536:
5458:
5296:
5039:
5034:
4987:
4912:
4906:
4746:
4664:
4610:
4600:
4582:
4550:
4518:
4506:
4476:
4459:
4419:
4391:
4377:
3810:
3798:
3757:
3730:
3701:
3661:
3420:
3402:
2972:
2893:
2841:
2812:
2785:
2716:
2677:
2638:
2599:
2557:
2478:
2281:
2198:
2152:
2020:
1994:
1990:
1721:
1702:
1515:
1487:
1449:
1440:. By this term economists mean something very specific, that competitive free markets deliver
1437:
1125:
786:
778:
714:
677:
632:
628:
458:
427:
232:
217:
100:
88:
2083:
1869:
The further effects on competition when such properties are accepted into industry standards.
1247:
Some EU Member States enforce their competition laws with criminal sanctions. As analysed by
5541:
5508:
5007:
4871:
4866:
4831:
4498:
4466:
4440:
4324:
Antitrust Enforcement and Intellectual Property Rights: Promoting Innovation and Competition
4148:
3869:
3527:
3485:
2271:
2261:
1786:
1387:
1363:
their emoluments, whether they consist in wages or profit, greatly above their natural rate.
1334:
1030:
997:
945:
941:
592:
585:
548:
544:
431:
343:
323:
241:
195:
191:
93:
31:
1269:
contained an Antitrust code but this was never incorporated into the WTO's forerunner, the
1199:
5790:
5763:
5751:
5731:
5665:
5660:
5643:
5623:
5618:
5598:
5463:
5443:
5438:
5341:
5301:
5012:
4937:
4846:
4766:
4401:
4323:
4129:
3354:
3326:
3267:
3195:
2999:
2889:
2306:
2181:
JG Castel, 'The Extraterritorial Effects of Antitrust Laws' (1983) 179 Recueil des Cours 9
1963:
1938:
1757:
1688:
1675:
1507:
1453:
1101:, is the quasi judicial body established for enforcing provisions of the Competition Act.
536:
471:
439:
342:; the act of pushing for antitrust measures or attacking monopolistic companies (known as
200:
179:
125:
2882:
2257:
1290:(ICN) is a way for national authorities to coordinate their own enforcement activities.
5867:
5675:
5593:
5182:
5148:
5099:
5084:
4856:
4761:
4741:
4731:
4451:
4152:
3840:
3673:
3639:
3319:
3172:
2276:
2231:
1581:
1523:
1503:
1474:
1433:
1420:
1330:
1266:
1225:
1207:
members, in green and blue, whether competition law should form part of the agreements.
1143:
1129:
reported that the law had generated 11 billion RMB of penalties between 2008 and 2018.
1079:
986:
894:
877:
773:
624:
606:
595:. Also under Edward III, the following statutory provision outlawed trade combination.
588:
515:
499:
462:
390:. These obligations were not included in GATT, but in 1994, with the conclusion of the
386:(GATT) in 1947, limited international competition obligations were proposed within the
148:
130:
3622:
3588:
3260:
1858:
Should intellectual rights be revoked or not granted when antitrust laws are violated.
6012:
5721:
5680:
5566:
5546:
5518:
5468:
5433:
5407:
5402:
5395:
5346:
5286:
5126:
5116:
5074:
4997:
4992:
4922:
4881:
4805:
4502:
3751:
3723:
3694:
3656:
3605:
3547:
1878:
1794:
through "economic links" can arise, whereby the new market becomes more conducive to
1614:
1528:
1511:
1316:
1085:
1082:
1070:
India responded positively by opening up its economy by removing controls during the
791:
697:
616:
572:
540:
466:
450:
435:
391:
374:
237:
205:
4309:
5 CMLR 760, OJ L288; Many in the US disapprove of this approach, see W. J. Kolasky,
1228:, the so-called "Modernisation Regulation", Regulation 1/2003, established that the
5853:
5603:
5571:
5526:
5264:
5259:
5230:
5143:
5121:
5089:
5022:
5002:
4896:
4836:
4826:
4778:
4736:
4714:
4657:
4119:
The authority for the Commission to pass this regulation is found under Art. 83 TEC
3219:
Green Paper - Damages actions for breach of the EC antitrust rules {SEC(2005) 1732}
2145:"UAE Competition Law: New Regulations and Potential Effect on M&A Transactions"
1843:
1810:
be ceased beforehand. The EU authorities have also focused lately on the effect of
1712:
1495:
1490:'s notion that a "perennial gale of creative destruction" is ever sweeping through
1139:
1001:
982:
812:
Act for the Prevention and Suppression of Combinations formed in restraint of Trade
354:
251:
164:
115:
4591:
https://web.archive.org/web/20071127034131/http://www.globalcompetitionpolicy.org/
4058:
Republic of Armenia Accumulation, Competition, and Connectivity Global Competition
3347:
1670:
1177:
As part of the creation of the ASEAN Economic Community, the member states of the
57:
4313:
9 November 2001, Address before George Mason University Symposium Washington, DC.
2266:
2192:
2113:
2014:
527:
subsequently introduced legislation to pay officials to manage state monopolies.
5834:
5775:
5716:
5706:
5503:
5498:
5336:
5237:
5153:
5112:
5079:
5044:
4967:
4891:
4841:
4756:
4367:
4311:
Conglomerate Mergers and Range Effects: It's a long way from Chicago to Brussels
4194:
2299:
1807:
1771:
judgment. Hence the central provision under EU law asks whether a concentration
1595:
1556:
1469:
1461:
1346:
1244:, which suggested ways of making private damages claims against cartels easier.
1237:
1154:
965:
916:
906:
889:
849:
841:
815:
754:, monopolies continued, especially useful for raising revenue. Then in 1684, in
686:
665:
524:
523:
granted by the Emperor. Zeno rescinded all previously granted exclusive rights.
503:
475:
174:
4354:
Suzanne Scotchmer: "Innovation and Incentives" the MIT press, 2004 (Chapter 2).
4329:(Report). U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission. April 2007.
2753:
Seyfarth Shaw - FTC Announces Reduced Hart-Scott-Rodino Act Thresholds For 2021
2300:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's Regulation and Sectors
668:
in the 17th century thought that general restraints on trade were unreasonable.
5839:
5768:
5648:
5586:
5331:
5252:
5247:
5205:
5187:
5175:
5136:
4982:
4972:
4932:
4917:
4901:
4851:
4788:
4783:
4527:
4445:
3476:
Lipsey, R. G.; Lancaster, Kelvin (1956). "The General Theory of Second Best".
2881:
Warrier VS, Conflict between Competition Law and Intellectual Property Rights
1847:
1648:
1491:
1392:
1374:
1279:
969:
944:
of 1929 competition law disappeared from Europe and was revived following the
885:
810:
enacted what is considered the first competition statute of modern times. The
768:
644:
ground or cause, to the great damage and impoverishing of the King's subjects.
