Union between Sweden and Norway

2544:) was negotiated during the spring of 1815, with prime minister Peder Anker leading the Norwegian delegation. The treaty contained twelve articles dealing with the king's authority, the relationship between the two legislatures, how the executive power was to be exercised if the king should die before the crown prince had attained majority, and the relationship between the cabinets. It also confirmed the practice of treating questions of foreign policy in the Swedish cabinet, with the Norwegian prime minister present. Vital questions pertaining to the Union were to be treated in a joint cabinet meeting, where all the Norwegian ministers in Stockholm would be present. The Act was passed by the Storting 31 July 1815 and by the Riksdag 6 August, and sanctioned by the king on 15 August. In Sweden the Act of Union was a set of provisions under regular law, but the Norwegian Storting gave it constitutional status, so that its provisions could only be revised according to the procedures laid down in the constitution. 1809: 3026:(1872–1907) had great influence on political life in Sweden, and more than once it seemed as if the union between the two countries was on the point of ending. The dissensions chiefly had their origin in the demand by Norway for separate consuls and eventually a separate foreign service. Norway had, according to the revised constitution of 1814, the right to separate consular offices, but had not exercised that right partly for financial reasons, partly because the consuls appointed by the Swedish foreign office generally did a satisfactory job of representing Norway. During the late 19th century, however, Norway's merchant marine grew rapidly to become one of the world's largest, and one of the most important factors of the national economy. It was increasingly felt that Norway needed separate consuls who could assist shipping and national interests abroad. Partly, the demand for separate consuls also became a symbolic one, a way to assert the growing disillusionment with the Union. 2560:

Norway had its own army, navy and treasury. The foreign service was directly subordinate to the king, an arrangement that was embodied already in the Norwegian constitution of 17 May 1814, before the revision of 4 November. An unforeseen effect was that foreign policy was decided in the Swedish cabinet and conducted by the Swedish ministry of foreign affairs. When matters of foreign policy were discussed in cabinet meetings, the only Norwegian present who could plead Norway's case was the prime minister. The Swedish Riksdag could indirectly influence foreign policy, but not the Norwegian Storting. Because the representations abroad were appointed by the Swedish government and mostly staffed with Swedes, the Union was often seen by foreigners as functioning like a single state rather than two sovereign states. Over time, however, it became less common to refer to the union as "Sweden" and instead to jointly reference it as "Sweden and Norway".

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question. The promising results of these negotiations was published in a "communiqué" of 24 March 1903. It proposed that the relations of the separate consuls to the joint ministry of foreign affairs and the embassies should be arranged by identical laws, which could not be altered or repealed without the consent of the governments of both countries. But it was no formal agreement, only a preliminary sketch, not binding on the governments. In the elections of 1903, the Conservatives (Højre) won many votes with their program of reconciliation and negotiations. A new coalition government under Hagerup was formed in October 1903, backed by a national consensus on the need conclude the negotiations by joint action. The proposals of the

2145:, the Danish foreign minister, responded to the Swedish demands by asserting that the Danish government in no way supported Norwegian independence, but that they could not vacate border posts they did not hold. The demand to disinherit Christian Frederik was not addressed. Swedish troops massed along the border, and there were daily rumors of an invasion. In several letters to von Essen, commander of the Swedish forces at Norway's borders, Bernadotte referred to Christian Frederik as a rebel and ordered that all Danish officials who did not return home were to be treated as outlaws. But the regent countered by confiscating all navy vessels stationed in Norway and arresting officers who were planning to sail them to Denmark. 2604: 2904: 2761: 2041:

the Kiel Treaty by ordering Christian Frederik to surrender the border fortresses and return to Denmark. But Christian Frederik kept the contents of the letter to himself, ordering his troops to hold the fortresses. He decided to claim the throne of Norway as rightful heir, and to set up an independent government with himself at the head. On 30 January, he consulted several prominent Norwegian advisors, arguing that King Frederick had no legal right to relinquish his inheritance, asserting that he was the rightful king of Norway, and that Norway had a right to self-determination. His impromptu council agreed with him, setting the stage for an independence movement.

265: 3261: 2916: 2773: 2873: 2627:, widened authority over his ministers, the right to rule by decree, and extended control over the Storting. A further provocation was his efforts to establish a new hereditary nobility in Norway. He put pressure on the Storting by arranging military maneuvers close to Christiania while it was in session. Nonetheless, all of his propositions were given thorough consideration, and then rejected. They were received just as negatively by the next Storting in 1824, and then shelved, save for the question of an extended veto. That demand was repeatedly put before every Storting during the king's lifetime to no avail. 2749: 2488:(around 40%) had the right to vote than in the socially more stratified Sweden. During the early years of the Union, an influential class of civil servants dominated Norwegian politics; however, they were few in number, and could easily lose their grip if the new electors chose to take advantage of their numerical superiority by electing members from the lower social strata. To preserve their hegemony, civil servants formed an alliance with prosperous farmers in the regions. A policy conducive to agriculture and rural interests secured the loyalty of farmers. But with the constitutional provision that 2789: 2849: 230: 2381:

enter into a union voluntarily instead of being annexed as a conquered territory, Bernadotte offered favorable peace terms. He promised to recognize the Norwegian Constitution, with only those amendments that were necessary to enable a union of the two countries. Christian Frederik agreed to call an extraordinary session of the Storting in September or October. He would then have to transfer his powers to the elected representatives of the people, who would negotiate the terms of the union with Sweden, and finally he would relinquish all claims to the Norwegian throne and leave the country.

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declaring the union with Sweden dissolved because Oscar had effectively "ceased to act as King of Norway" by refusing to form a new government. It further stated that, as the king had declared himself unable to form a government, the constitutional royal power "ceased to be operative." Thus, Michelsen and his ministers were instructed to remain in office as a caretaker government. Pending further instructions, they were vested with the executive power normally vested in the king pending the amendments necessary to reflect the fact that the union had been dissolved.

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express reservation that a joint foreign minister — Swedish or Norwegian — was a precondition for the existence of the Union. The Norwegian government rejected his proposal on 17 April, referring to earlier fruitless attempts, and declared that it would go on with preparations for a separate consular service. But both chambers of the Riksdag approved the proposal of the crown prince on 2 May 1905. In a last attempt to placate the recalcitrant Norwegians, Boström, considered to be an obstacle to better relations, was succeeded by

3293:—before the formal Swedish demand for a plebiscite was made, thus forestalling any claim that the referendum was made in response to demands from Stockholm. The people were not asked to answer yes or no to the dissolution, but to "confirm the dissolution that had already taken place". The response was 368,392 votes for the dissolution and only 184 against, an overwhelming majority of over 99.9 percent. After a request from the Storting for Swedish cooperation to repeal the Act of Union, delegates from both countries convened at 2193: 1654:

question the policies that favored Danish interests over that of Norway's while rejecting key Norwegian demands for the creation of important national institutions, such as a bank and a university. Some members of the "timber aristocracy" thus saw Sweden as a more natural partner, and cultivated commercial and political contacts with Sweden. Around 1800, many prominent Norwegians secretly favored a split with Denmark, without actively taking steps to promote independence. Their undeclared leader was Count

3012: 2525:. After 1884, the king was no longer able to appoint a government entirely of his own choosing or keep it in office against the will of the Storting. Instead, he could only appoint members of the party or coalition having a majority in the Storting. The council also became answerable to the Storting, so that a failed vote of confidence would cause the government to resign. By comparison, parliamentary rule was not established in Sweden until 1905—just before the end of the union. 2861: 2725: 3113:, succeeded in forming a party of Liberals and Radicals to the number of about 90 members, who asides from being in favor of the extension of the franchise, advocated full equality of Norway with Sweden in the management of foreign affairs. The Norwegian elections of the same year with extended franchise gave the Liberals (Venstre) a great majority for their program of a separate foreign service and separate consuls. Steen stayed on as prime minister, but was succeeded by 1793:. This first national government after several centuries of Danish rule demonstrated that home rule was possible in Norway, and was later seen as a test of the viability of independence. Christian August's greatest challenge was to secure the food supply during the blockade. When Sweden invaded Norway in the spring of 1808, he commanded the army of Southern Norway and compelled the numerically superior Swedish forces to withdraw behind the border after the battles of 2813: 2054: 1319: 2440: 2111:– after having fought for freedom in Europe for 22 years, the United Kingdom could not go on to support Sweden in her forced subjugation of a free people then under a foreign yoke. But the Treaty between Britain and Sweden could not be ignored: Sweden had helped the allies during the war, and promises had to be kept. Anker stayed on in London until fall, doggedly maintaining his efforts to awaken sympathy and support for Norwegian interests. 368: 3077: 237: 3974: 2673:, coats of arms, royal titles, and the celebration of 17 May as the national day. Charles John strongly opposed the public commemoration of the May constitution, which he suspected of being a celebration of the election of Christian Frederik. Instead, but unsuccessfully, he encouraged the celebration of the revised constitution of 4 November, which was also the day when the Union was established. This conflict culminated with the 3249: 2168: 1853: 2825: 994: 2283:. The king asked the United Kingdom to mediate between Norway and Sweden, but Morier never deviated from the official British government position of rejecting an independent Norway. He stated that Norway should subject itself to a Swedish union, and also that his government's position be printed in all Norwegian newspapers. On 10 June, the Norwegian army was mobilized and arms and ammunitions distributed. 2677:(torvslaget) in Christiania on 17 May 1829, when peaceful celebrations escalated into demonstrations, and the chief of police read the Riot Act and ordered the crowd to disperse. Finally, army and cavalry units were called in to restore order with some violence. The public outcry over this provocation was so great that the king had to acquiesce to the celebration of the national day from then on. 1347: 1333: 1305: 816: 3182: 2256: 1920: 1686: 1361: 53: 869: 2045:

Prince Bernadotte responded by threatening to send an army to occupy Norway, and to uphold the grain embargo, unless the country voluntarily complied with the provisions of the Kiel Treaty. In that case, he would call a constitutional convention. But for the time being, he was occupied with the concluding battles on the Continent, giving the Norwegians time to develop their plans.

