1045:
hydrophones suspended from cables tethered to the ocean floor. They are positioned at a depth located within the SOFAR in order to effectively gather readings. Each hydrophone records 250 samples per second, while the tethering cable supplies power and carries information to the shore. This information is converted to a usable form and transmitted via secure satellite link to other facilities for analysis. T-phase monitoring stations record seismic signals generate from sound waves that have coupled with the ocean floor or shoreline. T-phase stations are generally located on steep-sloped islands in order to gather the cleanest possible seismic readings. Like hydrophone stations, this information is sent to the shore and transmitted via satellite link for further analysis. Hydrophone stations have the benefit of gathering readings directly from the SOFAR, but are generally more expensive to implement than T-phase stations. Hydroacoustic stations monitor frequencies from 1 to 100 Hertz to determine if an underwater detonation has occurred. If a potential detonation has been identified by one or more stations, the gathered signals will contain a high bandwidth with the frequency spectrum indicating an underwater cavity at the source.
403:
395:
993:
411:
375:
367:
20:
957:
231:
981:
301:
969:
328:, underwater explosions were thought to operate under the same principles as tsunamis, potentially increasing dramatically in height as they move over shallow water, and flooding the land beyond the shoreline. Later research and analysis suggested that water waves generated by explosions were different from those generated by tsunamis and landslides. Méhauté
383:
1021:). Sounds can be detected in the SOFAR from large distances, allowing for a limited number of monitoring stations required to detect oceanic activity. Hydroacoustics was originally developed in the early 20th century as a means of detecting objects like icebergs and shoals to prevent accidents at sea.
1044:
There are two different types of hydroacoustic stations currently used in the IMS network; 6 hydrophone monitoring stations and 5 T-phase stations. These 11 stations are primarily located in the southern hemisphere, which is primarily ocean. Hydrophone monitoring stations consist of an array of three
478:
Despite being in direct contact with a nuclear explosion fireball, the water in the expanding bubble wall does not boil; the pressure inside the bubble exceeds (by far) the vapor pressure of water. The water touching the blast can only boil during bubble contraction. This boiling is like evaporation,
456:
At the maximum diameter of the first oscillation, a very large nuclear bomb exploded in very deep water creates a bubble about a half-mile (800 m) wide in about one second and then contracts, which also takes about a second. Blast bubbles from deep nuclear explosions have slightly longer oscillations
452:
Since water is not readily compressible, moving this much of it out of the way so quickly absorbs a massive amount of energy—all of which comes from the pressure inside the expanding bubble. Water pressure outside the bubble soon causes it to collapse back into a small sphere and rebound, expanding
135:
to produce a short-lived nitrogen-16. In any typical scenario, the probability of such multiple captures in significant numbers in the short time of active nuclear reactions around a bomb is very low. They are somewhat greater when the water is continuously irradiated, as in the closed-loop primary
1016:
are used to monitor the change in water pressure as sound waves propagate through the world's oceans. Sound travels through 20 °C water at approximately 1482 meters per second, compared to the 332 m/s speed of sound through air. In the world's oceans, sound travels most efficiently at a
287:
moved outward from the center. The first wave was about 94 ft (29 m) high at 1,000 ft (300 m) from the center. Other waves followed, and at further distances some of these were higher than the first wave. For example, at 22,000 ft (6,700 m) from the center, the ninth
1032:
station was built off the west coast of Canada. When the CTBT was adopted, 8 more hydroacoustic stations were constructed to create a comprehensive network capable of identifying underwater nuclear detonations anywhere in the world. These 11 hydroacoustic stations, in addition to 326 monitoring
320:
was detonated at a depth of 500 ft (150 m) in deep water. There was little evidence of a fireball. The spray dome rose to a height of 900 ft (270 m). Gas from the bubble broke through the spray dome to form jets which shot out in all directions and reached heights of up to
160:(which has a lower activation cross-section) is 300,000 years. The sodium is the most dangerous contaminant after the explosion because it has a short half-life. These are generally the main radioactive contaminants in an underwater blast; others are the usual blend of irradiated minerals,
468:. That is, the smooth water wall touching the blast face becomes turbulent and fractal, with fingers and branches of cold ocean water extending into the bubble. That cold water cools the hot gas inside and causes it to condense. The bubble becomes less of a sphere and looks more like the
292:. The ultimate size of the base surge was 3.5 mi (5.6 km) in diameter and 1,800 ft (550 m) high. The base surge rose from the surface and merged with other products of the explosion, to form clouds which produced moderate to heavy rainfall for nearly one hour.