564:
507:
5879:
4628:
https://web.archive.org/web/20080724022203/http://www.antitrustworldwiki.com/
3814:
2845:
2156:
5746:
5711:
5653:
5628:
5493:
5390:
5378:
5363:
5351:
5279:
5197:
5170:
5054:
1831:
1827:
1795:
1791:
1631:
1424:
1416:
1166:
1026:
705:
153:
83:
17:
3855:"Connecting to Power: Political Connections, Innovation, and Firm Dynamics"
2285:
1862:
Concerns also arise over anti-competitive effects and consequences due to:
1254:
Antitrust administration and legislation can be seen as a balance between:
5795:
5780:
5483:
5368:
5165:
4709:
1665:
1457:
865:
731:
79:
3854:
3611:
National Collegiate Athletic Assn. v. Board of Regents of Univ. of Okla.
1855:
Should antitrust laws accord special treatment to intellectual property.
1552:
660:
611:. Examples of legislation enshrining competition principles include the
461:) and ensuring that entrepreneurs have an opportunity to compete in the
5685:
5633:
5613:
5561:
5373:
5291:
5107:
5069:
5017:
3539:
3497:
3461:
1572:
A group of economists and lawyers, who are largely associated with the
1465:
1342:
961:
873:
864:
trust in the 1880s controlled several markets, including the market in
795:
782:
696:
Elizabeth I assured monopolies would not be abused in the early era of
620:
568:
3873:
3073:"Competition Law in ASEAN: Where Are We Now, And Where Are We Headed?"
1640:
5785:
5638:
5383:
5274:
5269:
5215:
4886:
2053:
1835:
1635:
1540:
is seldom observed in the real world, and so aim for what is called "
1074:. In quest of increasing the efficiency of the nation's economy, the
807:
743:
710:
560:
416:
159:
30:"Antitrust" and "Anti-Monopoly Law" redirect here. For the film, see
4554:
3531:
3489:
3446:
Clark, John M. (1940). "Towards a Concept of Workable Competition".
2230:
Vitali, Stefania; Glattfelder, James B.; Battiston, Stefano (2011).
1510:. Sources of this market power are said to include the existence of
4626:
Hylton, Keith N., et al., "Antitrust World Reports'," available at
2992:
2936:"China's updated Anti-monopoly Law criticised for not doing enough"
1691:
and depriving competitors of outlets. This was the alleged case in
1482:, and therefore those who will put society's resources towards the
1000:
prohibits anti-competitive agreements in Article 101(1), including
5726:
5670:
5576:
5417:
5220:
4719:
4495:
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
3102:
2248:
1953:
1669:
1639:
1551:
1498:) because the next gale of economic innovation would do the same.
1415:
1329:
1198:
1158:
977:
957:
835:
691:
659:
649:
358:
4270:
Federal Antitrust Policy: The Law of Competition and Its Practice
3316:
The Internationalisation of Antitrust Law: Options for the Future
2749:"FTC Announces Reduced Hart-Scott-Rodino Act Thresholds For 2021"
5608:
5556:
5412:
4810:
4726:
4645:
Intergovernmental Group of Experts on Competition Law and Policy
973:
869:
5883:
4653:
3729:(7th ed.). Austin, TX: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business.
1448:
and dynamic efficiency. Allocative efficiency is also known as
4680:
4533:
An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
3013:"Competition Commission – The Competition Ordinance (Cap 619)"
315:
3002:, 19(1) International Journal of Evidence and Proof 11 (2015)
1232:
was no longer the only body capable of public enforcement of
923:
With the Hart–Scott–Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976
4640:
United Nations set of principles on competition (The UN Set)
2993:
Inter-Agency Evidence Sharing in Competition Law Enforcement
2968:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2808:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2781:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2712:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2673:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2634:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2595:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2553:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
2474:
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
1881:, if they remain a secret, having an eternal length of life.
411:
Competition law, or antitrust law, has three main elements:
56:
3853:
Akcigit, Ufuk; Baslandze, Salomé; Lotti, Francesca (2023).
3594:
Broadcast Music, Inc. v. Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.
2194:
International competition law: a new dimension for the WTO?
2016:
International competition law: a new dimension for the WTO?
1536:
can be avoided. Orthodox economists fully acknowledge that
1169:'s Competition Ordinance came into force in the year 2015.
603:
In continental Europe, competition principles developed in
3198:, p. 4, published December 2004, accessed 27 November 2023
2832:
Vandenborre, Ingrid; Goetz, Thorsten; Dionnet, Stephane.
2362:
2360:
2358:
2339:
2337:
2084:"Antitrust: Overview – Competition – European Commission"
1822:
Competition law has become increasingly intertwined with
1697:
leading to an eventual fine of million for including its
738:
began to grant them again. In 1623 Parliament passed the
704:
Europe around the 16th century was changing quickly. The
1242:
Damages actions for the breach of the EC antitrust rules
1029:, regional development objectives and in the event of a
4428:
Harrington, Joseph E. (2008). "antitrust enforcement,"
4649:
3700:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2466:
2464:
1016:, such as price discrimination and exclusive dealing.
746:
rights from its prohibitions, as well as guilds. From
713:
had been introduced into England. But by the reign of
989:, also known as the EC Treaty, which established the
2327:
This is Julius Caesar's time according to Babled in
5990:
5957:
5931:
5915:
5804:
5694:
5517:
5426:
5317:
5196:
5098:
4819:
4687:
3320:
http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/public/speeches/future.txt
3133:"A new era for competition law in the ASEAN region"
798:to withstand huge pressures on prices and profits.
627:'s legislation against state monopolies; and under
353:The history of competition law reaches back to the
4207:Guidelines on the assessment of horizontal mergers
3722:
3693:
3679:Leegin Creative Leather Products Inc. v. PSKS Inc.
3526:(2). The Michigan Law Review Association: 213–84.
2834:"EU Nonmerger Antitrust Enforcement Gets Stricter"
4268:see the argument put forth in Hovenkamp H (1999)
1984:
1982:
1980:
1818:Intellectual property, innovation and competition
1806:required that a joint venture with a competitor
1456:and means that resources in an economy over the
1161:, the competition law prevents certain forms of
4547:The Law of Restrictive Practices and Monopolies
4412:, 21(2), pp. 6–7 (scroll down & press
3775:
3773:
3348:http://www.internationalcompetitionnetwork.org/
2008:
2006:
2004:
1777:
1398:
1379:
1360:
1217:
641:
597:
388:Charter for an International Trade Organisation
2784:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 12–13.
2715:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–12.
5895:
4665:
3047:ASEAN | ONE VISION ONE IDENTITY ONE COMMUNITY
2598:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–10.
1093:result, a new competition law in the form of
919:has frequently been used in antitrust cases.
292:
8:
4493:Rubinfeld, D.L. (2001), "Antitrust Policy",
3189:Modernisation: Understanding competition law
2556:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 8–9.
357:. The business practices of market traders,
4406:"The Business Community's Suicidal Impulse"
3901:Hoffmann-La Roche & Co AG v. Commission
3577:Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc.