3168:. But these overtures did not convince the Norwegians. Norwegians of all political convictions had come to the conclusion that a fair solution to the conflict was impossible, and there was now a general consensus that the Union had to be dissolved. Michelsen's new coalition cabinet worked closely with the Storting on a plan to force the issue by means of the consular question. 1375: 855: 802: 2095:

leaving an undeserving people to misery. Our first obligation will then be the most bloody revenge upon Sweden and her friends; but you must never lose the hope that England will realize the unjustice that is being done to us, and voice it until the last moment – as well as our constant wish for peace." Anker's plea for support was firmly rejected by prime minister

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superior position in the Union". King Charles was forced to retreat when the Swedish cabinet threatened to resign. He chose not to sanction the law, but as a concession to wounded Norwegian sentiments, he did it anyway in a Norwegian cabinet meeting. But his actions had inadvertently confirmed that he was more Swedish than Norwegian, despite his good intentions.

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hospitality. Meeting with the Norwegian council of state the following day, the Russian emissary Orlov put the choice to those present: Norway could subject itself to the Swedish crown or face war with the rest of Europe. When Christian Frederik argued that the Norwegian people had a right to determine their own destiny, the Austrian emissary

2129:, newly appointed Swedish governor-general of Norway. When he arrived in March, he warned the regent that he was playing a dangerous game, but was himself accused of colluding with Sweden. Public opinion was increasingly critical of the policy of the regent, who was suspected of maneuvering to bring Norway back under Danish sovereignty. 2390:"reasons of health", leaving his authority with the state council as agreed in a secret protocol at Moss. In a letter dated 28 August he ordered the council to accept orders from the "highest authority", implicitly referring to the Swedish king. Two days later, the Swedish king proclaimed himself the ruler of both Sweden and Norway. 2012:. Article IV of the treaty stated that Norway was ceded to "the King of Sweden", and not to the Kingdom of Sweden – a provision favorable to his former Norwegian subjects as well as to their future king, whose position as a former revolutionary turned heir to the Swedish throne was far from secure. Secret correspondence from the 2517:. For instance, while the king had the power of absolute veto in Sweden, he only had a suspending veto in Norway. Charles John demanded that the Storting grant him an absolute veto, but was forced to back down. While the constitution vested executive power in the King, in practice it came increasingly to rest in his 2988:

Storting to this effect. The proposition to do away with this detested symbol of dependency and instead replace it with the office of a prime minister in Christiania was nearly unanimously carried. When the king returned to Stockholm, he was met by an unsuspectedly strong reaction from the Swedish nationalist press.

2556:, the revised Norwegian constitution, and the Act of Union, secured for Norway more independence than was intended in the Treaty of Kiel. To all appearances, Norway had entered the Union voluntarily and steadfastly denied Swedish superiority, while many Swedes saw Norway as an inferior partner and a prize of war. 2655:

a joint meeting of the Swedish and Norwegian cabinets on 30 January 1839, a Union committee with four members from each country was appointed to solve contested questions between them. When the Storting of 1839 convened in his presence, he was received with great affection by the politicians and the public.

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cried out that Norway had strayed from the path of lawfulness and turned toward revolution. The Riksdag demanded to have its say on the question. The crux of the matter was whether it was purely Norwegian or of concern to both countries. The conservative Swedish majority proclaimed Sweden's "rightful

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The lack of a common constitutional foundation for the Union was felt strongly by crown prince Charles John during its first year. The fundamental documents were only the Convention of Moss and the revised Norwegian constitution of 4 November 1814. But the conservative Swedish Riksdag had not allowed

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In late September, a dispute arose between Swedish authorities and the Norwegian council of state over the distribution of grain among the poor in Christiania. The grain was intended as a gift from the "Norwegian" king to his new subjects, but it became a matter of principle for the Norwegian council

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In the course of the negotiations Christian Frederik offered to relinquish the throne and return to Denmark, provided the Norwegians had a say in their future through an extraordinary session of the Storting. However he refused to surrender the Norwegian border forts to Swedish troops. The four-power

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On 10 April, the delegates convened at Eidsvoll. Seated on uncomfortable benches, the convention elected its officers in the presence of Christian Frederik on 11 April, before the debates began the next day. Two parties were soon formed, the "Independence party", variously known as the "Danish party"

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On 2 February the Norwegian public received the news that their country had been ceded to the King of Sweden. It caused a general indignation among most people, who disliked the idea of being subjected to Swedish rule, and enthusiastically endorsed the idea of national independence. The Swedish Crown

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resolved to preserve the integrity of the country, and if possible the union with Denmark, by taking the lead in a Norwegian insurrection. The king was informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813 and probably went along with them. But on the face of it, he adhered to the conditions of

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of Norway in 1809, was chosen because the Swedish insurgents saw that his great popularity among the Norwegians might open the way for a union with Norway, to compensate for the loss of Finland. He was also held in high esteem because he had refrained from pursuing the retreating army of Sweden while

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remained rival powers and fought many wars, during which both Denmark and Norway had to cede important provinces to Sweden in 1645 and 1658. Sweden also invaded Norway in 1567, 1644, 1658, and 1716 to wrest the country away from the union with Denmark and either annex it or form a union. The repeated

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Swedish reactions to the action of the Storting were strong. The king solemnly protested and called an extraordinary session of the Riksdag for 20 June to consider what measures should be taken after the "revolt" of the Norwegians. The Riksdag declared that it was willing to negotiate the conditions

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of all flags in both nations, combining the flag colours of both countries, equally distributed. The two countries obtained separate, but parallel flag systems, clearly manifesting their equality. Norwegians were pleased to find the former common war flag and naval ensign replaced by separate flags.

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The differences and distrust of these early years gradually became less pronounced, and Charles John's increasingly accommodating attitude made him more popular. After riots in Stockholm in the fall of 1838, the king found Christiania more convivial, and while there, he agreed to several demands. In

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on 18 November 1814. In his meeting with the Storting, he accepted the election and swore to uphold the constitution on behalf of the king. In his speech, the crown prince emphasized that the Union was a league that the king had entered into with the people of Norway, and that "he had chosen to take

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In early October, Norwegians again refused to accept a shipment of corn from Bernadotte, and Norwegian merchants instead took up loans to purchase food and other necessities from Denmark. However, by early October, it was generally accepted that the union with Sweden was inevitable. On 7 October, an

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The constitutional committee presented its proposals on 16 April, provoking a lively debate. The Independence party won the day with a majority of 78–33 to establish Norway as an independent monarchy. In the following days, mutual suspicion and distrust came to the surface within the convention. The

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The Swedish government immediately sent a mission to Christian Frederik, warning him that the insurrection was a violation of the Treaty of Kiel and put Norway at war with the allied powers. The consequences would be famine and bankruptcy. Christian Frederik sent letters through his personal network

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on 31 August. The talks were temporarily interrupted along the way. At the same time, troop concentrations in Sweden made the Norwegian government mobilize its army and navy on 13 September. Agreement was nevertheless reached on 23 September. The main points were that disputes between the countries

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The question of separate consuls for Norway soon came up again. In 1902 foreign minister Lagerheim in a joint council of state proposed separate consular services, while keeping the common foreign service. The Norwegian government agreed to the appointment of another joint committee to consider the

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to Denmark, the amount that had been agreed upon. This led to a bitter conflict between the king and the Norwegian government. Though the debt was finally paid by means of a foreign loan, the disagreement that it had provoked led to the resignation of count Wedel-Jarlsberg as minister of finance in

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Seeds of discord were of course inherent in a constitutional association of two parties based on such conflicting calculations. Sweden saw the Union as the realization of an idea that had been nursed for centuries, one that had been strengthened by the recent loss of Finland. It was hoped that with

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with a ceasefire offer based on the promise of a union with respect for the Norwegian constitution. The following day, Christian Frederik expressed himself in favor of the terms, allowing Swedish troops to remain in positions east of Glomma. Hostilities broke out at Glomma, resulting in casualties,

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On 20 July, Bernadotte sent a letter to his "cousin" Christian Frederik, accusing him of court intrigues and foolhardy adventurism. Two days later he met with the delegation that had been in Norway. They encouraged him to consider Christian Frederik's proposed terms for a union with Sweden, but the

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The Swedish delegation arrived in Christiania on 24 February. Christian Frederik refused to accept a proclamation from the Swedish king but insisted instead on reading his letter to the Norwegian people, proclaiming himself regent. The Swedes characterized his decisions as reckless and illegal, and

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as the chief market. Saw-mill owners and timber merchants in the Christiania region, backed by great fortunes and economic influence, formed an elite group that began to see the central government in Copenhagen as a hindrance to Norwegian aspirations. Their increasing self-assertiveness led them to

1555:, thereby confirming the union. Continuing differences between the two realms led to a failed attempt to create a separate Norwegian consular service and then, on 7 June 1905, to a unilateral declaration of independence by the Storting. Sweden accepted the union's dissolution on 26 October. After a 2971:

became king of Sweden and Norway in 1844, the relationship with Denmark improved and the movement started to gain support. Norwegian students joined in 1845 and participated in annual meetings alternating between the countries. During the war between Denmark and Prussia in 1848, King Oscar offered

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Legally, Norway had the status of an independent constitutional monarchy, with more internal independence than it had enjoyed in over 400 years. While it shared a common monarch and a common foreign policy with Sweden, all other ministries and government institutions were separate from each state.