418:
Unless it breaks the water surface while still a hot gas bubble, an underwater nuclear explosion leaves no trace at the surface but hot, radioactive water rising from below. This is always the case with explosions deeper than about 2,000 ft (610 m).
213:
Underwater nuclear tests close to the surface can disperse radioactive water and steam over a large area, with severe effects on marine life, nearby infrastructures and humans. The detonation of nuclear weapons underwater was banned by the 1963
1038:
274:
decreasing the air pressure, density, and temperature below the dew point; making a spherical cloud that marked the location of the shock wave. Water filling the cavity formed by the bubble caused a hollow column of water, called the
99:, not fresh or pure water. The water itself is not much affected by neutrons but salt is strongly affected. When exposed to neutron radiation during the microsecond of active detonation of a nuclear pit, water itself does not typically "
463:
The drastic 60% loss of energy between oscillation cycles is caused in part by the extreme force of a nuclear explosion pushing the bubble wall outward supersonically (faster than the speed of sound in saltwater). This causes
188:
formed at the water's surface is large in comparison with the depth of the explosion. Deep underwater explosions are those where the crater is small in comparison with the depth of the explosion, or nonexistent.
201:
design since an underwater explosion (particularly one underneath a hull) can produce greater damage than an above-surface one of the same explosive size. Initial damage to a target will be caused by the first
486:
does: it is less dense. This causes the blast bubble never to be perfectly spherical. Instead, the bottom of the bubble is flatter, and during contraction, it even tends to "reach up" toward the blast center.
270:, formed at the water's surface which became more columnar as it rose. When the rising gas bubble broke the surface, it created a shock wave in the air as well. Water vapor in the air condensed as a result of
192:
The overall effect of an underwater explosion depends on depth, the size and nature of the explosive charge, and the presence, composition and distance of reflecting surfaces such as the seabed, surface,
168:, carried in suspension or dissolved in the water. Plain distillation or evaporating water (clouds, humidity, and precipitation) removes radiation contamination, leaving behind the radioactive salts.
494:
in its last second of life. About six seconds after detonation, all that remains of a large, deep nuclear explosion is a column of hot water rising and cooling in the near-freezing ocean.
288:
wave was the highest at 6 ft (1.8 m). Gravity caused the column to fall to the surface and caused a cloud of mist to move outward rapidly from the base of the column, called the
81:). It is also relatively hard to compress (increase density) when under pressure in a low range (up to about 100 atmospheres). These two together make water an excellent conductor of
402:
992:
46:
explosion that occurs under the surface of a body of water. While useful in anti-ship and submarine warfare, underwater bombs are not as effective against coastal facilities.
394:
1017:
depth of approximately 1000 meters. Sound waves that travel at this depth travel at minimum speed and are trapped in a layer known as the Sound Fixing and
Ranging Channel (
457:
than shallow ones. They stop oscillating and become mere hot water in about six seconds. This happens sooner in nuclear blasts than bubbles from conventional explosives.
254:
which was approximately 200 ft (61 m) deep. The first effect was illumination of the sea from the underwater fireball. A rapidly expanding gas bubble created a
1484:
1387:
1170:
390:
as the cold water filaments that extend into the blast bubble. This is what an underwater nuclear explosion looks like, including the ellipsoid ("squished") shape.
945:
Atolls. This is incorrect; the bombs were placed in shafts drilled into the underlying coral and volcanic rock, and they did not intentionally leak fallout.
472:—the deviation of which from a smooth surface is also due to Rayleigh–Taylor instability as ejected stellar material pushes through the interstellar medium.
181:
depend on several things, including distance from the explosion, the energy of the explosion, the depth of the explosion, and the depth of the water.
410:
336:
that the surface waves from even a very large offshore undersea explosion would expend most of their energy on the continental shelf, resulting in
374:
934:
366:
321:
1,700 ft (520 m). The base surge at its maximum size was 2.5 mi (4.0 km) in diameter and 1,000 ft (300 m) high.