2587:
2585:
771:, who first established the concept of the
604:
5902:
5888:
5880:
4672:
4658:
4650:
3888:United Brands Continental BV v. Commission
3103:"EU Competition Law: A Roadmap for ASEAN?"
2971:. Cambridge University Press. p. 15.
2811:. Cambridge University Press. p. 14.
2676:. Cambridge University Press. p. 12.
2637:. Cambridge University Press. p. 11.
1390:'s approach was laid down in his treatise
1121:State Administration for Market Regulation
299:
285:
45:
4549:, 2nd edition, London: Sweet and Maxwell
3286:University of New South Wales Law Journal
3282:"COMPETITION LAW IN A SMALL OPEN ECONOMY"
2477:. Cambridge University Press. p. 7.
2275:
2265:
2247:
2232:"The Network of Global Corporate Control"
2197:. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.
2019:. Cambridge University Press. p. 1.
1872:Cross-licensing of intellectual property.
260:Enforcement authorities and organizations
5817:History of the American legal profession
4431:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
4390:(second edition). New York: Free Press.
3383:Smith (1776) Book I, Chapter 10, para 82
3162:Hawaii v. Standard Oil Co. of California
1919:Institute for Consumer Antitrust Studies
1203:There is considerable controversy among
498:An early example was enacted during the
4595:Elhauge, Einer, Geradin, Damien (2007)
3374:Smith (1776) Book I, Chapter 7, para 26
2513:, 4 Holdsworth, 3rd ed., Chap. 4 p. 346
1976:
1912:The History of the Standard Oil Company
1851:property rights or to competitiveness:
1179:Association of South-East Asian Nations
1006:general principle of European Union law
394:of GATT multilateral negotiations, the
259:
138:
66:
48:
4545:, Alan Campbell and Neil Elles (1966)
2114:"Trust Busting - Ohio History Central"
1711:. When it set up its own rival in the
1271:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
1012:). Article 102 prohibits the abuse of
449:of large corporations, including some
384:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
3296:from the original on 25 February 2021
3143:from the original on 28 February 2018
3113:from the original on 28 February 2018
3083:from the original on 28 February 2018
3053:from the original on 28 February 2018
2892:The Lex-Warrier: Online Law Journal,
2211:from the original on 14 December 2022
2124:from the original on 21 February 2023
2033:from the original on 14 December 2022
37:. For the law specific to China, see
7:
4597:Global Competition Law and Economics
4092:European Community Merger Regulation
2946:from the original on 27 October 2022
2094:from the original on 5 February 2020
4523:The Process of Creative Destruction
4189:Clayton Act Section 7, codified at
3801:(1984). "The Limits of Antitrust".
3425:The Process of Creative Destruction
3401:for one of the opposite views, see
2143:Topping, Simon; Tweedale, Patrick.
1934:List of countries' copyright length
1846:. It is believed that promotion of
1678:to efficiency that monopolies cause
1484:frontier of its possible production
1460:will go precisely to those who are
1341:doctrine was justified to preserve
742:, which for the most part excluded
422:banning abusive behavior by a firm
318:that promotes or seeks to maintain
4563:, 5th Ed. Lexis Nexis Butterworths
4153:10.1111/j.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x
3628:Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan
3557:from the original on 12 April 2024
2916:from the original on 14 April 2021
2759:from the original on 12 April 2021
2729:from the original on 12 April 2024
2690:from the original on 12 April 2024
2651:from the original on 12 April 2024
2612:from the original on 12 April 2024
2570:from the original on 12 April 2024
2491:from the original on 12 April 2024
2064:from the original on 12 April 2024
1043:Consten & Grundig v Commission
502:around 50 BC. To protect the
27:Law maintaining market competition
25:
4801:Restitution and unjust enrichment
3023:from the original on 12 June 2017
2329:De La Cure Annone chez le Romains
1288:International Competition Network
1195:International Competition Network
1040:cases on competition law include
956:(ECSC) agreement between France,
954:European Coal and Steel Community
268:International Competition Network
5848:
5847:
5833:
4579:Competition Policy International
4336:from the original on 30 May 2009
3513:"Antitrust Policy after Chicago"
2965:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2805:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2778:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2709:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2670:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2631:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2592:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2550:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
2471:Papadopoulos, Anestis S (2010).
563:. Penalties for breach included
5812:History of the legal profession
4259:CMLR 529, OJ L102 21 April 1994
4071:from the original on 7 May 2019
4034:in the EU under Article 82(2)c)
4012:France Telecom SA v. Commission
3270:, Oxford University Press, 2014
3241:from the original on 1 May 2012
1726:France Telecom SA v. Commission
1099:Competition Commission of India
1066:Competition Commission of India
750:, through the civil war and to
656:Early competition law in Europe
4503:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/02299-3
4282:Kali und Salz AG v. Commission
4257:Mannesmann, Vallourec and Ilva
1929:List of competition regulators
1906:European Union competition law
1651:was an early enemy of cartels.
1234:European Union competition law
935:European Union competition law
613:constitutiones juris metallici
400:Agreement Establishing the WTO
368:European Union competition law
273:List of competition regulators
1:
4538:from the Adam Smith Institute
4487:The Limits of Competition Law
3392:Mill (1859) Chapter V, para 4
1674:The economist's depiction of
902:structure-conduct-performance
379:extraterritorial jurisdiction
2267:10.1371/journal.pone.0025995
2054:"Cartel Damage Claims (CDC)"
2052:Cartel Damage Claims (CDC).
1452:after the Italian economist
818:of 1890. It was named after
756:East India Company v. Sandys
4307:Guinness/Grand Metropolitan
4205:see, for instance para 17,
3511:Hovenkamp, Herbert (1985).
2404:51 & 52 Hen. 3, Stat. 6
2395:51 & 52 Hen. 3, Stat. 1
2058:www.carteldamageclaims.com/
1959:United States antitrust law
1564:Chicago school of economics
1213:United States Supreme Court
991:European Economic Community
832:United States antitrust law
364:United States antitrust law
6040:
5910:Competition law by country
5479:International legal theory
4958:International slavery laws
4953:International human rights
4948:International criminal law
4245:Airtours plc v. Commission
3829:Brooke Group v. Williamson
3478:Review of Economic Studies
2191:Taylor, Martyn D. (2006).
2013:Taylor, Martyn D. (2006).
1842:and in some jurisdictions
1787:Herfindahl-Hirschman Index
1749:
1659:
1629:
1561:
1409:
1308:
1297:
1265:Chapter 5 of the post-war
1188:
1117:Anti Monopoly Law of China
1111:Anti Monopoly Law of China
1108:
1059:
1049:United Brands v Commission
932:
840:Senatorial Round House by
829:
672:The English common law of
489:History of competition law
486:
140:Anti-competitive practices
106:Herfindahl–Hirschman index
75:History of competition law
39:Anti Monopoly Law of China
29:
5827:
5532:Administration of justice
2888:10 September 2020 at the
2511:William Searle Holdsworth
2458:(1414) 2 Hen. 5, 5 Pl. 26
2431:27 Edw. 3, Stat. 2, c. 25
1888:Millennium Prize Problems
1142:and the expansion of the
1097:was enacted in 2003. The
1095:the Competition Act, 2002
1090:the Competition Act, 2002
1062:The Competition Act, 2002
553:King Edward the Confessor
5309:Basic structure doctrine
5159:Natural and legal rights
5040:Public international law
4473:Economic Analysis of Law
4424:The New Industrial State
4134:"The Nature of the Firm"
4104:Gencor Ltd v. Commission
3756:. New York: Free Press.