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in the preamble to the Act of Union on 15 August 1815. In order to understand the nature of the Union, it is necessary to know the historical events that led to its establishment. These demonstrate clearly that Sweden, aided by the major powers, forced Norway to enter the Union. On the other hand,

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king of Norway failed to pass. The issue was set aside pending the necessary constitutional amendments. In the following days, the Storting passed several resolutions to assert as much sovereignty as possible within the union. On 1 November they voted 52 to 25 that Norway would not appoint its own

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The news hit the Norwegian public hard, and reactions included anger at the "cowardice" and "treason" of the military commanders, despair over the prospects of Norwegian independence, and confusion about the country's options. Christian Frederik confirmed his willingness to abdicate the throne for

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Christian Frederik succeeded in excluding from the text any indication that Norway had recognized the Treaty of Kiel, and Sweden accepted that it was not to be considered a premise of a future union between the two states. Understanding the advantage of avoiding a costly war, and of letting Norway

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On 1 April, King Frederick VI of Denmark sent a letter to Christian Frederik, asking him to give up his efforts and return to Denmark. The possibility of disinheriting the Crown Prince was mentioned. Christian Frederik rejected the overture, invoking Norway's right to self-determination as well as

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to discuss the situation. He informed them of his intent to resist Swedish hegemony and claim the Norwegian crown as his inheritance. But at the emotional Eidsvoll session, his advisors convinced him that Norway's claim to independence should rather be based on the principle of self-determination,

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No further steps were taken by the King to restore normal constitutional conditions. In the meantime, the formal dissolution was set to be staged at a sitting of the Storting on 7 June. The ministers placed their resignations in its hands, and the Storting unanimously adopted a planned resolution

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were admitted only after submitting assurances that they had no loyalty to the Swedish authorities. On 10 October, Christian Frederik abdicated according to the conditions agreed on at Moss and embarked for Denmark. Executive powers were provisionally assigned to the Storting, until the necessary

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arrived in Christiania on what appeared to be an unofficial visit. He accepted the hospitality of one of Christian Frederik's ministers and agreed to meet with the king himself informally, stressing that nothing he did should be construed as a recognition of Norwegian independence. It was rumored

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to be available as the Riksdag might decide the matter. It was understood, but not openly stated, that the amount was held in readiness in case of war. The unlikely threat of war was seen as real on both sides, and Norway answered by borrowing 40 million kroner from France, for the same unstated

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of the members of parliament were to be elected from rural districts, more farmers would eventually be elected, thus portending a potential fracture in the alliance. Legislation that encouraged popular participation in local government culminated with the introduction of local self-government in

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time, the reluctant Norwegians would accept a closer relationship. The Norwegians, however, as the weaker party, demanded strict adherence to the conditions that had been agreed on, and jealously guarded the consistent observance of all details that confirmed the equality between the two states.

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as prime minister. That year, the third joint Union committee was appointed, with seven members from each country, but it never agreed on crucial issues and was promptly disbanded in 1898. Faced with saber-rattling from militarily superior Sweden, Norway had to withdraw the demands for separate

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On 24 April 1860, the Norwegian Storting reacted to the Swedish claim to supremacy by unanimously resolving that the Norwegian state had the sole right to amend its own constitution, and that any revision of the conditions of the Union had to be based on the principle of complete equality. This

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By then, the Union had lost its support among Norwegians because of the setback caused by the issue of abolishing the office of viceroy. King Charles XV was in favor of this Norwegian demand, and after his accession in 1859 promised his Norwegian cabinet that he would sanction a decision of the

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Back in Stockholm on 14 March, Crown Prince Gustaf called a joint council on 5 April to appeal to both governments to return to the negotiation table and work out a solution based on full equality between the two kingdoms. He proposed reforms of both the foreign and consular services, with the

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The Norwegian draft for identical laws was submitted in May 1904. It was met with total silence from Stockholm. While Norway had never had a Storting and a cabinet more friendly to the Union, it turned out that political opinion in Sweden had moved in the other direction. The spokesman for the

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In the midst of negotiations and discussions that were in vain, in 1895 the Swedish government gave notice to Norway that the current commercial treaty of 1874, which had provided for a promising common market, would lapse in July 1897. When Sweden reverted to protectionism, Norway also raised

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branches. Norway had a modified unicameral legislature with more authority than any other legislature in Europe. In contrast, Sweden's king was a near-autocrat; the 1809 Instrument of Government stated unequivocally that "the king alone shall govern the realm." More (male) citizens in Norway

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in Sweden to persuade Christian Frederik to comply with the provisions of the Treaty of Kiel. There they conferred with von Essen, who told them that 65,000 Swedish troops were ready to invade Norway. On 30 June the emissaries arrived in Christiania, where they turned down Christian Frederik's

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Carsten Anker was sent to London to negotiate recognition by the British government, with this instruction from the regent: "Our foremost need is peace with England. If, God forbid, our hope of English support is thwarted, you must make it clear to the minister what will be the consequences of

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or conditions for a settlement. His government had reverted to the stand that the Swedish foreign minister should retain control over the Norwegian consuls and, if necessary, remove them, and that Sweden should always be mentioned before Norway in official documents (a break with the practice

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and Russia insisted that Charles John's first duty was to the anti-Napoleonic coalition. Britain vigorously objected to the expenditure of her subsidies on the Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been crushed. Only after Charles gave his word did the United Kingdom also promise to

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that had been formed on 18 February to work out the details on national legislation to establish Norwegian consuls. He begged them not to take steps that would lead to a break between the countries. But to no avail, as the Special Committee recommended on 6 March to go ahead with the work in

2271:. There was continuing concern about the international climate, and the government decided to send two of the delegates from the constitutional assembly to join Carsten Anker in England to plead Norway's case. The first council of state convened, and established the nation's supreme court. 3268:

On 23 May 1905 the Storting passed the government's proposal for the establishment of separate Norwegian consuls. King Oscar, who again had resumed the government, made use of his constitutional right to veto the bill on 27 May, and according to plan, the Norwegian ministry tendered their

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introduced in 1844). The Norwegian government found these demands unacceptable and incompatible with the sovereignty of Norway. As the foreign minister was to be Swedish, he could not exercise authority over a Norwegian institution. Further negotiations on such terms would be purposeless.

2579:, as the residence of the cabinet section in Stockholm, which also served as an informal "embassy" of Norway. The other six Christiania-based ministers were in charge of their respective government departments. In the king's absence, meetings of the Christiania cabinet were chaired by the 2152:

Although the European powers refused to acknowledge the Norwegian independence movement, there were signs by early April that they were not inclined to side with Sweden in an all-out confrontation. As the constitutional convention drew closer, the independence movement gained in strength.

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The Independence party had the majority and argued that the mandate was limited to formalizing Norway's independence based on the popular oath of fealty earlier that year. With Christian Frederik as regent, the relationship with Denmark would be negotiated within the context of Norwegian

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A counter-proposal by the Swedish government was likewise rejected, and on 7 February 1905 the King in joint council decided to break off the negotiations that he had initiated in 1903. Notwithstanding this, the exhausted king still hoped for an agreement. On the next day Crown Prince

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After the accession of Charles John in 1818, he tried to bring the two countries closer together and to strengthen the executive power. These efforts were mostly resisted by the Norwegian Storting. In 1821, the king proposed constitutional amendments that would give him absolute

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on the obligations that were of greater value to his heart, those that expressed the love of the people, rather than the privileges that were acquired through solemn treaties." His renouncement of the treaty of Kiel as the legal basis for the Union was endorsed by the Swedish

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The Norwegian arms were removed from the greater arms of Sweden, and common Union and royal arms were created to be used exclusively by the royal family, by the foreign service, and on documents pertaining to both countries. A significant detail of the Union arms is that

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on 19 February, Christian Frederik proclaimed himself regent of Norway. He ordered all congregations to meet on 25 February to swear loyalty to the cause of Norwegian independence and to elect delegates to a constitutional assembly to convene at Eidsvoll on 10 April.

2397:, threatened to resume hostilities if the Norwegians would not abide by the armistice agreement and willingly accept the union with Sweden. Christian Frederik was reputed to have fallen into a deep depression and was variously blamed for the battleground defeats. 2024:, thanking them for their support, acknowledging the role of Russia in negotiating the peace, and envisaging greater stability in the Nordic region. On 18 January, the Danish king issued a letter to the Norwegian people, releasing them from their fealty to him. 2140:

On 9 March, the Swedish mission to Copenhagen demanded that Christian Frederik be disinherited from succession to the Danish throne and that European powers should go to war with Denmark unless he disassociated himself from the Norwegian independence movement.

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resolution would for many years block any attempts to revise the Act of Union. A new joint committee was appointed in 1866, but its proposals were rejected in 1871 because it did not provide for equal influence on foreign policy, and would pave the way for a

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the possibility of reuniting Norway and Denmark in the future. A few days later, Christian Frederik warned off a meeting with the Danish foreign minister, pointing out that it would fuel speculation that the prince was motivated by Danish designs on Norway.

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The Union party, a minority of the delegates, believed that Norway would achieve a more independent status within a loose union with Sweden than as part of the Danish monarchy, and that the assembly should continue its work even after the constitution was

1801:. His success as a military commander and as leader of the provisional government made him very popular in Norway. Moreover, his Swedish adversaries noticed his merits and his popularity, and in 1809 chose him as successor to the Swedish throne after King 2083:

to governments throughout Europe, assuring them that he was not leading a Danish conspiracy to reverse the terms of the treaty of Kiel, and that his efforts reflected the Norwegian will for self-determination. He also sought a secret accommodation with

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The next viceroys were also Swedes, and this consistent policy during the first 15 years of the Union was resented in Norway. From 1829 onwards, the viceroys were Norwegians, until the office was left vacant after 1856, and finally abolished in 1873.

1778:. The Danish were forced to surrender the navy after heavy bombardment, because the army was at the southern border to defend it against a possible French attack. As Sweden in the meantime had sided with the British, Denmark-Norway was forced by 3085:

customs duties, and the result was a considerable diminution of trade across the border. Count Lewenhaupt, the Swedish minister of foreign affairs, who was considered to be too friendly towards the Norwegians, resigned and was replaced by Count

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The middle years of the 19th century were peaceful ones for the Union. All the symbolic questions had been settled, Norway had obtained more influence on foreign policy, the office of viceroy or governor was kept vacant or filled by Norwegian

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resignation. The king, however, declared he could not accept their resignation, "as no other cabinet can now be formed". The ministers refused to obey his demand that they countersign his decision, and immediately left for Christiania.

