630:. Langacker identified commonly recurring linguistic patterns (patterns such as those associated with Wh- fronting, subject-verb agreement, the use of present participles, etc.) and represented these supposed rule-governed behaviours on a hierarchical structure. The Cognitive Grammar model represented grammar, semantics and lexicon as associated processes that were laid on a continuum, which provided a theoretical framework that was significant in studying the usage-based conception of language. Consequently, a usage-based model accounts for these rule-governed language behaviours by providing a representational scheme that is entirely instance-based, and able to recognize and uniquely represent each familiar pattern, which occurs with varying strengths at different instances. His usage-based model draws on the cognitive psychology of schemata, which are flexible hierarchical structures that are able to accommodate the complexity of mental stimuli. Similarly, as humans perceive linguistic abstractions as multilayered, ranging from patterns that occur across whole utterances to those that occur in phonetic material, the usage-based model acknowledges the differing levels of granularity in speakers’ knowledge of their language. Langacker's work emphasizes that both abstract structure and instance-based detail are contained in language, differing in granularity but not in basic principles.
641:’s work greatly inspired the creation of usage-based models of language. Bybee’s model makes predictions about and explains synchronic, diachronic and typological patterns within languages, such as which variants will occur in which contexts, what forms they will take, and about their diachronic consequences. Using the linguistic phenomenon of splits (when a word starts to show subtle polysemy, and morphological possibilities for the originally single form ensue), Bybee proves that even irreducibly irregular word-forms are seen to be non-arbitrary when the context it occurs in is taken into consideration in the very representation of morphology. Simultaneously, she shows that even seemingly regular allomorphy is context-sensitive. Splits also aligns with the idea that linguistic forms cannot be studied as isolated entities, but rather in relation to the strength of their attachment to other entities.
604:(1987) applied these concepts to linguistic studies. For usage-based models of language, these discoveries legitimized interest in the peripheral phenomena and inspired the examination of the ontological status of the rules themselves. Secondly, WCCF focuses on the effects of social/ textual context and cognitive processes on human thought, instead of established systems and representations, which motivated the study of external sources in usage-based language research. For example, in analyzing the differences between the grammatical notions of subject vs. topic, Li and Thompson (1976), found that the repetition of certain topics by a
652:’s "Entrenchment-and-Conventionalization" Model offers a comprehensive recent summary approach to usage-based thinking. In great detail and with reference to many sub-disciplines and concepts in linguistics he shows how usage mediates between entrenchment, the establishment of linguistic habits in individuals via repetition and associations, and conventionalization, a continuous feedback cycle which builds shared collective linguistic knowledge. All three components connect linguistic utterance types with their respective situative settings and extralinguistic associations.
738:
representation. And when stored representations are accessed, the representations change. Additionally, memory storage can store detailed information about processed tokens during linguistic experience, including form and context that these tokens were used. In this model, general categories and grammar units can emerge from linguistic experiences stored in memories, as exemplars are categorized by similarity to each other. Contiguous experiences such as meaning and acoustic shape are also recorded to be linked to each other.
751:
transitions between elements within a chunk. Additionally, the individual elements of a chunk can link to elements in other contexts. The example of ‘drive someone crazy’ forms a chunk, however items that compose it are not analyzable individually as words that occur elsewhere in cognitive representation. As chunks are used more frequently, words can lose their associations with exemplars of the same word. This is known as
448:
513:), on considering language as an isolated system removed from its use in human interaction and human cognition. Rather, usage-based models posit that linguistic information is expressed via context-sensitive mental processing and mental representations, which have the cognitive ability to succinctly account for the complexity of actual language use at all levels (
579:. It studies the lifespan of linguistic units (e.g. words, suffixes), arguing that they can survive language change through frequent usage or by participating in usage-based generalizations if their syntactic, semantic or pragmatic features overlap with other similar constructions. There is disagreement as to whether the approach is different from
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By these means repeated sequences become more fluent. Within a chunk, sequential links are graded in strength based on the frequency of the chunk or perhaps the transitions between the elements of a chunk. A construction is a chunk even though it may contain schematic slots, that is, the elements of
713:
perspective, constructions are groupings of words with idiosyncratic behaviour to a certain extent. They mostly take on an unpredictable meaning or pragmatic effect, or are formally special. From a broader perspective, construction can also be seen as processing units or chunks, such as sequences of
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Memory storage requires links to connect idiomatic phrases together. In chunking, repeated sequences are represented together as units which can be accessed directly. Through this, repeated sequences are more frequent. Sequential links are assessed in strength based on the frequency of the chunk or
705:
Constructions have direct pairing of form to meaning without intermediate structures, making them appropriate for usage-based models. The usage-based model adopts constructions as the basic unit of form-meaning correspondence. A construction is commonly regarded to be a conventionalized string of
737:
Adjectives shown here include crazy, mad, and up the wall, which are semantically related to the word drive. In exemplar models, the idea that memory for linguistic experience is similar to memory for other types of memories is proposed. Every token of linguistic experience impacts cognitive
608:
resulted in the surfacing and crystallization of formal properties into syntactic entities, namely the subject. This notion of syntax and morphology being an outcome of pragmatic and cognitive factors was influential in the development of usage-based models. Thirdly, the WCCF methodology of
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is similarly practised in usage-based models, in collecting data from real communicative contexts and analyzing them for typological regularities. This highlights an important aspect of usage-based research, the study of methods for the integration of synchrony and diachrony.