3750:Bork, Robert H. (1978).
3725:Economic Analysis of Law
3449:American Economic Review
3408:The New Industrial State
3325:10 February 2005 at the
3266:16 November 2015 at the
2940:South China Morning Post
2413:Wilberforce (1966) p. 23
2366:Wilberforce (1966) p. 21
2352:Wilberforce (1966) p. 22
2343:Wilberforce (1966) p. 20
1944:Resale price maintenance
1840:industrial design rights
1752:Mergers and acquisitions
1746:Mergers and acquisitions
1590:Economic Analysis of Law
1284:World Trade Organization
1191:World Trade Organization
781:replaced the individual
721:1602, also known as the
447:mergers and acquisitions
396:World Trade Organization
5489:Principle of typicality
4963:International trade law
4180:Art. 2(3) Reg. 129/2005
4108:Court of First Instance
2883:Citation: 2010 (1) LW 2
1694:Microsoft v. Commission
1518:of the market, and the
1406:Neo-classical synthesis
1282:of trade talks for the
1148:competition authorities
1133:International expansion
1072:Economic liberalisation
952:has its origins in the
826:United States antitrust
398:(WTO) was created. The
346:) is commonly known as
4623:, 2/2007, Vol.3, 7–14.
4559:Whish, Richard (2003)
4376:, New York Free Press
3682:, 551 U.S. ___ (2007).
3314:see a speech by Wood,
3280:McEwin, R Ian (2003).
3185:Office of Fair Trading
3107:EU Centre in Singapore
2522:(1602) 11 Co. Rep. 84b
2384:History of English Law
2305:6 October 2021 at the
2118:ohiohistorycentral.org
1782:
1679:
1656:Dominance and monopoly
1652:
1645:Scottish Enlightenment
1568:Neoclassical economics
1559:
1428:
1412:Neoclassical synthesis
1403:
1384:
1365:
1350:
1315:Under the doctrine of
1300:Competition law theory
1275:Office of Fair Trading
1222:
1208:
1018:Regulation 139/2004/EC
845:
802:Modern competition law
701:
669:
646:
605:
601:
185:Occupational licensing
61:
5484:Principle of legality
5243:Delegated legislation
4943:Intellectual property
4485:Prosser, Tony (2005)
4388:The Antitrust Paradox
4373:The Antitrust Paradox
4222:ECR I-1375, para. 219
3753:The Antitrust Paradox
3645:State Oil Co. v. Khan
3353:20 April 2021 at the
2998:12 April 2024 at the
2540:(1685) 10 St. Tr. 371
1949:Sherman Antitrust Act
1924:Irish Competition law
1824:intellectual property
1673:
1662:Dominance (economics)
1643:
1626:Collusion and cartels
1601:The Antitrust Paradox
1574:University of Chicago
1555:
1419:
1370:The Wealth of Nations
1333:
1305:Classical perspective
1202:
1023:effective competition
912:The Antitrust Paradox
839:
764:The Wealth of Nations
740:Statute of Monopolies
695:
663:
637:Henry VIII of England
60:
5702:Barristers' chambers
5644:Legal representation
5582:Justice of the peace
4928:Financial regulation
4543:Wilberforce, Richard
4497:, pp. 553–560,
4247:ECR II-2585, para 62
4220:France v. Commission
3788:Bork (1978), p. 406.
3779:Bork (1978), p. 405.
3436:Whish (2003), p. 14.
3318:3 February 1995, at
2838:Transaction Advisors
2149:Transaction Advisors
1812:conglomerate mergers
1731:price discrimination
1729:of pricing abuse is
1699:Windows Media Player
1542:workable competition
1325:creative destruction
862:Standard Oil Company
820:Senator John Sherman
581:Statute of Labourers
228:Occupational closure
223:Dividing territories
211:Essential facilities
111:Market concentration
5737:Election commission
5449:Expressive function
4978:Landlord–tenant law
4877:Consumer protection
4296:4 CMLR 454, OJ L268
3974:Commercial Solvents
3721:Posner, R. (2007).
3692:Posner, R. (2001).
3520:Michigan Law Review
3337:Whish (2003) p. 448
3194:18 May 2023 at the
2991:Marek Martyniszyn,
2258:2011PLoSO...625995V
1901:Consumer protection
1804:European Commission
1708:Commercial Solvents
1538:perfect competition
1311:Classical economics
1230:European Commission
1173:ASEAN member states
1076:Government of India
777:. At the same time
340:trade practices law
5695:Legal institutions
5562:Lawsuit/Litigation
5552:Dispute resolution
5357:Catholic canon law
5065:State of emergency
5028:Will and testament
4752:Law of obligations
4705:Constitutional law
4695:Administrative law
4519:Schumpeter, Joseph
4410:Cato Policy Report
4232:Italian Flat Glass
4162:on 13 January 2007
4106:ECR II-753 the EU
4064:. The World Bank.
3991:ECLI:EU:C:1988:225
3962:ECLI:EU:T:2004:372
3799:Easterbrook, Frank
2942:. 9 January 2020.
2318:Bork (1993), p. 56
1768:economies of scale
1680:
1653:
1611:Harvard Law School
1578:U.S. Supreme Court
1560:
1534:government failure
1520:free rider problem
1429:
1355:individual liberty
1351:
1339:restraint of trade
1209:
950:EU competition law
929:European Union law
856:and later through
846:
723:Case of Monopolies
702:
674:restraint of trade
670:
320:market competition
247:Regulatory capture
62:
6024:Welfare economics
6006:
6005:
5877:
5876:
5537:Constitutionalism
5459:Law and economics
5297:Act of parliament
5035:Product liability
4988:Legal archaeology
4913:Environmental law
4907:Entertainment law
4747:International law
4621:DIW Weekly Report
4615:978-0-19-926929-7
4481:978-0-7355-6354-4
4464:978-0-226-67576-3
4441:Mill, John Stuart
4420:Galbraith Kenneth
4132:(November 1937).
3874:10.3982/ECTA18338
3763:978-0-465-00369-3
3736:978-0-7355-6354-4
3707:978-0-226-67576-3
3662:Verizon v. Trinko
3421:Joseph Schumpeter
3403:Kenneth Galbraith
3175: (1972), 262.