2688:. Norwegians considered it offensive that it was also displayed on Swedish coins and government documents, as if Norway was an integral part of Sweden. They also resented the fact that the king's title on Norwegian coins until 1819 was 2125:, the most prominent member of the Norwegian nobility, had been in Denmark to organize food supplies for the starving population while Prince Christian Frederik staged his insurrection. On his return trip he took time off to see Count 1886:

of 3 March 1813. Some weeks later, Russia gave her guarantee to the same effect, and in April Prussia also promised Norway as his prize for joining the battle against Napoleon. In the meantime, Sweden obliged its allies by joining the

2630:

The most controversial political issue during the early reign of Charles John was the question of how to settle the national debt of Denmark-Norway. The impoverished Norwegian state tried to defer or reduce the payment of 3 million

2540:

the Swedish constitution to be revised. Therefore, a bilateral treaty had to be negotiated in order to clarify procedures for treating constitutional questions that had to be decided jointly by both governments. The Act of Union (

2327:, effectively putting Sweden at war with Norway. The following day, Christian Frederik rejected the Swedish ultimatum, saying that surrender would constitute treason against the people. On 29 July, Swedish forces invaded Norway. 3305:

Both parliaments soon ratified the agreement and revoked the Act of Union on 16 October. Ten days later, King Oscar renounced all claims to the Norwegian crown for himself and his successors. The Storting asked Oscar to allow a

924:

The written Norwegian language ceased to exist in the first half of the 16th century and was replaced by Danish. Written Danish was still used during the union with Sweden, but was slightly norwegianized through the creation of

3096:

The new elections to the Riksdag of 1900 showed clearly that the Swedish people were not inclined to follow the ultraconservative "patriotic" party, which resulted in the resignation of the two leaders of that party, Professor

2962:

as a unified region or a single nation, based on the common linguistic, political, and cultural heritage of the Scandinavian countries. (These three countries are referred to as "three brothers" in the sixth stanza of the

2298:(a distant cousin of Christian Frederik) favored a Swedish-Norwegian union but without Bernadotte as king, and that the United Kingdom was looking for a solution that would keep Norway out of Russia's sphere of influence. 2215:

had been established as the basis of the constitution. The first draft of the constitution was signed by the drafting committee on 1 May. Key precepts of the constitution included the assurance of individual freedom, the

1876:

with Russia against France and Denmark-Norway. His foreign policy provoked some criticism among Swedish politicians, who found it immoral to indemnify Sweden at the expense of a weaker friendly neighbor. Moreover, the

2323:

Crown Prince was outraged. He reiterated his ultimatum that Christian Frederik either relinquish all rights to the throne and abandon the border posts or face war. On 27 July, a Swedish fleet took over the islands of

2235:

from entering the kingdom. But the Independence party lost another battle when the assembly voted 98 to 11 to allow the monarch to reign over another country with the assent of two-thirds of the legislative assembly.

1840:. Christian August was elected Crown Prince of Sweden on 29 December 1809 and left Norway on 7 January 1810. After his sudden death in May 1810, Sweden chose as his successor another enemy general, the French marshal 2179:

or "the Prince's party", and on the other hand, the "Union party", also known as the "Swedish party". All delegates agreed that independence would be the ideal solution, but they disagreed on what was feasible.

1746:

Sweden and Denmark-Norway strenuously attempted to remain neutral during the Napoleonic wars, and succeeded for a long time, in spite of many invitations to join the belligerent alliances. Both countries joined

1602:. During the following centuries, Norway remained united with Denmark in close union, nominally as one kingdom, but in reality reduced to the status of a mere province ruled by Danish kings from their capital, 2967:.) This elite movement was initiated by Danish and Swedish university students in the 1840s. In the beginning, the political establishments in the two countries were suspicious of the movement. However, when 2512:

The increasing democratization of Norway would in time tend to drive the political systems of Norway and Sweden farther apart, complicate the cooperation between the two countries, and ultimately lead to the

2319:

delegation rejected Christian Frederik's proposal that Norway's constitution form the basis for negotiations about a union with Sweden but promised to put the proposal to the Swedish king for consideration.

1648:

During the eighteenth century, Norway enjoyed a period of great prosperity and became an increasingly important part of the union. The industry with the largest growth was that of the export of planks, with

1830:

on 17 September 1809. In the meantime, discontent with the conduct of the war led to the deposition of King Gustav IV on 13 May 1809. Prince Christian August, the enemy commander who had been promoted to

1808: 2944:, the first railway connection across the border, greatly sped up communications. A political climate of conciliation was advanced by Swedish concessions on the issue of equality between the countries. 2509:. Popular participation in government gave more citizens administrative and political experience, and they would eventually promote their own causes, often in opposition to the class of civil servants. 3064:

government proposed separate consular services, and negotiations with Sweden were initiated. But royal opposition caused a series of cabinet crises until a coalition government was formed in 1895 with

2393:

On 3 September the British announced that the naval blockade of Norway was lifted. Postal service between Norway and Sweden was resumed. The Swedish general in the occupied border regions of Norway,

2016:

in the preceding days had put pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement in order to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. Bernadotte sent a letter to the governments of Prussia,

3310:

prince to accede to the Norwegian throne in hopes of reconciliation, but Oscar turned this offer down. The Storting then offered the vacant throne to Prince Carl of Denmark, who accepted after

3151:

was appointed regent, and on 13 February appeared in Christiania to try to save the Union. During his month in Christiania, he had several meetings with the government and the parliamentary

1610:

in 1660, a more centralized form of government was established, but Norway kept some separate institutions, including its own laws, army, and coinage. The united kingdoms are referred to as

2760: 2427:

consuls, a decision that later would have serious consequences. The Storting adopted the constitutional amendments that were required to allow for the union on 4 November and unanimously

1872:

of Sweden was the acquisition of Norway, and he pursued that goal by definitively renouncing Sweden's claims in Finland and joining the enemies of Napoleon. In 1812, he signed the secret

2903: 264: 2575:, who had been prominent among the Norwegians who framed the constitution, and had openly declared himself to be in favor of the Union. The Norwegian government acquired a town house, 2972:

support in the form of a Norwegian-Swedish expeditionary force, though the force never saw combat. The movement received a blow from which it never fully recovered after the second

3130:

were presented to the joint council of state on 11 December, raising hopes that a solution was imminent. King Oscar asked the governments to work out proposals for identical laws.

2099:, but he persisted in his mission to convince his contacts among British aristocrats and politicians of Norway's cause. He succeeded in introducing that cause in Parliament, where 2700:

in all documents relating to Norwegian matters. The proposals of a joint committee with regard to flags and arm were enacted for both countries. A union mark was placed in the

2915: 2772: 2471:

An important feature of the Union was that Norway had a more democratic constitution than Sweden. The Norwegian constitution of 1814 adhered more strictly to the principle of

3519: 3060:

The liberals won a great majority in the elections of 1891 on a program of universal suffrage for all men and a separate Norwegian foreign service. As a first step, the new

2848: 3931: 3243: 2514: 1467: 663: 3203: 1941: 1707: 70: 2748: 2872: 2836: 5251: 2401:

to avoid the appearance that Norway had a new king until the transition was formalized. Björnstjerna sent several missives threatening to resume hostilities.

3069:

consuls in 1895. That miserable retreat convinced the government that the armed forces had been neglected too long, and rapid rearmament was initiated. Four

2091:

returned to Sweden. The next day, church bells in Christiania rang for a full hour, and the city's citizens convened to swear fealty to Christian Frederik.

5072: 3785: 3761: 3290: 2114:

By early March, Christian Frederik had also organized a cabinet and five government departments, though he retained all decision-making authority himself.

2057:

Christian Frederik, hereditary prince of Denmark and Norway, King of Norway May–October 1814, and King of Denmark (as Christian VIII) 1839–48. Portrait by

2021: 1878: 1501: 1473:

The two states kept separate constitutions, laws, legislatures, administrations, state churches, armed forces, and currencies; the kings mostly resided in

2591:, who had already at the conclusion of the Kiel treaty been appointed governor-general of Norway when the expected Swedish occupation would be effective. 3093:. However, when the Storting in 1898 for the third time passed a bill for a "pure" flag without the Union badge, it became law without royal sanction. 2884: 2133: 5326: 5316: 5306: 1815:, Marshal of France, Crown Prince of Sweden in 1810 and Norway in 1814, and King of Sweden and Norway in 1818. Portrait by Joseph Nicolas Jouy, after 2603: 2394: 4589: 4206: 3843: 3302:, that a neutral zone should be established on both sides of the border, and that the Norwegian fortifications in the zone were to be demolished. 2788: 2247:

in Norway. The election was unanimous, but several of the delegates had asked that it be postponed until the political situation had stabilized.

2096: 2227:

faith, that its monarch must always have professed himself to this faith (thereby prevent the Catholic-born Bernadotte from being king) and that

1985:

On 7 January, on the verge of being overrun by Swedish, Russian, and German troops under the command of the elected crown prince of Sweden, King

229: 5321: 5311: 5301: 5197: 4049: 3497: 2315:

made the famous comment: "The people? What do they have to say against the will of their rulers? That would be to put the world on its head."

2108: 1790: 1481:: Swedes until 1829, Norwegians until 1856. That office was later vacant and then abolished in 1873. Foreign policy was conducted through the 117: 4710: 4024: 3690: 3670: 3650: 3630: 3610: 2736: 1482: 1406: 5331: 4727: 3260: 89: 5351: 5286: 5281: 4784: 2800: 4907: 4690: 4145: 2122: 2373:

but the Norwegian forces were ordered to retreat. Peace negotiations with Swedish envoys began in Moss on 10 August. On 14 August, the

96: 4830: 4075: 4034: 3311: 2958:

was at its height during this period and contributed to increasing rapprochement between the Union partners. It supported the idea of

1556: 4722: 4717: 4635: 4630: 2259:

Swedish Crown Prince Charles John (Bernadotte), who staunchly opposed Norwegian independence, only to offer generous terms of a union

1789:

severed communications between Denmark and Norway, a provisional Norwegian government was set up in Christiania, led by army general

1516:, the King of Denmark-Norway was forced to cede Norway to the King of Sweden, but Norway refused to submit to the treaty provisions, 1173: 4191: 3739: 3724: 3229: 2724: 1967: 1873: 1756: 1733: 136: 4620: 3899: 3523: 1547:, to revise the Constitution in order to allow for a personal union with Sweden. On 4 November the Storting elected Sweden's king, 1536: 3807:"Treaty between Her Majesty, the Emperor of the French, and the King of Sweden and Norway. Signed at Stockholm, November 21, 1855" 2860: 4789: 4518: 4320: 4029: 2422:

One day before the cease-fire would expire, the Storting voted 72 to 5 to join Sweden in a personal union, but a motion to elect

2013: 1822:

One factor contributing to the poor performance of the Swedish invasion force in Norway was that Russia at the same time invaded

1563:

as the new king of Norway, he accepted the Storting's offer of the throne on 18 November and took the regnal name of Haakon VII.

103: 4685: 5276: 5261: 5256: 2664: 2204:

delegates disagreed on whether to consider the sentiments of the European powers; some facts may have been withheld from them.