1025:
219:
1285:
324:
The heights of surface waves generated by deep underwater explosions are greater because more energy is delivered to the water. During the
479:
cooling the bubble wall, and is another reason that an oscillating blast bubble loses most of the energy it had in the previous cycle.
490:
In the last expansion cycle, the bottom of the bubble touches the top before the sides have fully collapsed, and the bubble becomes a
1527:
1141:
1265:
465:
432:
387:
271:
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1147:
1034:
215:
1363:
1401:
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19:
234:
The 1946 Baker test, just after the chimney had broken through the cloud, and the crack had formed on the water's surface
206:; this damage will be amplified by the subsequent physical movement of water and by the repeated secondary shockwaves or
1555:
956:
453:
again. This is repeated several times, but each rebound contains only about 40% of the energy of the previous cycle.
184:
Underwater explosions are categorized by the depth of the explosion. Shallow underwater explosions are those where a
435:
at the gas/water boundary causes "fingers" of water to extend into the bubble, increasing the boundary surface area.
980:
847:
722:
676:
347:
test in 1955 occurred at a depth of 2,000 ft (610 m), the deepest detonation of any nuclear device.
1054:
503:
283:, to rise 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in the air and break through the top of the cloud. A series of ocean
568:
1508:(third ed.). Washington: U.S. Department of Defense; Energy Research and Development Administration.
1254:(third ed.). Washington: U.S. Department of Defense; Energy Research and Development Administration.
1237:(Third ed.). Washington: U.S. Department of Defense; Energy Research and Development Administration.
460:
The water pressure of a deep explosion prevents any bubbles from surviving to float up to the surface.
968:
444:
Expansion quickly becomes unsustainable because the amount of water pushed outward increases with the
312:
An example of a deep underwater explosion is the Wahoo test, which was carried out in 1958 as part of
1100:
805:
762:
668:
665:
545:
313:
243:
210:. Additionally, charge detonation away from the target can result in damage over a larger hull area.
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590:
441:
Vast amounts of energy are absorbed by phase change (water becomes steam at the fireball boundary).
317:
207:
1079:
1069:
1059:
100:
39:
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1137:
1028:. Two hydrophone stations were built in the North Pacific Ocean and Mid-Atlantic Ocean, and a
887:
198:
185:
43:
1029:
631:
625:
First
British nuclear test. Nuclear effects test of a ship-smuggled nuclear bomb at a port.
344:
337:
305:
230:
1429:"ASA/EAA/DAGA '99 - Hydroacoustic Monitoring for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty"
1248:
Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977). "Shock effects of surface and subsurface bursts".
1074:
907:
714:
165:
137:
64:
1333:
1009:
825:
782:
584:
Probe the effects of a shallow underwater nuclear bomb on various surface fleet units.
524:
483:
132:
1200:
502:
Relatively few underwater nuclear tests were performed before they were banned by the
482:
During these hot gas oscillations, the bubble continually rises for the same reason a
131:, an oxygen atom absorbs three neutrons, or oxygen-16 undergoes a high energy neutron
1544:
1460:
1309:
1018:
1012:
is the primary means of determining if a nuclear detonation has occurred underwater.
865:
740:
697:
671:
test to determine specifically submarine vulnerability to deep atomic depth charges.
475:
As might be expected, large, shallow explosions expand faster than deep, small ones.
300:
1522:. Advanced Series on Ocean Engineering. Vol. 10. World Scientific Publishing.
1064:
564:
284:
239:
258:
that caused an expanding ring of apparently dark water at the surface, called the
1039:
Preparatory
Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
1201:"Is it possible to test a nuclear weapon without producing radioactive fallout?"
924:
469:
422:
About one second after such an explosion, the hot gas bubble collapses because:
194:
157:
1514:
1503:
1459:
Monitoring, Government of Canada, Natural
Resources Canada, Nuclear Explosion.
1249:
1232:
1231:
Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977). "Descriptions of nuclear explosions".
1128:
1013:
942:
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82:
54:
Underwater explosions differ from in-air explosions due to the properties of
203:
178:
153:
149:
124:
116:
112:
86:
164:, unused nuclear fuel, and bomb case components present in a surface blast
1264:
All the information in this section is directly from the now-declassified
325:
145:
104:
96:
1362:
Australia, c\=AU\;o\=Australia
Government\;ou\=Geoscience (2014-05-15).