2978:978-0-521-19646-8
2818:978-0-521-19646-8
2791:978-0-521-19646-8
2722:978-0-521-19646-8
2683:978-0-521-19646-8
2644:978-0-521-19646-8
2605:978-0-521-19646-8
2563:978-0-521-19646-8
2484:978-0-521-19646-8
2204:978-0-521-86389-6
2026:978-0-521-86389-6
1722:predatory pricing
1703:Microsoft Windows
1516:barriers to entry
1488:Joseph Schumpeter
1450:Pareto efficiency
1438:barriers to entry
1078:acknowledged the
1014:dominant position
787:French Revolution
779:industrialisation
715:Queen Elizabeth I
633:Holy Roman Empire
629:Emperor Charles V
494:Roman legislation
428:predatory pricing
336:anti-monopoly law
309:
308:
238:Misuse of patents
233:Predatory pricing
218:Exclusive dealing
101:Barriers to entry
89:Coercive monopoly
16:(Redirected from
6031:
5904:
5897:
5890:
5881:
5852:
5851:
5850:
5838:
5837:
5661:Question of fact
5542:Criminal justice
4872:Construction law
4867:Conflict of laws
4832:Agricultural law
4674:
4667:
4660:
4651:
4515:
4402:Friedman, Milton
4355:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4341:
4335:
4328:
4320:
4314:
4303:
4297:
4291:
4285:
4279:
4273:
4266:
4260:
4254:
4248:
4241:
4235:
4229:
4223:
4216:
4210:
4203:
4197:
4187:
4181:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4167:
4161:
4155:. Archived from
4138:
4130:Coase, Ronald H.
4126:
4120:
4117:
4111:
4102:In the case of
4100:
4094:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4070:
4063:
4055:The World Bank.
4052:
4046:
4041:
4035:
4032:
4026:
4020:
4014:
4008:
4002:
3999:
3993:
3983:
3977:
3970:
3964:
3955:
3949:
3943:
3937:
3932:
3926:
3921:
3915:
3910:
3904:
3897:
3891:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3859:
3850:
3844:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3803:Texas Law Review
3795:
3789:
3786:
3780:
3777:
3768:
3767:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3728:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3699:
3689:
3683:
3573:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3556:
3517:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3428:
3418:
3412:
3399:
3393:
3390:
3384:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3366:
3363:
3357:
3344:
3338:
3335:
3329:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3277:
3271:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3227:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3205:
3199:
3182:
3176:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3148:
3129:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3079:. 19 June 2016.
3069:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3009:
3003:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2906:
2900:
2879:
2873:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2848:. Archived from
2829:
2823:
2822:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2695:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2589:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2547:
2541:
2538:
2532:
2529:
2523:
2520:
2514:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2468:
2459:
2456:
2450:
2447:
2441:
2440:25 Hen. 8, c. 2.
2438:
2432:
2429:
2423:
2420:
2414:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2387:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2353:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2332:
2325:
2319:
2316:
2310:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2279:
2269:
2251:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2159:. Archived from
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2010:
1999:
1998:
1986:
1532:is justified if
1388:John Stuart Mill
1335:John Stuart Mill
1031:natural disaster
998:Treaty of Lisbon
946:Second World War
942:Great Depression
610:
593:US antitrust law
510:in 301 A.D., an
459:consumer welfare
445:supervising the
324:anti-competitive
314:is the field of
301:
294:
287:
192:Product bundling
94:Natural monopoly
46:
21:
6039:
6038:
6034:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6029:
6028:
6019:Competition law
6009:
6008:
6007:
6002:
5986:
5953:
5927:
5911:
5908:
5878:
5873:
5846:
5832:
5823:
5800:
5791:Political party
5764:Legal education
5752:Law enforcement
5732:Court of equity
5690:
5666:Question of law
5619:Practice of law
5599:Judicial review
5513:
5464:Legal formalism
5444:Comparative law
5439:Contract theory
5422:
5342:Legal pluralism
5313:
5302:Act of Congress
5226:Executive order
5192:
5094:
5013:Nationality law
4938:Immigration law
4862:Competition law
4815:
4683:
4678:
4636:
4589:, available at
4575:
4573:Further reading
4561:Competition Law
4513:
4492:
4452:Posner, Richard
4434:, 2nd Edition.
4368:Bork, Robert H.
4364:
4359:
4358:
4353:
4349:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4326:
4322:
4321:
4317:
4304:
4300:
4294:Time Warner/AOL
4292:
4288:
4280:
4276:
4267:
4263:
4255:
4251:
4242:
4238:
4230:
4226:
4217:
4213:
4204:
4200:
4188:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4165:
4163:
4159:
4147:(16): 386–405.
4136:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4101:
4097:
4088:
4084:
4074:
4072:
4068:
4061:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4029:
4021:
4017:
4009:
4005:
4000:
3996:
3984:
3980:
3971:
3967:
3956:
3952:
3947:Porto di Genova
3944:
3940:
3935:Continental Can
3933:
3929:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3907:
3898:
3894:
3885:
3881:
3857:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3826:
3822:
3797:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3771:
3764:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3737:
3720:
3719:
3715:
3708:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3574:
3570:
3560:
3558:
3554:
3532:10.2307/1289065
3515:
3510:
3509:
3505:
3490:10.2307/2296233
3475:
3473:
3469:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3419:
3415:
3400:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3355:Wayback Machine
3345:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3327:Wayback Machine
3313:
3309:
3299:
3297:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3268:Wayback Machine
3258:
3254:
3244:
3242:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3217:
3213:
3206:
3202:
3196:Wayback Machine
3183:
3179:
3160:
3156:
3146:
3144:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3116:
3114:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3086:
3084:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3056:
3054:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3024:
3017:www.compcomm.hk
3011:
3010:
3006:
3000:Wayback Machine
2990:
2986:
2979:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2949:
2947:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2919:
2917:
2910:"CCI formation"
2908:
2907:
2903:
2890:Wayback Machine
2880:
2876:
2869:
2865:
2855:
2853:
2852:on 23 June 2017
2831:
2830:
2826:
2819:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2777:
2776:
2772:
2762:
2760:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2732:
2730:
2723:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2693:
2691:
2684:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2654:
2652:
2645:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2615:
2613:
2606:
2591:
2590:
2583:
2573:
2571:
2564:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2492:
2485:
2470:
2469:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2335:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2307:Wayback Machine
2297:
2293:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2214:
2212:
2205:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2163:on 23 June 2017
2142:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2125:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2095:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2065:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2036:
2034:
2027:
2012:
2011:
2002:
1988:
1987:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1964:Megacorporation
1939:Relevant market
1896:
1820:
1800:AOL/Time Warner
1754:
1748:
1739:
1689:consumer choice
1676:deadweight loss
1668:
1660:Main articles:
1658:
1638:
1630:Main articles:
1628:
1623:
1570:
1550:
1508:deadweight loss
1454:Vilfredo Pareto
1414:
1408:
1313:
1307:
1302:
1296:
1197:
1187:
1175:
1135:
1113:
1107:
1068:
1060:Main articles:
1058:
1010:proportionality
937:
931:
834:
828:
804:
752:King Charles II
719:Darcy v. Allein
658:
577:King Edward III
543:recorded that "
537:Norman Conquest
533:
496:
491:
485:
472:public services
440:refusal to deal
409:
312:Competition law
305:
201:Refusal to deal
180:Tacit collusion
126:Relevant market
50:Competition law
42:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6037:
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6011:
6010:
6004:
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6001:
6000:
5994:
5992:
5988:
5987:
5985:
5984:
5979:
5977:United Kingdom
5974:
5973:
5972:
5965:European Union
5961:
5959:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5951:
5946:
5941:
5935:
5933:
5929:
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5926:
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5909:
5907:
5906:
5899:
5892:
5884:
5875:
5874:
5872:
5871:
5864:
5857:
5843:
5840:Law portal
5828:
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5808:
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5709:
5704:
5698:
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5691:
5689:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5676:Trial advocacy
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5657:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5641:
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5616:
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5486:
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5360:
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5339:
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5315:
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5282:
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5257:
5256:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5235:
5234:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5213:
5208:
5206:Ballot measure
5202:
5200:
5194:
5193:
5191:
5190:
5185:
5183:Legal treatise
5180:
5179:
5178:
5173:
5163:
5162:
5161:
5151:
5149:Letters patent
5146:
5141:
5140:
5139:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5110:
5104:
5102:
5100:Sources of law
5096:
5095:
5093:
5092:
5087:
5085:Unenforced law
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
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4965:
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4915:
4910:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4857:Commercial law
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4823:
4821:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4813:
4808:
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4759:
4754:
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4739:
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4722:
4712:
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4702:
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4691:
4689:
4685:
4684:
4679:
4677:
4676:
4669:
4662:
4654:
4648:
4647:
4642:
4635:
4634:External links
4632:
4631:
4630:
4624:
4617:
4607:
4593:
4574:
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4570:
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4399:
4386:_____ (1993).
