295:
the patents and licenses a university issues, there may be a limited number of inventions that actually yield enough revenue to cover or surpass these costs. Research has shown that larger, more established TTOs are sufficiently profitable, whereas many smaller, more recent TTOs are not, and that an estimated half of TTOs retain losses in their commercialization activities (of those that do not have losses, a majority do no better than to cover their costs). Even the most profitable TTOs only produce revenue that amounts to 1-3% of the total research expenditures at the university. Moreover, less than 1% of licensed technologies actually yield over $ 1M in revenue. Another criticism of TTOs is its role in the research atmosphere of the university, with many scholars arguing that its presence and purpose of engaging in commercialization activities conflicts with a university's mission of furthering knowledge and objective academic inquiry.
260:
partner or back to the university inventor if the inventor started a company (i.e. a university spin-off). Through this approach, TTOs can bring university technologies to market without having to engage in production and distribution themselves. TTOs can also take an equity stake in the spin-off company rather than licensing the technology. Some research has suggested that equity in spin-off companies may provide higher returns than licensing, but this strategy seems to be more common with TTOs that are financially independent from the parent university (i.e. external TTO structure). While these strategies vary greatly among TTOs at different universities, a majority of them employ some combination of licensing and equity stakes, with licensing being a more standard practice.
282:
Countries such as France and the UK, which already had policies in place that grant intellectual property rights to universities during this period, began heavily encouraging and enforcing these institutional ownership rights. As of 2011, most
European countries grant universities the rights to the intellectual property of inventions developed by faculty researchers, yet a few countries such as Italy and Sweden still employ professor's privilege. Hence, there has been a marked increase in the commercialization activities of universities and creation of TTOs in Europe.
47:
and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research
281:
nations have created legislation that emulates Bayh-Dole, in an attempt to increase the commercialization activities and impact of their respective research universities. Denmark was among the first to abolish professor's privilege, followed by
Germany, Austria, Norway and Finland between 2000-2007.
126:
An important task of many TTOs is to create and maintain industry partnerships that may be crucial for collaboration and bringing technologies to market. Some universities such as MIT and
Northwestern have separate offices for industry and corporate relations which typically work in conjunction with
84:
at high levels, arguing that while the US no longer had a geographic frontier, extending the boundaries of science would allow the creation of new technologies, which in turn would spur new industries, create jobs, generate wealth, and maintain US power. As the US worked out its approach to funding
294:
Although universities created TTOs with hopes of financial gain, many TTOs have retained losses in their commercialization activities and have not generated significant local economic development. It has been argued that protecting intellectual property and patenting is a costly process, and of all
259:
TTOs attempt to capitalize on the research developments made at the university by employing strategies focused on providing the university with opportunities for financial gain and increased research impact. A common strategy that TTOs engage in is licensing their inventions, either to an industry
285:
Several Asian countries such as Japan, China, and India have also shifted towards a Bayh-Dole type legislation, although some countries such as
Malaysia have a shared ownership model. Moreover, there has been a general shift towards increased commercialization and the establishment of TTOs across
127:
the TTO of the institution. In this case, TTOs often exploit the relationships developed by the corporate relations office, focusing more specifically on the technology transfer process itself. TTOs often employ two methods when engaging with industry partners: 1) the "pull" method, in which TTOs
201:
The structure and organization of TTOs can affect its overall performance and can vary among universities. Since TTOs deal with both academic research and industry, they consist of a diverse set of individuals, including scientists, lawyers, analysts, licensing experts, and business managers. By
108:
of 1980 led many US universities to set up tech transfer offices. The Act was created to try to spur the stagnant US economy of the 1970s, harking back to
Vannevar Bush's vision of the role of federal research funding in the US economy. The Act decentralized ownership of inventions funded with
117:
While the broad goal of TTOs is to commercialize university research, they engage in numerous activities that not only bring these developments to market but also encourage and support faculty and students in the entire technology transfer process. Such encouragement may increase the chances of
88:
Federal research funding drove the growth of the research university. Many universities in the early 20th century did not engage in patenting and licensing, since the government owned most inventions, and out of fear of interfering with their missions of supporting the growth of knowledge and
202:
having individuals (particularly different scientists, engineers, and analysts) with varying sets of expertise in research, TTOs attempt to more effectively assess, protect, and profit from the research developments taking place in multiple disciplines throughout the university.