406:
Bubble oscillation period as a function of water pressure and blast size
382:
938:
918:
876:
837:
794:
751:
708:
659:
620:
579:
247:
128:
127:
is stable. Radioactive atoms can result if a hydrogen atom absorbs two
120:
78:
70:
24:
262:, followed by an expanding ring of apparently white water, called the
251:
141:
108:
1402:"Overview of the verification regime: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"
1024:
Three hydroacoustic stations were built before the adoption of the
140:. However, salt in seawater readily absorbs neutrons into both the
491:
409:
401:
393:
381:
373:
365:
299:
229:
161:
93:
Effect of neutron exposure on salt water (nuclear explosions only)
55:
842:
Test of a shallow water bomb on ocean floor against ship hulls.
429:
The expansion reduces gas pressure, which decreases temperature.
937:
did extensive underwater tests in French West
Polynesia on the
398:
Expansion rate of blast bubble as a function of water pressure
74:
426:
The water pressure is enormous below 2,000 feet (610 m).
1008:
There are several methods of detecting nuclear detonations.
1267:
Analysis of various models of underwater nuclear explosions
1004:
Underwater
Nuclear Detonation Detection via Hydroacoustics
653:
610 m (2,000 ft), 4,880 m (16,010 ft)
614:
2.7 m (8 ft 10 in), 12 m (39 ft)
242:
in July 1946 was a shallow underwater explosion, part of
1286:"Hydroacoustic monitoring: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"
912:
198 m (650 ft), 1,000 m (3,300 ft)
788:
150 m (490 ft), 980 m (3,220 ft)
103:", or become radioactive. The two elements in water,
414:
Pressure distribution in water near the blast bubble
197:, etc. This phenomenon has been extensively used in
16:
Chemical or nuclear explosion that occurs underwater
573:50 m (160 ft), 100 m (330 ft)
831:46 m (151 ft), 46 m (151 ft)
23:An underwater charge explosion, conducted by the
386:The filaments of the Crab Nebula happen for the
799:Test of a deep water bomb against ship hulls.
1516:Water waves generated by underwater explosion
1226:
1224:
1222:
1130:Water waves generated by underwater explosion
334:Water Waves Generated by Underwater Explosion
148:atoms, which change to radioactive isotopes.
8:
1483:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1386:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
95:– most underwater blast scenarios happen in
1103:. CUNY Brooklyn College, Physics Department
77:, which makes water harder to move (higher
508:
1502:Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977).
1122:
1120:
1118:
266:. A mound of water and spray, called the
1513:Le Méhauté, Bernard; Wang, Shen (1995).
1127:Le Méhauté, Bernard; Wang, Shen (1995).
1033:stations and laboratories, comprise the
370:Expansion rate of blast bubble over time
111:, can absorb an extra neutron, becoming
18:
1160:RMCS Precis on Naval Ammunition, Jan 91
1091:
952:
119:respectively, both of which are stable
1536:from the original on October 14, 2019.
1476:
1379:
1150:from the original on October 14, 2019.
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1423:
1421:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1026:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
340:no worse than that from a bad storm.
220:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
7:
1280:
1278:
1276:
933:Note: it is often believed that the
218:and it is also prohibited under the
1270:(1971), U.S. Department of Defense
14:
1037:(IMS), which is monitored by the
156:of about 15 hours, while that of
991:
979:
967:
955:
870:20 m (66 ft), unknown
745:30 m (98 ft), unknown
702:10 m (33 ft), unknown
498:List of underwater nuclear tests
332:conclude in their 1996 overview
1136:. World Scientific Publishing.
1035:International Monitoring System
438:Water is nearly incompressible.
216:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1505:The effects of nuclear weapons
1251:The effects of nuclear weapons
1234:The effects of nuclear weapons
1:
1310:"How fast does sound travel?"
1101:"Nuclear Waste (class notes)"
1175:CTBTO Preparatory Commission
1171:"'Test Baker', Bikini Atoll"
272:Prandtl–Meyer expansion fans
226:Shallow underwater explosion
1461:"IMS Hydroacoustic Network"
533:Bomb depth, depth of water
466:Rayleigh–Taylor instability
448:of the blast-bubble radius.