4384:
4363:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4347:
4315:
4298:
4286:
4274:
4261:
4249:
4236:
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4209:(2004/C 31/03)
4198:
4191:15 U.S.C.
4182:
4173:
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4112:
4095:
4090:139/2004, the
4082:
4047:
4036:
4027:
4015:
4010:Case T-340/03
4003:
3994:
3978:
3965:
3950:
3938:
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3905:
3892:
3879:
3868:(2): 529–564.
3845:
3820:
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3781:
3769:
3762:
3742:
3735:
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3568:
3503:
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3438:
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3413:
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3376:
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3272:
3259:Peter Whelan,
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2242:(10): e25995.
2222:
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1750:Main article:
1747:
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1654:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1582:Richard Posner
1549:
1548:Chicago school
1546:
1522:. Markets may
1506:by creating a
1504:social welfare
1434:social welfare
1421:Paul Samuelson
1407:
1404:
1306:
1303:
1298:Main article:
1295:
1292:
1267:Havana Charter
1263:
1262:
1259:
1226:European Union
1186:
1183:
1174:
1171:
1144:European Union
1134:
1131:
1126:People's Daily
1109:Main article:
1106:
1103:
1080:Liberalization
1057:
1054:
987:Treaty of Rome
981:included in a
933:Main article:
930:
927:
895:rule of reason
878:economic power
830:Main article:
827:
824:
803:
800:
774:market economy
748:King Charles I
678:reasonableness
657:
654:
607:lex mercatoria
589:treble damages
532:
529:
500:Roman Republic
495:
492:
487:Main article:
484:
481:
463:market economy
455:
454:
451:joint ventures
443:
420:
408:
407:Starting Point
405:
322:by regulating
307:
306:
304:
303:
296:
289:
281:
278:
277:
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262:
261:
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220:
215:
214:
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208:
198:
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188:
187:
182:
177:
172:
162:
151:
149:Monopolization
143:
142:
136:
135:
134:
133:
131:Merger control
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
97:
96:
91:
77:
69:
68:
67:Basic concepts
64:
63:
53:
52:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6036:
6025:
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6020:
6017:
6016:
6014:
5999:
5996:
5995:
5993:
5989:
5983:
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5956:
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5930:
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5923:United States
5921:
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5918:
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5900:
5898:
5893:
5891:
5886:
5885:
5882:
5870:
5869:
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5862:
5858:
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5855:
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5813:
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5770:
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5750:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5738:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5722:Civil society
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5699:
5697:
5693:
5687:
5684:
5682:
5681:Trier of fact
5679:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5621:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5567:Legal opinion
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5547:Court-martial
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5520:
5519:Jurisprudence
5516:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
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5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
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5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5431:
5429:
5425:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5408:Statutory law
5406:
5404:
5403:Socialist law
5401:
5397:
5396:Byzantine law
5394:
5393:
5392:
5389:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5358:
5355:
5354:
5353:
5350:
5349:
5348:
5347:Religious law
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5324:
5322:
5320:
5319:Legal systems
5316:
5310:
5307:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5288:
5287:Statutory law
5285:
5281:
5278:
5277:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5240:
5239:
5236:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
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5219:
5218:
5217:
5214:
5212:
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5207:
5204:
5203:
5201:
5199:
5195:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5138:
5135:
5134:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5117:Statutory law
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5103:
5101:
5097:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5075:Transport law
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4993:Legal fiction
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4923:Financial law
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4882:Corporate law
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4824:
4822:
4818:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4806:Statutory law
4804:
4802:
4799:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4764:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4688:Core subjects
4686:
4682:
4675:
4670:
4668:
4663:
4661:
4656:
4655:
4652:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4622:
4618:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4606:
4605:1-84113-465-1
4602:
4598:
4594:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4565:
4562:
4558:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4535:
4534:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4520:
4517:
4514:
4512:9780080430768
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4491:
4488:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4471:_____ (2007)
4470:
4468:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4456:Antitrust Law
4453:
4450:
4448:
4447:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4425:
4421:
4418:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4397:
4396:0-02-904456-1
4393:
4389:
4385:
4383:
4382:0-465-00369-9
4379:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4361:
4351:
4348:
4332:
4325:
4319:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4302:
4299:
4295:
4290:
4287:
4283:
4278:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4262:
4258:
4253:
4250:
4246:
4240:
4237:
4233:
4228:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4212:
4208:
4202:
4199:
4196:
4192:
4186:
4183:
4177:
4174:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4122:
4116:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4096:
4093:
4086:
4083:
4067:
4060:
4059:
4051:
4048:
4045:
4040:
4037:
4031:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4016:
4013:
4007:
4004:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3988:
3982:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3969:
3966:
3963:
3959:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3942:
3939:
3936:
3931:
3928:
3925:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3909:
3906:
3902:
3896:
3893:
3889:
3883:
3880:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3856:
3849:
3846:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3830:
3824:
3821:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3794:
3791:
3785:
3782:
3776:
3774:
3770:
3765:
3759:
3755:
3754:
3746:
3743:
3738:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3717:
3714:
3709:
3703:
3698:
3697:
3696:Antitrust Law
3688:
3685:
3681:
3680:
3676: (2004);
3675:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3663:
3659: (1997);
3658:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3642: (1993);
3641:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3629:
3625: (1984);
3624:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3612:
3608: (1979);
3607:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3595:
3591: (1977);
3590:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3572:
3569:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3504:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3471:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3456:(2): 241–56.