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or form. Additionally, chunks or conventionalized sequences can tend to develop special pragmatic implications that can lead to special meaning over time. They can also develop idiosyncrasies of form in a variety of ways.
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framework, that emerged since the late 1980s, and that assumes a profound relation between linguistic structure and usage. It challenges the dominant focus, in 20th century linguistics (and in particular in
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argues that the frequency explanation is circular—certain patterns are often used by people because they are frequent—and that the explanation of frequency issues must be found outside themselves.
548:
in 1987. Usage-based models of language have become a significant new trend in linguistics since the early 2000s. Influential proponents of usage-based linguistics include
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Advances in Corpus
Linguistics: Papers from the 23rd International Conference on English Language Research on Computerized Corpora (ICAME 23) Göteborg 22-26 May 2002
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718:) which have been used often enough to be accessed together. This implicates that common words sequences are sometimes constructions even if they do not have
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which more frequently only has a direct object in actual language usage ('sell something'). It is hypothesized that such differences in the recurrence of the
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West Coast cognitive functionalism (WCCF) played a major role in the creation of the usage-based enterprise. Firstly, a crucial point in WCCF was
600:’s paper on semantic categories in human cognition, which studied fuzzy semantic categories with central and peripheral concepts. Subsequently,
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and processing, synchronic and diachronic patterns, and both low-level and high-level structure in language, by looking at actual language use.
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Hopper, P. J. (1997). "When 'Grammar' and
Discourse Clash: The Problem of Source Conflicts". In J. Bybee; J. Haiman; S. A. Thompson (eds.).
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words. A key feature of a grammar based on constructions is that it can reflect the deeply intertwined lexical items and grammar structure.
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Advocates of usage-based linguistics including Joan Bybee and Martin
Haspelmath argue that statistics of language usage depend on
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51:
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Luce, P.A.; Pisoni, D.B; Goldinger, S.D. (1990). "Similarity neighborhoods of spoken words". In G. T. M. Altmann (ed.).
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von
Mengden, Ferdinand; Coussé, Evie (2014). "Introduction. The role of change in usage-based conceptions of language".
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Givon, T (1989). "Modes of knowledge and modes of processing. The routinization of behavior and information".
1109:. Language and Computers: Studies in Practical Linguistics. Vol. 49. Amsterdam: Rodopi. pp. 85–100.
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Boyes-Braem, P; Johnson, D; Gray, W.; Mervis, C.B.; Rosch, E. (1976). "Basic objects in natural categories".
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Murkherjee, J. (2004). "Corpus Data in a Usage-Based
Cognitive Grammar". In K. Aijmer; B. Altenberg (eds.).
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Goldberg, Adele E.; Casenhiser, Devin (2006). "English
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Givon, T (1979b). "From discourse to syntax: Grammar as a processing strategy". In T. Givón (ed.).
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Bybee, Joan L.; Eddington, David (2006). "A usage-based approach to
Spanish verbs of becoming".
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Greenberg, J.H. (1960). "A quantitative approach to the morphological typology of language".
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depend on statistical learning based on the language usage encountered by the individual.