268:
As many major research universities across the US began to adopt TTOs, institutions outside the US became attracted to the idea of taking control of their commercialization activities as well. Prior to the 2000s, many German-speaking and
Scandinavian countries had a
109:
federal grants, allowing universities that received federal grant funding to maintain ownership of such inventions, obligating them to try to patent and license the inventions to US companies, and requiring universities to share license income with inventors.
48:
universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university.
193:. Research has suggested that incubators at TTOs have not had a high incidence of technology transfer, despite this being one of the reasons they were established, and may even negatively impact the success of TTOs and technology transfer at the university.
147:
protection, when appropriate, for inventions to which they elect title; after passage of the Bayh-Dole Act many US universities created intellectual property policies that obligated faculty to assign inventions to the university. Universities typically
101:, had active licensing programs of their own. There was a shift in universities' approaches to technology transfer between 1970-1980. During this period, universities began taking commercialization efforts into their own hands and setting up TTOs.
152:
the patent to a company that will invest money in developing the invention into a product, which it will then be able to sell at a premium, recouping its investment and making profit before the patent expires.
545:
Mowery, David C; Nelson, Richard R; Sampat, Bhaven N; Ziedonis, Arvids A (2001-01-01). "The growth of patenting and licensing by U.S. universities: an assessment of the effects of the Bayh–Dole act of 1980".
238:
the existing organizational forms of each TTO are maintained and the single organizations operate together in a virtual manner creating a subset of links between the existing TTOs involved in the consortium
250:
a new central TTO with the functions of a hub is created, but each university involved in the consortium maintains internally some technology transfer activities in a dedicated internal office.
173:
and programs for faculty and students in an attempt to enhance the entrepreneurial atmosphere among researchers at the university. Some examples of such incubators and programs include the
161:
TTOs at many universities often provide general business and legal counseling to foster entrepreneurship among faculty and students. By providing resources, funding, and connections to
757:
O'Shea, Rory P.; Allen, Thomas J.; Chevalier, Arnaud; Roche, Frank (2005-09-01). "Entrepreneurial orientation, technology transfer and spinoff performance of U.S. universities".
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169:
success, which may result in financial gain if the university owns the intellectual property of the invention or has an equity stake in the company. Hence, many TTOs establish
896:
Battaglia, D.; Landoni, P.; Rizzitelli, F. (2017). "Organizational structures for external growth of university technology transfer offices: an explorative analysis".
502:
Feldman, Maryann; Desrochers, Pierre (2003-03-01). "Research
Universities and Local Economic Development: Lessons from the History of the Johns Hopkins University".
923:
Macho-Stadler, Inés; Pérez-Castrillo, David; Veugelers, Reinhilde (2007-06-01). "Licensing of university inventions: The role of a technology transfer office".
588:
Mowery, David C.; Sampat, Bhaven N. (2004-12-01). "The Bayh-Dole Act of 1980 and
University–Industry Technology Transfer: A Model for Other OECD Governments?".
65:
861:
Brescia, F.; Colombo, G.; Landoni, P. (2016). "Organizational structures of
Knowledge Transfer Offices: an analysis of the world's top-ranked universities".
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of "professor's privilege", in which faculty retain the right to control the intellectual property of their inventions. In addition, in recent years many
64:'s letter in response to President Roosevelt's query about whether the US should maintain the high level of research funding it had been pouring into the
85:
science in the 1950s, Congress decided that the federal government should maintain ownership of patents on inventions funded by the federal government.