3455:
3451:
3450:
3442:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3389:
3386:
3380:
3377:
3371:
3368:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3343:
3340:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3311:
3308:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3262:
3256:
3253:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3178:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3155:
3142:
3138:
3137:Expert Guides
3134:
3128:
3125:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3098:
3095:
3082:
3078:
3077:Conventus Law
3074:
3068:
3065:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3038:
3035:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2988:
2985:
2980:
2974:
2970:
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2945:
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2937:
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2915:
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2905:
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2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
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2835:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2814:
2810:
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2801:
2798:
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2741:
2728:
2724:
2718:
2714:
2713:
2705:
2702:
2689:
2685:
2679:
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2674:
2666:
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2650:
2646:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2627:
2624:
2611:
2607:
2601:
2597:
2596:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2555:
2554:
2546:
2543:
2537:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2509:according to
2506:
2503:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2455:
2452:
2446:
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2419:
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2407:
2401:
2398:
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2377:
2372:
2369:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2340:
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2334:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2295:
2292:
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2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2223:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2195:
2187:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2109:
2106:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2048:
2045:
2032:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1880:
1879:Trade secrets
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1844:trade secrets
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1781:
1776:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1753:
1745:
1743:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1615:Philip Areeda
1612:
1607:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1586:Antitrust Law
1583:
1579:
1575:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1554:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1529:laissez faire
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1512:externalities
1509:
1505:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1470:marginal unit
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1405:
1402:
1397:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1383:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1337:believed the
1336:
1332:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1317:laissez-faire
1312:
1304:
1301:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1252:
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1245:
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1227:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1163:conglomerates
1160:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1112:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1086:Globalization
1084:
1083:Privatization
1081:
1077:
1073:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
994:
992:
988:
984:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
936:
928:
926:
924:
920:
918:
915:. Since 1992
914:
913:
908:
904:
903:
897:
896:
891:
887:
881:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
843:
838:
833:
825:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
801:
799:
797:
793:
792:Panic of 1873
788:
784:
780:
776:
775:
770:
766:
765:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
707:
699:
698:globalization
694:
690:
688:
683:
679:
675:
667:
662:
655:
653:
651:
645:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
617:Wenceslaus II
614:
609:
608:
600:
596:
594:
590:
587:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
541:Domesday Book
538:
530:
528:
526:
522:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
493:
490:
482:
480:
477:
473:
468:
467:privatization
464:
460:
452:
448:
444:
441:
437:
436:price gouging
433:
429:
425:
421:
418:
414:
413:
412:
406:
404:
401:
397:
393:
392:Uruguay Round
389:
385:
380:
376:
375:nation-states
371:
369:
365:
360:
356:
351:
349:
348:trust busting
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
328:antitrust law
325:
321:
317:
313:
302:
297:
295:
290:
288:
283:
282:
280:
279:
274:
271:
269:
266:
265:
264:
263:
258:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
212:
209:
207:
206:Group boycott
204:
203:
202:
199:
197:
193:
190:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
170:
166:
163:
161:
158:Formation of
157:
156:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
145:
144:
141:
137:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
95:
92:
90:
87:
86:
85:
81:
78:
76:
73:
72:
71:
70:
65:
59:
55:
54:
51:
47:
44:
40:
36:
34:
19:
5866:
5859:
5845:
5831:
5604:Jurisdiction
5572:Legal remedy
5527:Adjudication
5427:Legal theory
5265:Ratification
5260:Promulgation
5231:Proclamation
5211:Codification
5144:Human rights
5132:Divine right
5122:Constitution
5090:Women in law
5008:Military law
5003:Marriage law
4998:Maritime law
4897:Election law
4861:
4837:Aviation law
4827:Abortion law
4779:Property law
4715:Criminal law
4620:
4596:
4578:
4560:
4546:
4531:
4522:
4494:
4486:
4472:
4455:
4444:
4429:
4423:
4413:
4409:
4387:
4371:
4350:
4338:. Retrieved
4318:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4293:
4289:
4281:
4277:
4269:
4264:
4256:
4252:
4244:
4239:
4231:
4227:
4219:
4214:
4206:
4201:
4185:
4176:
4164:. Retrieved
4157:the original
4144:
4140:
4124:
4115:
4103:
4098:
4085:
4073:. Retrieved
4057:
4050:
4043:
4039:
4030:
4022:
4018:
4011:
4006:
3997:
3981:
3972:
3968:
3953:
3946:
3945:Art. 82 (b)
3941:
3934:
3930:
3923:
3919:
3912:
3908:
3900:
3895:
3887:
3882:
3865:
3862:Econometrica
3861:
3848:
3843: (1993).
3827:
3823:
3806:
3802:
3793:
3784:
3752:
3745:
3724:
3716:
3695:
3687:
3677:
3660:
3643:
3626:
3609:
3592:
3575:
3571:
3559:. Retrieved
3523:
3519:
3506:
3484:(1): 11–32.
3481:
3477:
3470:
3453:
3447:
3441:
3432:
3424:
3416:
3406:
3397:
3388:
3379:
3370:
3361:
3342:
3333:
3315:
3310:
3298:. Retrieved
3289:
3285:
3275:
3255:
3243:. Retrieved
3234:
3225:
3214:
3203:
3180:
3161:
3157:
3145:. Retrieved
3136:
3127:
3115:. Retrieved
3106:
3097:
3085:. Retrieved
3076:
3067:
3055:. Retrieved
3046:
3037:
3025:. Retrieved
3016:
3007:
2987:
2967:
2960:
2948:. Retrieved
2939:
2930:
2918:. Retrieved
2904:
2877:
2866:
2854:. Retrieved
2850:the original
2837:
2827:
2807:
2800:
2780:
2773:
2761:. Retrieved
2752:
2743:
2731:. Retrieved
2711:
2704:
2692:. Retrieved
2672:
2665:
2653:. Retrieved
2633:
2626:
2614:. Retrieved
2594:
2572:. Retrieved
2552:
2545:
2536:
2527:
2518:
2505:
2493:. Retrieved
2473:
2454:
2445:
2436:
2427:
2418:
2409:
2400:
2391:
2386:Vol. II, 453
2383:
2371:
2348:
2328:
2323:
2314:
2294:
2239:
2235:
2225:
2213:. Retrieved
2193:
2186:
2177:
2167:25 September
2165:. Retrieved
2161:the original
2148:
2138:
2126:. Retrieved
2117:
2108:
2096:. Retrieved
2088:ec.europa.eu
2087:
2078:
2066:. Retrieved
2057:
2047:
2035:. Retrieved
2015:
1910:
1884:
1861:
1821:
1799:
1783:
1778:
1772:
1762:
1755:
1740:
1725:
1718:
1713:tuberculosis
1706:
1692:
1685:
1681:
1647:philosopher
1605:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1571:
1527:
1500:
1496:Standard Oil
1430:
1399:
1391:
1385:
1380:
1368:
1366:
1361:
1352:
1314:
1264:
1253:
1246:
1241:
1223:
1218:
1210:
1176:
1152:
1146:. Currently
1140:Soviet Union
1136:
1124:
1114:
1069:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1002:price fixing
995:
983:plurilateral
938:
921:
910:
900:
893:
882:
857:
853:
847:
811:
805:
772:
762:
760:
755:
736:King James I
727:King's Bench
718:
703:
681:
671:
647:
642:
612:
602:
598:
534:
520:
497:
456:
410:
399:
387:
372:
355:Roman Empire
352:
347:
339:
335:
331:
327:
311:
310:
252:Rent-seeking
165:Price fixing
116:Market power
49:
43:
32:
18:Trustbusting
5776:Legislature
5707:Bureaucracy
5504:Rule of man
5499:Rule of law
5474:Libertarian
5337:Chinese law
5238:Legislation
5188:Regulations
5176:Law reports
5154:Natural law
5050:Reparations
5045:Refugee law
4968:Jurimetrics
4909:(Media law)
4847:Banking law
4842:Amnesty law
4820:Disciplines
4757:Private law
4528:Smith, Adam
4458:, 2nd ed.,
4234:ECR ii-1403
4166:10 February
4044:Irish Sugar
3561:12 December
3147:28 February
3117:28 February
3087:28 February
3057:28 February
2128:21 February
1808:Bertelsmann
1596:Robert Bork
1557:Robert Bork
1347:competition
1238:Green Paper
1215:explained:
1185:Enforcement
996:Today, the
966:Netherlands
917:game theory
907:Robert Bork
890:Clayton Act
850:Sherman Act
842:Thomas Nast
816:Sherman Act
687:statute law
565:amercements
549:forfeitures
531:Middle Ages
525:Justinian I
504:grain trade
476:Robert Bork
175:Bid rigging
6013:Categories
5769:Law school
5649:Prosecutor
5587:Magistrate
5374:Jewish law
5332:Common law
5253:Rulemaking
5248:Regulation
5198:Law making
5137:Divine law
5113:Legal code
5060:Sports law
4983:Law of war
4933:Health law
4918:Family law
4902:Energy law
4852:Bankruptcy
4789:Punishment
4784:Public law
4446:On Liberty
4362:References
3043:"Overview"
2950:27 October
2733:22 October
2694:22 October
2655:22 October
2616:22 October
2574:22 October
2495:22 October
2422:23 Edw. 3.
1848:innovation
1832:trademarks
1826:, such as
1649:Adam Smith
1613:professor
1562:See also:
1492:capitalist
1446:productive
1442:allocative
1410:See also:
1393:On Liberty
1375:Adam Smith
1309:See also:
1280:Doha round
1189:See also:
970:Luxembourg
886:monopolies
769:Adam Smith
508:Diocletian
424:dominating
242:copyrights
121:SSNIP test
5998:Australia
5747:Judiciary
5742:Executive
5717:The bench
5654:Solicitor
5629:Barrister
5509:Sociology
5494:Pseudolaw
5434:Anarchist
5391:Roman law
5379:Parsi law
5364:Hindu law
5352:Canon law
5327:Civil law
5280:Concordat
5171:Precedent
5080:Trust law
5055:Space law
4892:Drugs law
4762:Procedure
4700:Civil law
4587:1554-6853
4475:7th ed.,
4436:Abstract.
4340:9 October
4243:T-342/99
4195:§ 18
4141:Economica
3815:0040-4411
3548:153691408
3300:9 October
3235:europa.eu
2920:4 January
2898:2319-8338
2846:2329-9134
2249:1107.5728
2157:2329-9134
1828:copyright
1796:collusion
1792:oligopoly
1701:with the
1632:Collusion
1584:'s books
1480:work hard
1425:Keynesian
1321:dominance
1167:Hong Kong
1027:charities
725:, of the
706:new world
557:Henry III
545:foresteel
332:antitrust
330:(or just
154:Collusion
84:oligopoly
33:Antitrust
5916:Americas
5854:Category
5796:Tribunal
5781:Military
5624:Attorney
5594:Judgment
5454:Feminist
5369:Jain law
5166:Case law
4887:Cyberlaw
4794:Corporal
4772:Criminal
4742:Evidence
4732:Doctrine
4710:Contract
4555:66-70116
4467:Preview.
4331:Archived
4218:C-68/94
4066:Archived
3924:Michelin
3899:C-85/76
3886:C-27/76
3552:Archived
3351:Archived
3323:Archived
3294:Archived
3264:Archived
3239:Archived
3192:Archived
3141:Archived
3111:Archived
3081:Archived
3051:Archived
3021:Archived
2996:Archived
2944:Archived
2914:Archived
2886:Archived
2856:29 April
2763:12 April
2757:Archived
2727:Archived
2688:Archived
2649:Archived
2610:Archived
2568:Archived
2489:Archived
2380:Maitland
2303:Archived
2286:22046252
2236:PLOS ONE
2215:22 March
2209:Archived
2122:Archived
2092:Archived
2062:Archived
2037:22 March
2031:Archived
1894:See also
1666:Monopoly
1621:Practice
1458:long run
1396:(1859).
1036:Leading
909:'s book
866:fuel oil
732:monopoly
586:punitive
80:Monopoly
5991:Oceania
5970:Ireland
5868:Outline
5805:History
5712:The bar
5686:Verdict
5634:Counsel
5614:Justice
5469:History
5292:Statute
5108:Charter
5070:Tax law
5018:Probate
4536:online
4530:(1776)
4521:(1942)
4454:(2001)
4443:(1859)
4422:(1967)
4404:(1999)
4370:(1978)
4284:ECR 499
4025:para 71
3903:ECR 461
3890:ECR 207
3540:1289065
3498:2296233
3462:1807048
3292:: 246.
3245:27 June
3027:27 June
2912:. CCI.
2376:Pollock
2277:3202517
2254:Bibcode
2098:27 June
2068:23 June
1995:2281756
1836:patents
1763:ex ante
1737:Example
1475:utility
1462:willing
1373:(1776)
1343:liberty
1224:In the
962:Belgium
874:whiskey
796:cartels
783:artisan
711:patents
631:in the
621:Bohemia
573:tumbrel
569:pillory
561:assizes
483:History
417:cartels
160:cartels
5982:Russia
5958:Europe
5786:Police
5757:Agency
5639:Lawyer
5384:Sharia
5275:Treaty
5270:Repeal
5216:Decree
5127:Custom
5023:Estate
4973:Labour
4737:Equity
4613:
4603:
4585:
4553:
4509:
4489:, ch.1
4479:
4462:
4394:
4380:
4193:
3987:30/87.
3813:
3760:
3733:
3704:
3546:
3538:
3496:
3460:
3427:(1942)
3411:(1967)
2975:
2896:
2844:
2815:
2788:
2719:
2680:
2641:
2602:
2560:
2481:
2284:
2274:
2201:
2155:
2023:
1993:
1915:(book)
1758:shares
1636:Cartel
1294:Theory
1273:1947.
1249:Whelan
1123:. The
964:, the
858:trusts
844:, 1886
808:Canada
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