1146: 4480: 4090: 3207: 2636:

1821. His father-in-law, prime minister Peder Anker, resigned soon after because he felt that he was distrusted by the king.

2162: 1945: 1711: 74: 85: 4938: 4867: 4234: 4110: 3951: 2812: 1661:

The Swedish policy during the same period was to cultivate contacts in Norway and encourage all signs of separatism. King

1607: 5346: 4986: 4254: 3904: 3803:, hosted at the University of Oslo and including the texts of the Treaties of Stockholm (1813) and St. Petersburg (1813) 2336: 1066: 3541: 31: 5296: 5291: 5057: 4948: 4845: 4695: 4582: 4350: 4196: 4105: 4095: 3941: 3936: 3836: 3567: 3362: 2357:, an important tactical victory for the Norwegians. The Swedish assaults from the east were effectively resisted near 2100: 1775: 1760: 1278: 650: 2984:

to retract the promise of military support that he had given to the king of Denmark without consulting his cabinets.

2563:

According to the Norwegian constitution, the king was to appoint his own cabinet. Because the king mostly resided in

2345:. The first hostilities were short and ended with decisive victories for Sweden. By 4 August, the fortified city of 1894:

During his campaigns on the Continent, Charles John successfully led the Allied Army of the North in its defense of

5341: 5010: 4705: 4496: 4288: 4239: 4186: 3332: 3070: 2964: 2608: 2451: 2244: 1883: 1869: 1841: 1826:

on 21 February 1808. The two-front war proved disastrous for Sweden, and all of Finland was ceded to Russia at the

1763:

in April 1801, but still stuck to a policy of neutrality. However, the league collapsed after the assassination of

1665:(1746–1792) actively approached any circle in Norway that might favor a union with Sweden instead of with Denmark. 1283: 632: 505: 2824: 2521:(statsråd). A watershed in this process came in 1884, when Norway became the first Scandinavian monarchy to adopt 1543:

compelled Christian Frederick to abdicate after calling an extraordinary session of the Norwegian Parliament, the

5182: 4882: 4769: 4700: 4465: 4201: 4039: 4019: 4009: 2037: 1816: 1399: 367: 35: 5336: 5271: 5266: 4799: 4759: 4749: 4470: 4300: 4150: 4140: 4044: 4004: 3921: 3879: 3327: 3192: 2312: 1930: 1696: 1650: 1621:, and in the middle of the 17th century rose to the status of a major regional power after the intervention of 1517: 1263: 835: 3041:. The cabinet was accused of assisting the king in obstructing reform by veto. The new liberal government of 110: 4961: 4774: 4506: 4335: 4115: 4014: 3211: 3196: 3038: 2973: 2208: 2196: 1986: 1949: 1934: 1715: 1700: 1109: 463: 63: 4971: 3256:

was erected on the city square in 1955, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the dissolution of the union.

3134:

communiqué, foreign minister Lagerheim, resigned on 7 November because of disagreement with prime minister

3045:

was reluctantly installed by King Oscar. It immediately implemented important reforms, among them extended

2192: 5177: 5130: 5115: 5082: 5052: 5037: 4850: 4835: 4660: 4575: 4501: 4460: 4395: 4310: 4264: 4125: 4085: 4080: 3973: 3829: 3458: 3454: 3352: 3135: 3080:

Swedish and Norwegian flags in 1899, after the removal of the union badge from the merchant flag of Norway

2933: 2685: 2681: 2476: 2460: 2423: 2240: 1857: 1827: 1655: 1587: 1528: 1202: 1197: 1046: 955: 951: 636: 569: 493: 346: 39: 5062: 5047: 4933: 4855: 4475: 4330: 4120: 3889: 3367: 3110: 3106: 2990: 2710: 2588: 2295: 2132: 2126: 1288: 1091: 753: 3049:

and compulsory military service. The two opposite groups established formal political parties in 1884,

3011: 2341:

Swedish forces met little resistance as they advanced northward into Norway, bypassing the fortress of

2286:

On 16 June, Carsten Anker wrote to Christian Frederik about his recent discussions with a high-ranking

1668:

Such endeavors on both sides of the border toward a "rapprochement" were far from realistic before the

1477:, where foreign diplomatic representations were located. The Norwegian government was presided over by 3423:, a co-official language since 1885. Though the union had no official name in Landsmål, terms such as 3138:

and his other colleagues. Boström now appeared on his own in Christiania and presented his unexpected

2065:

On 10 February, Christian Frederik invited prominent Norwegians to a meeting to be held at his friend

5157: 5027: 4892: 4862: 4450: 4340: 4155: 3447:(including variations) were in use (all loosely translate to "The Union between Norway and Sweden"). 2674: 2643:, consistently opposing amendments that would extend royal power or lead to closer ties and eventual 2522: 2518: 2501: 2472: 1662: 1626: 1622: 1392: 1323: 1124: 1076: 977: 529: 3493: 2940:) that promoted free trade and effectively abolished protective tariff walls. The completion of the 5067: 5042: 4991: 4872: 4840: 4794: 4737: 4415: 4345: 4315: 4269: 4244: 4100: 3999: 3994: 3982: 3307: 3157: 2444: 1989:(and of Norway) agreed to cede Norway to the King of Sweden in order to stave off an occupation of 1899: 1771: 1532: 1056: 918:. The majority of the Norwegian cabinet ministers convened in Christiania when the king was absent. 3916: 2639:

The answer from Norwegian politicians to all royal advances was a strict adherence to a policy of

2212: 1493: 1163: 821: 5187: 5162: 5022: 4981: 4902: 4897: 4818: 4804: 4754: 4665: 4645: 4615: 4445: 4372: 4362: 4249: 4130: 4063: 3800: 3347: 3289:

The Norwegian government knew in advance of the Swedish demands, and forestalled it by declaring

3148: 3023: 3016: 2977: 2553: 2374: 2275: 1634: 1591: 1540: 1435: 1237: 1081: 1071: 1061: 541: 474: 470: 409: 3156:

progress, and the conciliatory Hagerup cabinet was replaced with the more unyielding cabinet of

2053: 1759:

in 1800. Denmark-Norway was forced to withdraw from the League after the British victory at the

300: 5216: 5110: 5102: 5087: 4996: 4921: 4764: 4607: 4542: 4430: 4387: 4367: 4274: 4259: 4229: 4169: 3963: 3958: 3894: 3874: 3861: 3806: 3735: 3720: 3686: 3666: 3646: 3626: 3606: 3342: 3337: 2968: 2693: 2648: 2368:. On 7 August, a delegation from Bernadotte arrived at the Norwegian military headquarters in 2354: 2264: 2223:

Following a contentious debate on 4 May, the assembly decided that Norway would adhere to the

2217: 2142: 2058: 1903: 1497: 1242: 1119: 1096: 1086: 722: 517: 417: 313: 5125: 4976: 4943: 4425: 4325: 4181: 3869: 2941: 2506: 2439: 2000:, in which Denmark negotiated to maintain sovereignty over the Norwegian possessions of the 1844:, who was also seen as a gallant adversary and had proved his ability as an army commander. 1812: 1764: 1427: 1273: 1131: 1114: 448: 435: 421: 405: 174: 2263:

On 22 May, the newly elected king made a triumphant entrance into Christiania. The guns of

2243:

was signed on 18 May, the unanimous election of Christian Frederik on 17 May is considered

5225: 5192: 5172: 5167: 5147: 5135: 5092: 5032: 4779: 4551: 4455: 4440: 4377: 4305: 4211: 3946: 3467:

in his 1879 translation of the union act. In this translation the united throne is called

3387: 3090: 3076: 3065: 3034: 2171: 1888: 1802: 1669: 1579: 1466:

under a common monarch and common foreign policy that lasted from 1814 until its peaceful

765: 598: 413: 17: 3248: 2587:), appointed by the king as his representative. The first to hold that office was count 2306:

On 26 June, emissaries from Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United Kingdom arrived in

2167: 1578:

had been united under the same crown on two previous occasions: from 1319 to 1343 under

5152: 4650: 4640: 4523: 4511: 3357: 3165: 3086: 3061: 3042: 2670: 2616: 2568: 2268: 2104: 1997: 1852: 1641: 1611: 1552: 1513: 1505: 1451: 1351: 1337: 1309: 1178: 1158: 615: 452: 439: 381: 355: 254: 247: 236: 191: 3775: 3751: 3314:

had confirmed the monarchy. He arrived in Norway on 25 November 1905, taking the name

2207:

By 20 April, the principle of the people's right to self-determination articulated by

5245: 5230: 4953: 4877: 4670: 4556: 4400: 3780: 3756: 3282: 2701: 2307: 2232: 2066: 2001: 1583: 1379: 1365: 734: 3109:

as members of the First Chamber. On the other hand, ex-Professor E. Carlson, of the

2571:

had to be present there, accompanied by two ministers. The first prime minister was

2364:

On 3 August Christian Frederik announced his political will in a cabinet meeting in

910:(usually some months each year). He received ministers from both countries in Union 5140: 4966: 4675: 4655: 4625: 4435: 4224: 3911: 3810: 3770: 3746: 3102: 2955: 2365: 1595: 1548: 1268: 1231: 1153: 628: 325: 291: 3073:

were ordered from the United Kingdom, and border fortifications were constructed.

993: 5120: 4219: 3416: 3181: 2959: 2632: 2572: 2480: 2358: 2353:

river. The Swedish Army, in trying to intercept the retreat, was stopped at the

2346: 2342: 2255: 1919: 1906:. He then marched against Denmark to force the Danish King to surrender Norway. 1837: 1798: 1685: 1630: 1618: 985: 963: 934: 602: 208: 52: 2464:

Norway, aided by the same powers, essentially dictated the terms of the Union.

1512:

in 1809 and as a reward for joining the alliance against Napoleon. By the 1814

1508:

to consent to Sweden's annexation of the realm as compensation for the loss of

4357: 3884: 3315: 3278: 3114: 3098: 3000: 2981: 2779: 2415: 2228: 1645:

wars and invasions led to popular resentment against Sweden among Norwegians.

