488:
In the mid 1980s there was a substantial increase in the number of calcium oxalate samples, and between 1994 and 2002, 55 percent of feline stones were calcium oxalate and 33 percent were struvite. This may have been caused by the use of dissolution diets for struvite stones in cats and modification of other diets to prevent struvite crystal formation. These modifications predisposed to calcium oxalate crystal formation. However, in 2004, struvite stones once again surpassed calcium oxalate stones 44.9 percent to 44.3 percent, and in 2006, 50 percent of stones were struvite and 39 percent were calcium oxalate. This may have been due to the increased use of diets designed to prevent calcium oxalate crystal formation, which because of increased magnesium in the diet and decreased acidity of the urine help promote struvite crystal formation.
38:
270:
353:
46:
238:
726:), stones form in neutral to alkaline urine. They are usually smooth and round. Calcium phosphate is usually a component of struvite or calcium oxalate stones and is infrequently a pure stone. They form more readily with hypercalcaemia. Dog breeds possibly predisposed to calcium phosphate stone formation include Yorkshire Terriers, Miniature Schnauzers, and Cocker Spaniels.
503:
54:
487:
College of
Veterinary Medicine has done detailed analysis of uroliths from animals since 1981 and has noted changing trends in feline uroliths. In 1981, struvite stones were the most common type in cats, making up 78 percent of submitted samples, with only 2 percent comprising calcium oxalate stones.
470:
and a high fractional urinary excretion of calcium. The urine will appear thick and creamy or sometimes sandy. Small stones and sand can be removed using urohydropropulsion. Prevention is through reducing calcium intake by feeding more hay and less commercial rabbit pellets, and by not using mineral
265:
enzyme in dogs. More than 90 percent of dogs with struvite stones have an associated urease-producing bacterial infection in the urinary tract, but in cats struvite stones usually form in sterile urine. The appearance of the stones vary from large solitary stones to multiple smaller stones. They can
208:
Nutrition often plays a major role in the development of bladder stones. Sodium, calcium, phosphorus and potassium ratios and quantities play a large role in urinary health of animals. Research indicates that low dietary inclusion of potassium is associated with increased renal calcium excretion,
773:
Reasons for treatment of bladder stones include recurring symptoms and risk of urinary tract obstruction. Some stones, including struvite and urate stones, can be dissolved using dietary modifications and/or medications. Calcium oxalate stones are not able to be dissolved and must be surgically
778:, a nonsurgical procedure. Urohydropropulsion is performed under sedation by filling the bladder with saline through a catheter, holding the dog vertically, and squeezing the bladder to expel the stones through the urethra. Bladder stones can be removed surgically by a
201:, and organic matrix mixed with crystals, or crystals alone. The nidus makes up about two to ten percent of the mass of the stone. It is possible for the nidus to be made of a different type of crystal than the rest of the stone, also known as
430:
and high in magnesium, phosphorus, and calcium is recommended. Increased dietary magnesium and phosphorus decreases the amount of calcium in the urine, and increased dietary calcium reduces absorption of oxalates from the intestines.
209:
which lowers urinary pH. By lowering urinary pH, the risk for development of calcium oxalate uroliths increases. By feeding proper amounts of calcium and potassium we avoid this issue, which is especially common in male cats.
924:
PaBlack, N., Brenten, T., Neumann, K., & Zentek, J. (2014). Effects of potassium chloride and potassium bicarbonate in the diet on urinary pH and mineral excretion of adult cats. British
Journal of Nutrition, 111(5),
140:) but sometimes there may be no signs at all. Painful urination or straining to urinate are other signs. Urinary tract infections are commonly associated with bladder stones. Smaller stones may become lodged in the
260:
O. Often there is a small amount of calcium phosphate present. They form at a neutral to alkaline pH of the urine. Bacterial infections contribute to their formation by increasing the pH of the urine through the
801:
To prevent recurrence of stones, special diets can be used for each type of stone. Increasing water consumption by the animal dilutes the urine, which prevents oversaturation of the urine with crystals.
655:) stones form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually smooth and round. They are caused by increased urine excretion of cystine (a relatively insoluble amino acid) in dogs with a defect in
128:. Struvite and calcium oxalate stones are by far the most common. Bladder stones are not the same as bladder crystals but if the crystals coalesce unchecked in the bladder they can become stones.