1061:
815:
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interest from industry partners in bringing specific technologies at the university to market, and 2) the "push" method, in which TTOs actively
720:"Assessing the impact of organizational practices on the relative productivity of university technology transfer offices: an exploratory study"
231:
TTOs of different universities can also collaborate between them to grow, thus originating new organizational structures. Such structures are:
93:, while few set up their own research foundations that were independent from but affiliated to the university. Some universities, such as
1158:
Mok, Ka Ho (2013). "The quest for an entrepreneurial university in East Asia: impact on academics and administrators in higher education".
57:
1328:
178:
89:
objective inquiry. Prior to the postwar period, universities relied mostly on external patent management organizations such as the
672:
Etzkowitz, Henry (1998-12-01). "The norms of entrepreneurial science: cognitive effects of the new university–industry linkages".
988:
Bray, Michael J; Lee, James N (2000-09-01). "University revenues from technology transfer: Licensing fees vs. equity positions".
472:
Sampat, Bhaven N. (2006-07-01). "Patenting and US academic research in the 20th century: The world before and after Bayh-Dole".
299:
118:
faculty and students creating research developments that can be commercialized. Some of the major functions of TTOs include:
302:
have argued that the Bayh-Dole Act spurred university tech transfer offices to become too aggressive in patenting, creating
1350:
1133:
323:
270:
1365:
787:
Phillips, Rhonda G. (2002-08-01). "Technology business incubators: how effective as technology transfer mechanisms?".
348:
Rothaermel, F. T.; Agung, S. D.; Jiang, L. (2007-08-01). "University entrepreneurship: a taxonomy of the literature".
174:
950:
Lockett, Andy; Wright, Mike; Franklin, Stephen (2003). "Technology
Transfer and Universities' Spin-Out Strategies".
307:
69:
1196:
Trune, Dennis R; Goslin, Lewis N (1998-03-01). "University Technology Transfer Programs: A Profit/Loss Analysis".
700:
98:
651:
597:
555:
314:. As of 2012, evidence for such an anticommons effect in the practice of biomedical science was lacking.
383:
1035:(Submitted manuscript). Special Issue: 30 Years After Bayh-Dole: Reassessing Academic Entrepreneurship.
190:
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existing as an independent company that does not operate under the control of university administration
17:
761:. The Creation of Spin-off Firms at Public Research Institutions: Managerial and Policy Implcations.
602:
411:
90:
560:
311:
162:
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44:
1134:"Asian Initiatives on Bayh-Dole, with Special Reference to India: How Do We Make It More "Asian?""
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existing as an integrated part of the university and controlled by university administration
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a new central TTO is created and it works for each university involved in the consortium
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81:
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1026:"Changes to university IPR regulations in Europe and the impact on academic patenting"
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61:
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385:
The Chicago Handbook of University Technology Transfer and Academic Entrepreneurship
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476:. Property and the pursuit of knowledge: IPR issues affecting scientific research.
423:
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The history of technology transfer is intimately linked with the history of the
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402:
Ehlers, Vernon (16 January 1998). "The Future of U.S. Science Policy".
149:
1274:"Can Patents Deter Innovation? The Anticommons in Biomedical Research"
834:
144:
80:. In that letter, Bush advocated that the US should continue to fund
60:. The foundation for modern American science policy laid way out in
274:
816:"The Effects of Academic Incubators on University Innovation"
718:
Siegel, Donald S; Waldman, David; Link, Albert (2003-01-01).
1319:. In Porrini, Donatella; Ramello, Giovanni Battista (eds.).
72:
research projects as part of the war effort, including the
228:
As of 2012 the "internal" type was most common in the US.
1225:"University Technology Transfer Offices: A Status Report"
1321:
Property rights dynamics a law and economics perspective
1088:
Farnstrand Damsgaard, E.; Thursby, M. C. (2013-02-01).
1090:"University entrepreneurship and professor privilege"
814:
Kolympiris, Christos; Klein, Peter G. (2017-06-01).