433:Rayleigh–Taylor instability
378:Oscillations in bubble size
250:warhead was detonated in a
1572:
1364:"Hydroacoustic Monitoring"
238:The Baker nuclear test at
69:– water has a much higher
296:Deep underwater explosion
177:Effects of an underwater
1055:Nuclear weapons testing
504:Partial Test Ban Treaty
415:
407:
399:
391:
379:
371:
351:Deep nuclear explosion
309:
235:
27:
413:
405:
397:
385:
377:
369:
303:
233:
22:
949:Nuclear Test Gallery
906:Pacific Ocean, near
881:A T-5 torpedo test.
756:A T-5 torpedo test.
669:nuclear depth charge
650:North Pacific Ocean
314:Operation Hardtack I
244:Operation Crossroads
136:cooling system of a
32:underwater explosion
1465:can-ndc.nrcan.gc.ca
1334:"Untitled Document"
974:Operation Hurricane
610:Monte Bello Islands
510:
50:Properties of water
1556:Nuclear technology
1099:Sobel, Michael I.
1080:Operation Chastise
1070:Nuclear depth bomb
1060:Marine engineering
692:September 21, 1955
666:Mark 90-B7 "Betty"
509:
416:
408:
400:
392:
380:
372:
310:
236:
34:(also known as an
28:
1207:. 11 October 2006
998:Dominic Swordfish
986:Hardtack Umbrella
931:
930:
65:incompressibility
1563:
1537:
1521:
1509:
1489:
1488:
1482:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1456:
1443:
1442:
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1425:
1416:
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1256:
1255:
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1239:
1238:
1228:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1197:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1177:. Archived from
1167:
1161:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1135:
1124:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1096:
995:
983:
971:
962:Crossroads Baker
959:
917:
903:
875:
862:
861:October 23, 1961
836:
821:
793:
778:
750:
737:
736:October 10, 1957
707:
693:
658:
647:
619:
606:
578:
561:
511:
363:
362:
358:
345:Operation Wigwam
338:coastal flooding
199:antiship warhead
67:(all explosions)
1571:
1570:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1541:
1540:
1530:
1519:
1512:
1501:
1498:
1496:Further reading
1493:
1492:
1475:
1469:
1467:
1458:
1457:
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1437:
1435:
1427:
1426:
1419:
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1400:
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1370:
1361:
1360:
1351:
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1332:
1331:
1327:
1318:
1316:
1314:www.indiana.edu
1308:
1307:
1303:
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1283:
1274:
1263:
1259:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1230:
1229:
1220:
1210:
1208:
1205:How stuff works
1199:
1198:
1194:
1184:
1182:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1144:
1133:
1126:
1125:
1116:
1106:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1075:Nuclear torpedo
1051:
1006:
999:
996:
987:
984:
975:
972:
963:
960:
951:
915:
908:Johnston Island
901:
873:
860:
854:122 (Korall-1)
834:
819:
791:
776:
748:
735:
715:nuclear torpedo
705:
691:
656:
645:
617:
605:October 2, 1952
604:
576:
559:
500:
364:
360:
356:
354:
353:
298:
228:
175:
166:nuclear fallout
138:nuclear reactor
52:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1569:
1567:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1543:
1542:
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1417:
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1218:
1192:
1181:on 25 May 2012
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1010:Hydroacoustics
1005:
1002:
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832:
829:
826:Enewetak Atoll
822:
817:
814:
809:
801:
800:
797:
789:
786:
783:Enewetak Atoll
779:
774:
771:
766:
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757:
754:
746:
743:
738:
733:
730:
727:
719:
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696:Chernaya Bay,
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484:mushroom cloud
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427:
352:
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227:
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174:
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133:(n-p) reaction
90:
51:
48:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1434:
1433:acoustics.org
1430:
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1422:
1418:
1407:
1406:www.ctbto.org
1403:
1397:
1394:
1389:
1383:
1369:
1368:www.ga.gov.au
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1335:
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1290:www.ctbto.org
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1196:
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1143:981-02-2083-9
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905:
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866:Novaya Zemlya
864:
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772:
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747:
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741:Novaya Zemlya
739:
734:
731:
728:
726:
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721:
720:
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712:
710:
704:
701:
699:
698:Novaya Zemlya
695:
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583:
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560:July 25, 1946
558:
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285:surface waves
282:
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1515:
1504:
1468:. Retrieved
1464:
1436:. Retrieved
1432:
1409:. Retrieved
1405:
1396:
1371:. Retrieved
1367:
1341:. Retrieved
1338:www.le.ac.uk
1337:
1328:
1317:. Retrieved
1313:
1304:
1293:. Retrieved
1289:
1266:
1260:
1250:
1243:
1233:
1209:. Retrieved
1204:
1195:
1183:. Retrieved
1179:the original
1174:
1165:
1156:
1129:
1105:. Retrieved
1094:
1065:Shock factor
1043:
1023:
1007:
932:
923:Test of the
902:May 11, 1962
893:
886:
848:
820:June 8, 1958
811:
804:
777:May 16, 1958
768:
761:
723:
683:
677:
646:May 14, 1955
637:
630:
596:
589:
565:Bikini Atoll
551:
544:
514:Test series
506:. They are:
501:
489:
481:
477:
474:
462:
459:
455:
451:
445:
421:
417:
342:
333:
329:
323:
311:
289:
280:
276:
267:
263:
259:
240:Bikini Atoll
237:
212:
208:bubble pulse
195:thermoclines
191:
183:
176:
92:
62:
53:
35:
31:
29:
1014:Hydrophones
925:RUR-5 ASROC
684:22 (Joe 17)
470:Crab Nebula
388:same reason
158:chlorine-36
146:chlorine-35
83:shock waves
1551:Explosions
1545:Categories
1470:2017-04-25
1438:2017-04-25
1411:2017-04-24
1373:2017-04-24
1343:2017-04-24
1319:2017-04-24
1295:2017-04-24
943:Fangataufa
806:Hardtack I
763:Hardtack I
713:Test of a
546:Crossroads
290:base surge
268:spray dome
256:shock wave
1107:21 August
1041:(CTBTO).
894:Swordfish
597:Hurricane
591:Hurricane
530:Location
316:. A 9 kt
304:The 1955
222:of 1996.
204:shockwave
179:explosion
154:half-life
150:Sodium-24
142:sodium-23
125:oxygen-18
117:oxygen-17
113:deuterium
87:explosion
63:Mass and
1534:Archived
1479:cite web
1382:cite web
1148:Archived
1049:See also
927:system.
812:Umbrella
781:Outside
326:Cold War
129:neutrons
121:isotopes
105:hydrogen
101:activate
97:seawater
85:from an
40:chemical
1086:Sources
1030:T-phase
939:Moruroa
888:Dominic
824:Inside
520:Nation
277:chimney
248:kiloton
246:. A 20
173:Effects
123:. Even
79:inertia
71:density
44:nuclear
38:) is a
25:US Navy
1526:
1211:31 May
1185:31 May
1140:
935:French
916:<20
828:, PPG
785:, PPG
638:Wigwam
632:Wigwam
539:Notes
536:Yield
523:Date (
355:": -->
330:et al.
306:Wigwam
252:lagoon
186:crater
152:has a
109:oxygen
1520:(PDF)
1134:(PDF)
1019:SOFAR
857:USSR
769:Wahoo
732:USSR
688:USSR
552:Baker
517:Name
492:torus
281:plume
264:crack
260:slick
162:coral
73:than
56:water
36:UNDEX
1524:ISBN
1485:link
1388:link
1213:2012
1187:2012
1138:ISBN
1109:2019
941:and
849:1961
724:1957
678:1955
446:cube
357:edit
343:The
318:Mk-7
308:test
144:and
115:and
107:and
898:US
874:4.8
816:US
773:US
729:48
706:3.5
642:US
601:UK
569:PPG
556:US
279:or
75:air
42:or
30:An
1547::
1532:.
1481:}}
1477:{{
1463:.
1447:^
1431:.
1420:^
1404:.
1384:}}
1380:{{
1366:.
1352:^
1336:.
1312:.
1288:.
1275:^
1221:^
1203:.
1173:.
1146:.
1117:^
919:kt
877:kt
838:kt
795:kt
752:kt
717:.
709:kt
664:A
660:kt
657:30
621:kt
618:25
580:kt
577:20
567:,
527:)
525:UT
58::
1487:)
1473:.
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1390:)
1376:.
1346:.
1322:.
1298:.
1215:.
1189:.
1111:.
835:9
792:9
749:6
361:]
89:.
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