612:
is used in dogs with altered purine metabolism to prevent the formation of uric acid. Feeding a diet high in purines while simultaneously administering allopurinol can result in the formation of
293:, as well as increased salt to increase water consumption and dilute the urine. The diet needs to be fed exclusively, but it can only be fed for a few months total due to potential side effects.
172:
with crystals is by far the biggest factor in stone formation in dogs and cats. This oversaturation can be caused by increased excretion of crystals by the kidneys, water reabsorption by the
221:. Most types of stones will appear readily in an x-ray, urate and occasionally cystine stones being the most common exceptions. Stones smaller than three millimeters may not be visible.
782:, which is a small incision into the bladder to scoop out the stones. Stones lodged in the urethra can often be flushed into the bladder and removed, but sometimes a
435:
has been recommended to prevent calcium oxalate stone formation because it forms a soluble complex with oxalates and promotes the formation of alkaline urine.
180:
that influence crystallization. Other contributing factors include diet, frequency of urination, genetics, current medications, and the presence of a
37:
1070:
Escolar E, Bellanato J (2003). "Analysis of feline urinary calculi and urethral plugs by infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy".
569:
O), form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually small, yellow-brown, smooth stones. Urate stones form due to an increased excretion of
671:, which forms a soluble complex with cystine in the urine. Dog breeds possibly predisposed to formation of cystine stones include Bulldogs,
846:
659:
reabsorption of cystine. Dietary reduction of protein and alkalinization of the urine may help prevent formation. Medications such as
416:
1019:
881:
229:
may help identify the stones, but analysis of the stones is necessary for identification of the complete chemical composition.
585:. Dalmatians have a decreased rate of urate hepatic transport, leading to only about 30 to 40 percent conversion of urate to
1055:
Osborne, Carl A.; Lulich, Jody P. (February 2007). "Changing trends in composition of feline uroliths and urethral plugs".
936:
593:
or endstage liver disease also have increased uric acid excretion in the urine due to reduced conversion of uric acid to
745:
in appearance. There is possibly an increased incidence associated with dogs on diets that have a large amount of corn
794:. In male cats, stones lodge where the urethra narrows in the penis. Recurrent cases can be treated surgically with a
1244:
1180:
819:
484:
181:
85:
787:
426:
There is no recommended diet to dissolve calcium oxalate stones. For prevention a diet low in protein and
101:
92:. Stones can form in any part of the urinary tract in dogs and cats, but unlike in humans, stones of the
1239:
1234:
1204:
795:
775:
608:
Urate stones can be dissolved using a diet with reduced purines that alkalinizes and dilutes the urine.
269:
1154:
982:
900:
363:
stones form in an acidic to neutral urine. Two types naturally occur, calcium oxalate monohydrate, or
466:. Rabbits are prone to hypercalciuria due to intestinal absorption of calcium not being dependent on
404:
248:
stones are also known as magnesium ammonium phosphate stones due to their chemical composition - MgNH
149:
41:
X-ray of a single, large bladder stone in a dog with a bladder located more to the rear than is usual
790:
creates a permanent opening in the urethra proximal to the area where most stones lodge, behind the
754:
590:
439:
420:
329:
1095:
762:
688:
581:
are genetically predisposed to the formation of urate stones because of an altered metabolism of
277:
Dissolution of the struvite stones depends on acidification of the urine through diet or urinary
843:
480:
779:
1136:
1087:
1015:
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432:
145:
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1126:
1115:"Evaluation of the association between sex and risk of forming urate uroliths in Dalmatians"
1079:
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96:
are less common and do not often cause significant disease, although they can contribute to
850:
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660:
574:
463:
360:
318:
222:
109:
81:
462:. They are the most common stone in male dogs. Calcium oxalate stones are also common in
941:
Proceedings of the 29th World
Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association
692:
412:
400:
352:
337:
306:
97:
1228:
684:
322:
302:
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31:
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344:(pregnant ferrets may be especially predisposed). For frequency in cats, see below.
45:
676:
656:
459:
396:
333:
314:
310:
173:
153:
325:). Prevention of struvite stones is with a similar diet with milder restrictions.
30:
This article is about bladder stone in animals. For bladder stone in humans, see
783:
696:
609:
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589:, compared with greater than 90 percent conversion in other breeds. Dogs with
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364:
286:
237:
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189:
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494:
plugs in cats are usually composed of struvite crystals and organic matter.