224:
having components of both internal and external TTOs
205:TTOs can by classified into three different types:
286:higher education institutions in Asian countries.
143:The Bayh-Dole Act obligated universities to seek
925:International Journal of Industrial Organization
397:
395:
264:International diffusion and TTOs outside the US
1138:Chicago-Kent Journal of Intellectual Property
1062:"Benchmarking Industry-Science Relationships"
179:Physical Sciences and Engineering Accelerator
66:Office of Scientific Research and Development
8:
1317:"Chapter 8: Property Rights in Human Tissue"
1361:Science and technology in the United States
1198:Technological Forecasting and Social Change
1024:Geuna, Aldo; Rossi, Federica (2011-10-01).
898:Technological Forecasting and Social Change
443:
441:
165:, TTOs attempt to increase the chances of
1291:
1272:Heller, M. A.; Eisenberg, R. (May 1998).
1248:
1223:Fleischut, Peter M.; Haas, Scott (2005).
1108:
701:"Interface: The Push and Pull of Patents"
601:
559:
1315:Mahoney, Julia D; Clark, Pamela (2007).
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157:Counseling and incubation for startups
18:University Technology Transfer Offices
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650:Shapin, Steven (11 September 2003).
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135:industry partners for this purpose.
58:science policy of the United States
1323:. London: Routledge. p. 141.
863:The Journal of Technology Transfer
823:Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal
590:The Journal of Technology Transfer
25:
175:Blavatnik Biomedical Accelerator
1097:Industrial and Corporate Change
350:Industrial and Corporate Change
937:10.1016/j.ijindorg.2006.06.001
910:10.1016/j.techfore.2017.06.017
452:. National Science Foundation.
450:"Science the Endless Frontier"
78:Science - the Endless Frontier
68:, which had coordinated large
1:
1210:10.1016/S0040-1625(97)00165-0
1160:Asia Pacific Education Review
1002:10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00034-2
990:Journal of Business Venturing
801:10.1016/S0160-791X(02)00010-6
739:10.1016/S0048-7333(01)00196-2
686:10.1016/S0048-7333(98)00093-6
570:10.1016/S0048-7333(99)00100-6
424:10.1126/science.279.5349.302a
163:university spin-off companies
1293:10.1126/science.280.5364.698
1045:10.1016/j.respol.2011.05.008
771:10.1016/j.respol.2005.05.011
486:10.1016/j.respol.2006.04.009
448:Bush, Vannevar (July 1945).
324:Intellectual property policy
37:technology licensing offices
516:10.1080/1366271032000068078
310:especially in the field of
29:technology transfer offices
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308:tragedy of the anticommons
197:Structure and organization
70:private-public partnership
1172:10.1007/s12564-013-9249-x
875:10.1007/s10961-014-9384-5
612:10.1007/s10961-004-4361-z
1229:Biotechnology Healthcare
952:Small Business Economics
825:(Submitted manuscript).
43:), are responsible for
964:10.1023/a:1022220216972
504:Industry and Innovation
99:University of Wisconsin
1132:Stephen, Tina (2010).
298:Rebecca Eisenberg and
189:, affiliated with the
1066:www.oecd-ilibrary.org
789:Technology in Society
242:Strong Hub structure:
191:University of Chicago
139:Intellectual property
122:Industry partnerships
76:. Bush's answer was
1351:Innovation economics
248:Light Hub structure:
91:Research Corporation
699:Lee, Peter (2009).
416:1998Sci...279..302E
312:biomedical research
171:business incubators
95:Stanford University
45:technology transfer
1366:Science in society
1110:10.1093/icc/dts047
705:Fordham Law Review
410:(5349): 302a–302.
362:10.1093/icc/dtm023
236:Network structure:
183:Harvard University
1286:(5364): 698–701.
74:Manhattan Project
16:(Redirected from
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996:(5): 385–392.
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