1603: 1560: 1207: 1136: 3057:(Right) for conservatives, who wanted to retain a union of two equal states. 3537: 3395: 3299: 3264:

Norwegian soldiers at the border in September 1905. Photo by Narve Skarpmoen

2564: 2534: 2484: 2369: 2009: 1474: 1212: 903: 391: 3563: 3391: 3281:, had declared themselves in favor. The Riksdag also voted for 100 million 2450:

The new king never set foot in his Norwegian kingdom, but his adopted heir

3298:

should in the future be referred to the permanent court of arbitration at

3037:

in 1884, after an impeachment process against the conservative cabinet of

2947: 4135: 3716: 3294: 3253: 3046: 2411: 2280: 2279:

that Morier wanted Bernadotte deposed and exiled to the Danish island of

2224: 2084: 2070: 1786: 1779: 1672:

created conditions that caused great political upheavals in Scandinavia.

1544: 1521: 1455: 1141: 930: 585: 3789:. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 210. 3765:. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 809. 2980:

in 1864, when the Swedish and Norwegian governments jointly forced King

2377:

was concluded: a general ceasefire based effectively on terms of peace.

2136:

Count Johan Caspar Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg, who warned Christian Frederik

4887: 3645:. In: ' 'Aschehougs Norges Historie' ', Vol. 8, pp. 192–93, Oslo. 3420: 2580: 2291: 2287: 2033: 2017: 2005: 1990: 1832: 1823: 1794: 1752: 1599: 1509: 1489: 1478: 1021: 1014: 1008: 926: 3605:. In: ' 'Aschehougs Norges Historie' ', Vol. 7, pp. 227–28, Oslo 1891:

and declaring war against France and Denmark-Norway on 24 March 1813.

5077: 4598: 3852: 2612: 2350: 2324: 2294:

were waning in their support of Sweden's claims to Norway, that Tsar

1895: 1861: 1748: 1575: 1571: 1463: 1459: 1032: 1027: 959: 891: 887: 862: 848: 807: 3277:

for the dissolution of the Union if the Norwegian people, through a

2431:

Charles XIII King of Norway, rather than acknowledging him as such.

2267:

sounded the royal salute, and a celebratory service was held in the

1617:

Sweden broke out of the Kalmar Union permanently in 1523 under King

30:"Sweden–Norway" redirects here. For modern bilateral relations, see 3713:

Union och demokrati: de förenade rikena Sverige och Norge 1814–1905

3520:"SSB – 100 års ensomhet? Norge og Sverige 1905–2005 (in Norwegian)" 2692:. All of these questions were resolved after the accession of King 4567: 4405: 3821: 3259: 3247: 3075: 3010: 2946: 2669:

Another bone of contention was the question of national symbols –

2602: 2438: 2254: 2191: 2166: 2131: 2052: 1851: 1807: 2951:

Poster promoting Scandinavism between Norway, Sweden, and Denmark

2624: 2455: 2075: 907: 395: 4571: 3825: 3053:(Left) for the liberals, who wanted to dissolve the Union, and 2074:

and that he should act as a regent for the time being. Back in

3175: 1913: 1679: 46: 3774: 3750: 3732:

Union og demokrati: Dei sameinte rika Noreg-Sverige 1814–1905

3706:

Sweden and Visions of Norway: Politics and Culture, 1814–1905

3029:

In Norway, dissension on constitutional questions led to the

2854:

Naval ensign of Norway (1844–1905) and state flag (1844–1899)

2028:

Attempted coup d'état by Hereditary Prince Christian Frederik

2766:

State flag and naval ensign of Sweden and Norway (1815–1844)

2713:

to show that it was a union between two sovereign kingdoms.

1996:

These terms were formalized and signed on 14 January at the

2936:, and trade between the countries prospered from treaties ( 2027: 1774:

after the second British attack on the Danish navy at the

1640:

Following the dissolution of the Kalmar Union, Sweden and

2349:

surrendered. Christian Frederik ordered a retreat to the

2199:, at 32, was credited as being the constitution's father. 3681:

Seip, Anne-Lise, 1997: "Nasjonen bygges 1830–1870". In:

3661:

Seip, Anne-Lise, 1997: "Nasjonen bygges 1830–1870". In:

2680:

Soon after the Treaty of Kiel, Sweden had included the

1868:

The chief objective of Bernadotte's foreign policy as

3089:, who represented the opinion of the majority in the 2414:

convened. Delegates from areas occupied by Sweden in

966:, where the cabinet needed support from the majority. 929:

in the latter half of the 19th century. In 1885, the

27:

Personal union of Sweden and Norway from 1814 to 1905

1633:, however, led to the loss of that status after the 5101: 5009: 4920: 4817: 4736: 4606: 4489: 4386: 4287: 4168: 4062: 3981: 3860: 3453:was the term used by the prominent Landsmål author 3022:The relations with Norway during the reign of King 2405:

Fulfilling the conditions of the Convention of Moss

2049:

The independence movement grows under threat of war

1770:Denmark-Norway was compelled into an alliance with 944:

1905: 5,260,000 in Sweden, and 2,300,000 in Norway.

937:

as an official written language on par with Danish.