467:
290:
278:
217:
When symptoms indicate bladder stones, the first step is usually to take an
137:
113:
1140:
1091:
68:
are a common occurrence in animals, especially in domestic animals such as
1083:
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340:. They are the most commonly reported bladder stone in female dogs and in
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455:
245:
198:
125:
105:
89:
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395:
O). Their appearance can be rough, smooth, spiculated (needle-like), or
225:
is also useful for identifying bladder stones. Crystals identified in a
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640:
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578:
491:
427:
282:
202:
141:
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17:
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is necessary. In male dogs with recurrent urinary tract obstruction a
798:, which removes the penis and creates a new opening for the urethra.
746:
582:
408:
341:
262:
157:
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605:. Urate stones make up about six percent of all stones in the cat.
668:
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Certain dog breeds are predisposed to struvite stones, including
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removed. Small stones in female dogs may possibly be removed by
602:
176:
resulting in concentration of the urine, and changes in urine
73:
69:
1155:"Feline Urolithiasis and Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease"
1012:
Ferrets, Rabbits, and
Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery
438:
Dog breeds possibly prone to calcium oxalate stones include
960:
741:) stones form in acidic to neutral urine. They are usually
399:. Calcium oxalate stones form more readily in animals with
177:
1113:
Albasan H, Lulich J, Osborne C, Lekcharoensuk C (2005).
1010:
Hillyer, Elizabeth V.; Quesenberry, Katherin E. (1997).
475:
Frequency of struvite and calcium oxalate stones in cats
148:
and the inability to urinate. This condition causes
80:, has been reported as well. The stones form in the
691:. In Newfoundlands, cystinuria is inherited as an
281:. Special diets for dissolution also have reduced
872:Ettinger, Stephen J.; Feldman, Edward C. (1995).
867:
865:
863:
861:
859:
753:hulls. Dog breeds possibly predisposed include
1042:Role of Diet in Feline and Canine Urolithiasis
1005:
1003:
1185:Clinical Nutrition Service at Cummings School
824:Clinical Nutrition Service at Cummings School
136:Bladder stones may cause blood in the urine (
8:
266:assume the shape of the bladder or urethra.
577:(especially males) and to a lesser extent
57:X-ray of a struvite bladder stone in a cat
1130:
853:("Evening Express", Aberdeen, 31/01/2009)
84:in varying size and numbers secondary to
76:. Occurrence in other species, including
977:
975:
973:
971:
895:
893:
874:Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine
699:trait and found primarily in male dogs.
1179:Team, Clinical Nutrition (2017-07-26).
1014:(1st ed.). W.B. Saunders Company.
876:(4th ed.). W.B. Saunders Company.
811:
695:trait, but in the other breeds it is a
1035:
1033:
1031:
379:O), and calcium oxalate dihydrate, or
144:, especially in male animals, causing
1181:"Dietary treatment of bladder stones"
820:"Dietary treatment of bladder stones"
7:
529:) stones, usually ammonium urate (NH
549:) or sodium urate monohydrate (Na·C
1059:. Advanstar Communications: 38–40.
964:. Advanstar Communications: 6S–7S.
710:, also known as hydroxyapatite (Ca
25:
1205:"Struvite Bladder Stones in Dogs"
49:X-ray of bladder stones in a dog
160:, and death within a few days.
415:, which can also be caused by
1:
937:"Nutrition and Urolithiasis"
765:, and Miniature Schnauzers.
411:. Hypercalcaemia results in
27:Common occurrence in animals
1159:The Merck Veterinary Manual
987:The Merck Veterinary Manual
905:The Merck Veterinary Manual
844:Giant tortoise cheats death
317:(high blood pressure), and
1261:
1132:10.2460/javma.2005.227.565
104:. Types of stones include
88:, dietary influences, and
29:
935:Buffington, Tony (2004).
403:, which can be caused by
187:The stones form around a
146:urinary tract obstruction
901:"Urolithiasis: Overview"
703:Calcium phosphate stones
481:Minnesota Urolith Center
485:University of Minnesota
193:, which can consist of
182:urinary tract infection
849:July 26, 2011, at the
683:, Yorkshire Terriers,
507:
357:
356:Calcium oxalate stones
348:Calcium oxalate stones
274:
242:
102:chronic kidney disease
58:
50:
42:
1084:10.1136/vr.152.20.625
1040:Zoran, Debra (2006).
983:"Canine Urolithiasis"
796:perineal urethrostomy
505:
355:
297:to this diet include
272:
240:
56:
48:
40:
788:scrotal urethrostomy
755:German Shepherd Dogs
591:portosystemic shunts
440:Miniature Schnauzers
407:or certain types of
330:Miniature Schnauzers
150:acute kidney failure
763:Labrador Retrievers
693:autosomal recessive
421:hyperparathyroidism
1119:J Am Vet Med Assoc
776:urohydropropulsion
508:
448:Yorkshire Terriers
417:Cushing's syndrome
358:
275:
243:
168:Oversaturation of
132:Signs and symptoms
59:
51:
43:
759:Golden Retrievers
708:Calcium phosphate
452:Miniature Poodles
433:Potassium citrate
405:Addison's disease
295:Contraindications
273:Struvite crystals
195:white blood cells
122:calcium phosphate
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1235:Dog diseases
1212:. Retrieved
1208:
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1188:. Retrieved
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1158:
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826:. 2017-07-26
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657:renal tubule
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506:Urate stones
498:Urate stones
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315:hypertension
311:pancreatitis
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154:hyperkalemia
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65:
61:
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784:urethrotomy
610:Allopurinol
444:Lhasa Apsos
1229:Categories
1214:2019-12-20
1190:2019-12-20
1165:2007-04-14
993:2007-04-14
946:2006-07-16
911:2007-04-14
830:2020-02-08
806:References
697:sex linked
681:Chihuahuas
673:Dachshunds
632:) stones.
575:Dalmatians
381:weddellite
365:whewellite
287:phosphorus
279:acidifiers
227:urinalysis
780:cystotomy
769:Treatment
743:jackstone
595:allantoin
587:allantoin
571:uric acid
468:vitamin D
456:Shih Tzus
397:jackstone
291:magnesium
213:Diagnosis
164:Mechanism
138:hematuria
86:infection
78:tortoises
1141:16117063
1100:33483919
1092:12790167
925:785-797.
847:Archived
792:os penis
735:Silicate
667:contain
614:xanthine
579:Bulldogs
492:Urethral
428:oxalates
246:Struvite
199:bacteria
126:silicate
106:struvite
90:genetics
66:uroliths
1072:Vet Rec
751:soybean
641:Cystine
599:ammonia
583:purines
483:at the
342:ferrets
283:protein
142:urethra
118:cystine
18:Urolith
1161:. 2006
1139:
1098:
1090:
1018:
989:. 2006
907:. 2006
880:
747:gluten
687:, and
458:, and
409:cancer
336:, and
289:, and
263:urease
158:sepsis
124:, and
94:kidney
1096:S2CID
669:thiol
665:2-MPG
651:COOH)
643:((SCH
511:Urate
321:(low
219:x-ray
190:nidus
170:urine
114:urate
1137:PMID
1088:PMID
1016:ISBN
878:ISBN
737:(SiO
722:(OH)
663:and
647:CHNH
603:urea
597:and
479:The
383:(CaC
367:(CaC
100:and
74:cats
72:and
70:dogs
1127:doi
1123:227
1080:doi
1076:152
1057:DVM
962:DVM
749:or
714:(PO
601:to
419:or
391:·2H
256:·6H
64:or
1231::
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1183:.
1157:.
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1121:.
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1094:.
1086:.
1074:.
1030:^
1002:^
985:.
970:^
939:.
903:.
892:^
858:^
822:.
761:,
757:,
712:10
679:,
675:,
616:(C
565:×H
533:·C
513:(C
454:,
450:,
446:,
442:,
423:.
375:·H
332:,
313:,
309:,
305:,
301:,
285:,
252:PO
205:.
197:,
184:.
178:pH
156:,
152:,
120:,
116:,
112:,
108:,
1217:.
1193:.
1168:.
1143:.
1129::
1102:.
1082::
1044:.
1024:.
996:.
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914:.
886:.
833:.
739:2
724:2
720:6
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716:4
653:2
649:2
645:2
630:2
628:O
626:4
624:N
622:4
620:H
618:5
567:2
563:3
561:O
559:4
557:N
555:4
553:H
551:5
547:3
545:O
543:4
541:N
539:4
537:H
535:5
531:4
527:3
525:O
523:4
521:N
519:4
517:H
515:5
393:2
389:4
387:O
385:2
377:2
373:4
371:O
369:2
258:2
254:4
250:4
34:.
20:)
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