883: 710: 696: 686: 677: 660: 647: 625: 612: 593: 577: 561: 551: 535: 523: 511: 499: 487: 469: 459: 427: 401: 387: 377: 151: 77:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3244:Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden 2515:dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden 1882:countenance the union of Norway and Sweden by the 3801:"Debating the Treaty of Stockholm, 3d March 1813" 2842:State flag and naval ensign of Sweden (1844–1905) 2419:amendments to the Constitution could be enacted. 2107:on 10 May. His arguments were also voiced in the 1848:Sweden seeks compensation for the loss of Finland 942:1820: 2,585,000 in Sweden, and 970,000 in Norway. 2552:The conditions of the Union as laid down in the 2251:Search for domestic and international legitimacy 34:. For the border between the two countries, see 2696:in 1844. He immediately began to use the title 2174:: The Norwegian Constitutional Assembly in 1814 1836:that country was hard pressed by Russia in the 914:, or separately in purely Swedish or Norwegian 763: 583: 2118:Christian Frederik meets increasing opposition 1782:to declare war on Sweden on 29 February 1808. 4583: 3837: 3468: 3462: 3448: 3442: 3436: 3430: 3424: 3406:(i.e. "The Union between Norway and Sweden"). 2505:, corresponding to the parishes of the State 1400: 732: 720: 567: 353: 344: 311: 199: 164: 8: 3473:("The united thrones of Norway and Sweden"). 1485:until the dissolution of the union in 1905. 751: 298: 289: 182: 3470:Dei einade kongsstolarne i Noreg og Sverige 3210:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1948:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1714:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 954:until 1866, when it was transformed into a 5015: 4926: 4823: 4742: 4590: 4576: 4568: 4293: 4174: 4068: 3987: 3844: 3830: 3822: 1582:and again briefly from 1449 to 1450 under 1407: 1393: 972: 366: 148: 4156:Membership of International organizations 3230:Learn how and when to remove this message 1968:Learn how and when to remove this message 1734:Learn how and when to remove this message 1520:, and convoked a constituent assembly at 137:Learn how and when to remove this message 2921:Union and royal coat of arms (1844–1905) 3485: 3379: 2899: 2720: 1791:Prince Christian August of Augustenborg 1488:Norway had been in a closer union with 984: 676: 576: 2909:Royal Swedish coat of arms (1814–1844) 2567:, a section of the cabinet led by the 2290:diplomat. He learned that Prussia and 1902:to take the city, and at the decisive 1900:defeating two separate French attempts 3776:"Sweden s.v. Union with Norway" 3570:from the original on 26 December 2018 2754:Flag of Sweden and Norway (1818–1844) 2443:Map of Norway and Sweden in 1847, by 2395:Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna 695: 685: 681: 659: 646: 624: 611: 607: 560: 534: 522: 510: 498: 486: 482: 468: 7: 5252:United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway 3588:Hertzberg, E., 1906: "Unionen". In: 3544:from the original on 5 November 2016 3208:adding citations to reliable sources 2890:Royal standard in Norway (1844–1905) 2878:Royal standard in Sweden (1844–1905) 2730:State flag of Sweden (pre-1814–1815) 2103:spoke for almost three hours in the 1946:adding citations to reliable sources 1712:adding citations to reliable sources 1444:United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway 75:adding citations to reliable sources 3623:Stormannen Peder Anker. En biografi 3500:from the original on 3 October 2008 3404:Foreningen imellem Norge og Sverige 2866:State flag of Norway (1899–present) 2709:royal crowns were placed above the 1676:Consequences of the Napoleonic Wars 1629:. The ambitious wars waged by King 38:. For the geographical region, see 3601:Dyrvik. S. and Feldbæk, O., 1996: 25: 3450:Samfestet millom Norig og Sverike 86:"Union between Sweden and Norway" 5327:1905 disestablishments in Europe 5317:1905 disestablishments in Norway 5307:1905 disestablishments in Sweden 3972: 3592:, Vol. XVII, p. 1043, Copenhagen 3590:Salmonsens Konversationsleksikon 3464:Sambande millom Noreg og Sverige 3180: 3121:Final attempts to save the Union 2914: 2902: 2883: 2871: 2859: 2847: 2835: 2823: 2811: 2799: 2787: 2771: 2759: 2747: 2735: 2723: 2274:On 5 June, the British emissary 2239:Although the final edict of the 1918: 1684: 1373: 1359: 1345: 1331: 1317: 1303: 992: 902:The king resided alternately in 867: 853: 828: 814: 800: 263: 235: 228: 51: 2782:and diplomatic flag (1844–1905) 2665:Union mark of Norway and Sweden 62:needs additional citations for 2927:Zenith of the Union, 1844–1860 2647:with Sweden, instead favoring 2163:Norwegian Constituent Assembly 1535:was elected king. The ensuing 1527:After the adoption of the new 1: 5322:1814 establishments in Europe 5312:1814 establishments in Norway 5302:1814 establishments in Sweden 3952:Norwegian government-in-exile 3752:"Norway s.v. 1814–1907" 3685:, Vol. 8, pp. 201–203, Oslo. 3665:, Vol. 8, pp. 199–201, Oslo. 2830:Flag of Norway (1899–present) 2499:1837, creating the 373 rural 2410:extraordinary session of the 2157:The constitutional convention 2036:of Norway, Hereditary Prince 1606:. After the establishment of 952:diet composed of four estates 3905:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway 3900:Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) 2337:Swedish-Norwegian War (1814) 2331:A short war with two winners 1594:who was elected king of the 1537:Swedish–Norwegian War (1814) 579:• Norwegian legislature 5352:Former monarchies of Europe 5287:Political history of Norway 5282:Political history of Sweden 3363:Sweden in Union with Norway 2641:constitutional conservatism 1776:Second Battle of Copenhagen 1559:confirming the election of 1440:Den svensk-norske union(en) 5368: 4636:Rise to become Great Power 3683:Aschehougs Norges Historie 3663:Aschehougs Norges Historie 3494:"Skandinaviens befolkning" 3333:List of Norwegian monarchs 3291:a plebiscite for 13 August 3241: 2818:Flag of Norway (1844–1899) 2806:Flag of Norway (1821–1844) 2794:Flag of Sweden (1844–1905) 2742:Flag of Norway (1814–1821) 2662: 2599:Amalgamation or separation 2532: 2334: 2160: 1874:Treaty of Saint Petersburg 1761:First Battle of Copenhagen 1757:League of Armed Neutrality 962:Storting was a unicameral 950:The Swedish Riksdag was a 563:• Swedish legislature 242: 29: 18:Union of Sweden and Norway 5210: 5018: 4929: 4826: 4745: 4536: 4296: 4177: 4071: 3990: 3970: 3643:Nasjonen bygges 1830–1870 2965:national anthem of Norway 2698:king of Norway and Sweden 2690:king of Sweden and Norway 2313:August Ernst Steigentesch 1870:Crown Prince Charles John 897: 779: 764: 752: 733: 721: 706: 682: 673: 608: 584: 568: 547: 483: 464:Constitutional monarchies 365: 354: 345: 312: 299: 290: 279: 224: 219: 4076:Administrative divisions 3922:Kingdom of Norway (1814) 3621:Frydenlund, Bård, 2009: 3328:List of Swedish monarchs 3172:Dissolution of the Union 1842:Jean Baptiste Bernadotte 1813:Jean Baptiste Bernadotte 1483:Swedish foreign ministry 5332:Norway–Sweden relations 4831:Administrative division 4192:Government Pension Fund 3786:Encyclopædia Britannica 3762:Encyclopædia Britannica 3641:Seip, Anne-Lise, 1997: 3625:., pp. 254, 263, Oslo. 3603:Mellom brødre 1780–1830 3444:millom Norig og Sverike 3039:Christian August Selmer 2233:Jesuits would be barred 2209:Christian Magnus Falsen 2197:Christian Magnus Falsen 2032:Already in Norway, the 1987:Frederick VI of Denmark 1531:on 17 May 1814, Prince 32:Norway–Sweden relations 5277:History of Scandinavia 5262:19th century in Sweden 5257:19th century in Norway 4661:December Crisis (1768) 3469: 3463: 3455:Aasmund Olavsson Vinje 3449: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3399: 3353:History of Scandinavia 3265: 3257: 3252:The peace monument of 3081: 3019: 3007:Prelude to dissolution 2952: 2686:Coat of arms of Sweden 2682:Coat of arms of Norway 2619: 2461:Riksdag of the Estates 2447: 2260: 2200: 2175: 2137: 2062: 1865: 1819: 1817:François-Joseph Kinson 1656:Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg 1561:Prince Carl of Denmark 1529:Constitution of Norway 1439: 1431: 637:Constitution of Norway 200: 184:De forenede Kongeriger 183: 166:Förenade Konungarikena 165: 40:Scandinavian Peninsula 3771:Gosse, Edmund William 3747:Gosse, Edmund William 3419:, the predecessor of 3390:, the predecessor of 3368:Union Dissolution Day 3263: 3251: 3111:Gothenburg University 3079: 3014: 2991:Nya Dagligt Allehanda 2950: 2611:(Charles III John in 2606: 2589:Hans Henrik von Essen 2548:The Union in practice 2442: 2296:Alexander I of Russia 2258: 2195: 2170: 2135: 2127:Hans Henrik von Essen 2123:Count Wedel-Jarlsberg 2056: 1855: 1828:Peace of Fredrikshamn 1811: 1614:by later historians. 1518:declared independence 1432:Svensk-norska unionen 1289:Scandinavian Airlines 1104:Chronological history 956:bicameral legislature 631:of Sweden elected as 402:Common languages 372:Sweden–Norway in 1904 5198:World Heritage Sites 4481:Romantic nationalism 4091:Correctional Service 4050:World Heritage Sites 3734:. Oslo, Pax Forlag. 3526:on 19 November 2014. 3204:improve this section 2675:Battle of the Square 2502:Formannskapsdistrikt 2473:separation of powers 2385:An uneasy cease-fire 1942:improve this section 1785:Because the British 1708:improve this section 1623:Gustavus II Adolphus 506:Charles XIV/III John 71:improve this article 36:Norway–Sweden border 5347:Former state unions 4939:Automotive industry 4686:Famine of 1867–1869 4681:Sweden–Norway union 3742:(Norwegian edition) 3730:Stråth, Bo (2005): 3711:Stråth, Bo (2005): 3704:Barton, H. Arnold. 3566:. World Statesmen. 3540:. World Statesmen. 3459:Olav Jakobsen Høyem 3158:Christian Michelsen 3136:Erik Gustaf Boström 3101:and Court Marshal ( 2934:Severin Løvenskiold 2445:Peter Andreas Munch 1884:Treaty of Stockholm 1533:Christian Frederick 1468:dissolution in 1905 1446:, and known as the 347:Bevare Gud vår kung 5297:Monarchy of Sweden 5292:Monarchy of Norway 4987:Telecommunications 4972:Rehn–Meidner model 4785:Metropolitan areas 4666:Revolution of 1772 4646:Great Northern War 4446:Norwegian language 4255:Telecommunications 3942:Reichskommissariat 3708:(SIU Press, 2003). 3348:History of Denmark 3312:another plebiscite 3266: 3258: 3107:Patric Reuterswärd 3082: 3020: 2953: 2620: 2554:Convention of Moss 2523:parliamentary rule 2448: 2375:Convention of Moss 2276:John Philip Morier 2261: 2201: 2176: 2138: 2063: 2038:Christian Frederik 2014:British government 1866: 1820: 1635:Great Northern War 1541:Convention of Moss 1442:), officially the 1052:History by country 270:Royal coat of arms 5342:Former monarchies 5239: 5238: 5206: 5205: 5058:Human trafficking 5005: 5004: 4949:Income inequality 4916: 4915: 4908:Political parties 4846:Foreign relations 4813: 4812: 4696:Industrialization 4565: 4564: 4532: 4531: 4351:language conflict 4283: 4282: 4230:Norwegian paradox 4164: 4163: 4146:Political parties 4106:Foreign relations 4058: 4057: 3727:(Swedish edition) 3691:978-82-03-22021-0 3671:978-82-03-22021-0 3651:978-82-03-22021-0 3631:978-82-03-21084-6 3611:978-82-03-22020-3 3343:History of Sweden 3338:History of Norway 3240: 3239: 3232: 3153:Special Committee 2974:Danish-German war 2649:regional autonomy 2355:battle of Langnes 2265:Akershus Fortress 2218:right to property 2143:Niels Rosenkrantz 2059:Johan Ludwig Lund 1978: 1977: 1970: 1904:Battle of Leipzig 1744: 1743: 1736: 1627:Thirty Years' War 1586:in opposition to 1498:Napoleonic France 1496:'s alliance with 1420:Sweden and Norway 1417: 1416: 971: 970: 879: 878: 875: 874: 841: 840: 537:• 1872–1905 525:• 1859–1872 513:• 1844–1859 501:• 1818–1844 489:• 1814–1818 314:Du gamla, du fria 168:Sverige och Norge 158:Sweden and Norway 147: 146: 139: 121: 16:(Redirected from 5359: 5219: 5016: 4957: 4927: 4824: 4743: 4592: 4585: 4578: 4569: 4545: 4421: 4411: 4294: 4240:Renewable energy 4215: 4175: 4069: 3988: 3976: 3932:End of the union 3895:High Middle Ages 3846: 3839: 3832: 3823: 3818: 3816: 3790: 3778: 3766: 3754: 3693: 3679: 3673: 3659: 3653: 3639: 3633: 3619: 3613: 3599: 3593: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3560: 3554: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3522:. Archived from 3516: 3510: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3490: 3474: 3472: 3466: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3428: 3413: 3407: 3402:) uses the term 3384: 3235: 3228: 3224: 3221: 3215: 3184: 3176: 2942:Kongsvinger Line 2918: 2906: 2887: 2875: 2863: 2851: 2839: 2827: 2815: 2803: 2791: 2775: 2763: 2751: 2739: 2727: 2659:National symbols 2609:Charles XIV John 2577:Pechlinska huset 2529:The Act of Union 2519:Council of State 2507:Church of Norway 2497: 2496: 2492: 2245:Constitution Day 2220:, and equality. 2109:House of Commons 1973: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1953: 1922: 1914: 1805:was overthrown. 1739: 1732: 1728: 1725: 1719: 1688: 1680: 1454:of the separate 1409: 1402: 1395: 1382: 1378: 1377: 1376: 1368: 1364: 1363: 1362: 1354: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1340: 1336: 1335: 1334: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1320: 1312: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1274:Nordic countries 1147:Christianization 1132:Migration Period 996: 973: 871: 870: 857: 856: 845: 844: 832: 831: 818: 817: 804: 803: 797: 796: 781: 780: 772: 769: 768: 760: 757: 756: 741: 738: 737: 729: 726: 725: 589: 588: 573: 572: 449:Church of Sweden 436:Church of Norway 370: 359: 358: 350: 349: 317: 316: 304: 303: 295: 294: 267: 239: 232: 214: 213: 212: 205: 203:Norig og Sverike 201:Sambandet millom 196: 195: 188: 186:Norge og Sverige 179: 178: 170: 159: 155: 149: 142: 135: 131: 128: 122: 120: 79: 55: 47: 21: 5367: 5366: 5362: 5361: 5360: 5358: 5357: 5356: 5337:Personal unions 5272:1900s in Sweden 5267:1900s in Norway 5242: 5241: 5240: 5235: 5222: 5215: 5202: 5183:Public holidays 5097: 5073:Life expectancy 5001: 4955: 4912: 4883:Law enforcement 4809: 4732: 4602: 4596: 4566: 4561: 4548: 4541: 4528: 4485: 4466:Public holidays 4419: 4409: 4382: 4279: 4213: 4160: 4081:National budget 4054: 4040:Protected areas 3977: 3968: 3947:Quisling regime 3856: 3850: 3814: 3813: 3797: 3769: 3745: 3701: 3699:Further reading 3696: 3680: 3676: 3660: 3656: 3640: 3636: 3620: 3616: 3600: 3596: 3587: 3583: 3573: 3571: 3562: 3561: 3557: 3547: 3545: 3536: 3535: 3531: 3518: 3517: 3513: 3503: 3501: 3492: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3477: 3414: 3410: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3324: 3246: 3236: 3225: 3219: 3216: 3201: 3185: 3174: 3123: 3066:Francis Hagerup 3035:parliamentarism 3009: 2938:mellomriksloven 2929: 2922: 2919: 2910: 2907: 2898: 2891: 2888: 2879: 2876: 2867: 2864: 2855: 2852: 2843: 2840: 2831: 2828: 2819: 2816: 2807: 2804: 2795: 2792: 2783: 2776: 2767: 2764: 2755: 2752: 2743: 2740: 2731: 2728: 2719: 2684:in the greater 2667: 2661: 2615:). Portrait by 2601: 2550: 2537: 2531: 2494: 2490: 2489: 2437: 2407: 2387: 2339: 2333: 2304: 2253: 2172:Oscar Wergeland 2165: 2159: 2120: 2051: 2030: 1983: 1974: 1963: 1957: 1954: 1939: 1923: 1912: 1889:Sixth Coalition 1860:(Charles II in 1850: 1803:Gustav IV Adolf 1740: 1729: 1723: 1720: 1705: 1689: 1678: 1670:Napoleonic Wars 1580:Magnus Eriksson 1569: 1524:in early 1814. 1448:United Kingdoms 1413: 1374: 1372: 1371: 1360: 1358: 1357: 1346: 1344: 1343: 1332: 1330: 1329: 1318: 1316: 1315: 1304: 1302: 1301: 1294: 1293: 1259: 1251: 1250: 1249: 1234: 1227: 1219: 1218: 1217: 1193: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1174:Denmark–Iceland 1101: 1049: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1004: 967: 945: 943: 938: 919: 890: 868: 854: 829: 815: 801: 775: 770: 758: 744: 739: 727: 699: 689: 669:26 October 1905 666: 664:Union dissolved 656:16 October 1875 653: 643:4 November 1814 640: 621:14 January 1814 618: 599:Napoleonic Wars 580: 564: 538: 526: 514: 502: 494:Charles XIII/II 490: 447: 443: 434: 373: 361: 352: 343: 339: 335: 331: 310: 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agencies 4865: 4860: 4859: 4858: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4827: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4790:National parks 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4760:Extreme points 4757: 4752: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4733: 4731: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4651:Age of Liberty 4648: 4643: 4641:Swedish Empire 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4612: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4601: articles 4597: 4595: 4594: 4587: 4580: 4572: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4559: 4554: 4547: 4546: 4538: 4537: 4534: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4526: 4524:Name of Norway 4521: 4516: 4515: 4514: 4504: 4499: 4493: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4413: 4403: 4398: 4392: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4354: 4353: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4301:Climate change 4297: 4291: 4285: 4284: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 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1924: 1917: 1911: 1908: 1879:United Kingdom 1849: 1846: 1787:naval blockade 1742: 1741: 1692: 1690: 1683: 1677: 1674: 1642:Denmark-Norway 1612:Denmark-Norway 1568: 1565: 1553:King of Norway 1514:Treaty of Kiel 1502:United Kingdom 1494:Denmark–Norway 1452:personal union 1415: 1414: 1412: 1411: 1404: 1397: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1369: 1355: 1341: 1327: 1313: 1296: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1279:Monetary Union 1276: 1271: 1266: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1253: 1252: 1248: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1181: 1179:Nordic Council 1176: 1171: 1166: 1164:Denmark–Norway 1161: 1156: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1144: 1134: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1100: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1050: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1018: 1011: 1005: 1002: 1001: 998: 997: 989: 988: 982: 981: 969: 968: 958:, whereas the 898: 895: 894: 885: 881: 880: 877: 876: 873: 872: 865: 859: 858: 851: 842: 839: 838: 833: 825: 824: 822:Denmark–Norway 819: 811: 810: 805: 793: 792: 787: 777: 776: 774: 773: 761: 748: 743: 742: 730: 717: 712: 708: 707: 704: 703: 700: 697: 694: 693: 690: 687: 684: 683: 680: 679: 675: 674: 671: 670: 667: 661: 658: 657: 654: 651:Monetary union 648: 645: 644: 641: 633:King of Norway 626: 623: 622: 619: 616:Treaty of Kiel 613: 610: 609: 606: 605: 595: 594:Historical era 591: 590: 581: 578: 575: 574: 565: 562: 559: 558: 553: 549: 548: 545: 544: 539: 536: 533: 532: 527: 524: 521: 520: 515: 512: 509: 508: 503: 500: 497: 496: 491: 488: 485: 484: 481: 480: 477: 471:King of Sweden 467: 466: 461: 457: 456: 453:state religion 440:state religion 429: 425: 424: 403: 399: 398: 389: 385: 384: 382:Personal union 379: 375: 374: 371: 363: 362: 323: 277: 276: 269: 262: 261: 255:Flag of Norway 248:Flag of Sweden 243:National flags 241: 234: 227: 226: 225: 222: 221: 217: 216: 192:Dano-Norwegian 161: 152: 145: 144: 59: 57: 50: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5364: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5213: 5209: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5139: 5138: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5100: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5008: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4962:Labour unions 4960: 4958: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4931: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4919: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4828: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4816: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4735: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4712: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4691:Modernization 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4671:Gustavian era 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4593: 4588: 4586: 4581: 4579: 4574: 4573: 4570: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4539: 4535: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4513: 4512:national flag 4510: 4509: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4488: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4385: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4352: 4349: 4348: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4336:Incarceration 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4321:Ethnic groups 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4286: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4220:National bank 4218: 4216: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4179: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4116:Incarceration 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4073: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3992: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3980: 3975: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3939: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3927:Sweden–Norway 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3906: 3903: 3902: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3859: 3854: 3847: 3842: 3840: 3835: 3833: 3828: 3827: 3824: 3812: 3808: 3805: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3744: 3741: 3740:82-530-2752-4 3737: 3733: 3729: 3726: 3725:91-578-0456-7 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3707: 3703: 3702: 3698: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3618: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3582: 3569: 3565: 3559: 3556: 3543: 3539: 3533: 3530: 3525: 3521: 3515: 3512: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3486: 3480: 3471: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3396:The union act 3393: 3389: 3383: 3380: 3373: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3325: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3234: 3231: 3223: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3189:This section 3187: 3183: 3178: 3177: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3161: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3141: 3137: 3131: 3129: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3092: 3091:First Chamber 3088: 3078: 3074: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3027: 3025: 3018: 3013: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3001:federal state 2996: 2993: 2992: 2985: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2949: 2945: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2926: 2917: 2912: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2886: 2881: 2874: 2869: 2862: 2857: 2850: 2845: 2838: 2833: 2826: 2821: 2814: 2809: 2802: 2797: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2774: 2769: 2762: 2757: 2750: 2745: 2738: 2733: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2666: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2634: 2628: 2626: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2555: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2536: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2503: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2446: 2441: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2417: 2413: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2396: 2391: 2384: 2382: 2378: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2338: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2320: 2316: 2314: 2309: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2284: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2270: 2266: 2257: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2219: 2214: 2210: 2205: 2198: 2194: 2186: 2184:independence. 2182: 2181: 2180: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2156: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2144: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2092: 2088: 2086: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2069:'s estate at 2068: 2067:Carsten Anker 2060: 2055: 2048: 2046: 2042: 2039: 2035: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 2002:Faroe Islands 1999: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1980: 1972: 1969: 1961: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1932: 1927:This section 1925: 1921: 1916: 1915: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1890: 1885: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1738: 1735: 1727: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1703: 1702: 1698: 1693:This section 1691: 1687: 1682: 1681: 1675: 1673: 1671: 1666: 1664: 1659: 1657: 1652: 1651:Great Britain 1646: 1643: 1638: 1637:, 1700–1721. 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1584:Karl Knutsson 1581: 1577: 1573: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1424:Sweden–Norway 1421: 1410: 1405: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1391: 1390: 1388: 1387: 1381: 1370: 1367: 1356: 1353: 1342: 1339: 1328: 1325: 1324:Faroe Islands 1314: 1311: 1300: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1284:Defence Union 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1255: 1254: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1223: 1222: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1189: 1188: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1169:Sweden–Norway 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1126: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1067:Faroe Islands 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1042: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1023: 1019: 1017: 1016: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1000: 999: 995: 991: 990: 987: 983: 979: 975: 974: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 946: 941: 936: 932: 928: 923: 917: 913: 909: 906:(mostly) and 905: 901: 896: 893: 889: 886: 884:Today part of 882: 866: 864: 861: 860: 852: 850: 847: 846: 843: 837: 834: 827: 826: 823: 820: 813: 812: 809: 806: 799: 798: 795: 794: 791: 788: 786: 783: 782: 778: 767: 762: 755: 750: 749: 747: 736: 731: 724: 719: 718: 716: 713: 709: 705: 701: 691: 672: 668: 665: 655: 652: 642: 638: 634: 630: 620: 617: 604: 600: 596: 592: 587: 582: 571: 566: 557: 556:Legislatures: 554: 550: 546: 543: 540: 531: 530:Charles XV/IV 528: 519: 516: 507: 504: 495: 492: 478: 476: 472: 465: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 441: 437: 433: 430: 426: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 404: 400: 397: 393: 390: 386: 383: 380: 376: 369: 364: 357: 348: 342: 338: 334: 329: 327: 321: 315: 309: 302: 293: 287: 282: 278: 266: 256: 249: 244: 238: 231: 223: 218: 210: 204: 193: 187: 176: 169: 150: 141: 138: 130: 119: 116: 112: 109: 105: 102: 98: 95: 91: 88: – 87: 83: 82:Find sources: 76: 72: 66: 65: 60:This article 58: 54: 49: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 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Union between Sweden and Norway

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