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The dynamics of the linguistic system : usage, conventionalization, and entrenchment
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Cognitive Models of Speech
Processing: Psycholinguistic and Computational Perspectives
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Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: an inquiry into human knowledge structures
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The evolution of grammar: tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world
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812:. Studies in Functional and Structural Linguistics. Vol. 69. pp. 1–20.
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Proceedings of the 14th Annual
Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society
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Radical
Construction Grammar: Syntactic Theory in Typological Perspective
843:"From a Usage-Based Model to Usage-Based Instruction: Testing the theory"
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always has two arguments ('tell something to someone') unlike the verb
1303:
Filmore, Charles J. (1988). "The mechanisms of Construction Grammar".
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98:
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Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure
1083:
930:
1286:"Usage-based Theory and Exemplar Representations of Constructions"
533:). Broadly speaking, a usage-based model of language accounts for
1345:
Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalizations in Language
1137:
Morphology: A study of the relation between meaning and form
575:, usage-based linguistics belongs to the wider framework of
1014:. Vol. 12. New York: Academic Press. pp. 81–109.
644:
850:
International Journal of Education and Human Developments
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The death of his wife the following year drove him mad.
1443:
Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure
841:Serafima Gettys, Patricia Bayona, Rocío Rodríguez.
664:. For instance, it is argued that the English verb
645:
Schmid's Entrenchment-and-Conventionalization model
1180:Bybee, J. L.; Perkins, R.D.; Pagliuca, W. (1994).
981:Iverson, G.K., Lima, S.D.; Corrigan, R.L. (1994).
1167:Frequency of use and the organization of language
1377:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 343–55.
1059:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 231–247.
881:Christiansen, Morten H.; Chater, Nick (2008).
1199:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 122–147.
1072:International Journal of American Linguistics
1057:Essays on Language Function and Language Type
1042:Mind, Code, and Context: Essays in Pragmatics
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801:
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1456:Ellis, Nick C. (1996). "Sequencing in SLA".
1154:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
995:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
866:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1044:. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 237–268.
1244:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
563:Together with related approaches, such as
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810:Usage-Based Approaches to Language Change
1441:Bybee, Joan L.; Hopper, Paul J. (2001).
1362:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1184:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
795:
30:
1458:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
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988:
859:
634:Bybee's Dynamic Usage-based framework
622:The term ‘usage-based’ was coined by
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1169:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1120:Schank, R.C.; Abelson, R.P. (1977).
684:Constructions: Form-meaning pairings
366:Conservative and innovative language
1375:The Handbook of English Linguistics
1532:Linguistic theories and hypotheses
1347:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1332:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
592:West coast cognitive functionalism
14:
883:"Language as shaped by the brain"
626:in 1987, while doing research on
1307:. Vol. 14. pp. 35–55.
931:"Memes shape brains shape memes"
733:This room drives me up the wall.
446:
983:The reality of linguistic rules
1263:. Cambridge University Press.
1:
1503:Unified Theories of Cognition
935:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
890:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
618:Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar
16:Linguistics approach / theory
1445:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
1139:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
985:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
747:a chunk can be interrupted.
306:Functional discourse grammar
172:Ethnography of communication
1358:Goldberg, Adele E. (1995).
1343:Goldberg, Adele E. (2006).
1029:. New York: Academic Press.
426:Second-language acquisition
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1383:10.1002/9780470753002.ch15
1216:(First ed.). Oxford.
1210:Schmid, Hans-Jörg (2020).
1152:Phonology and language use
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496:approach within a broader
104:Syntax–semantics interface
1470:10.1017/S0272263100014698
1124:. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
947:10.1017/S0140525X08005037
929:Blackmore, Susan (2008).
902:10.1017/S0140525X08004998
583:or essentially the same.
416:Philosophy of linguistics
316:Interactional linguistics
1505:. Cambridge: MIT Press.
1027:On understanding grammar
775:Evolutionary linguistics
577:evolutionary linguistics
1328:Croft, William (2001).
1290:Oxford Handbooks Online
1259:Song, Jae Jung (2012).
742:Constructions as chunks
573:complex adaptive system
490:usage-based linguistics
1501:Newell, Allen (1990).
1314:10.3765/bls.v14i0.1794
253:Theoretical frameworks
207:Philosophy of language
187:History of linguistics
1420:10.1353/lan.2006.0081
1165:Bybee, J. L. (2006).
1150:Bybee, J. L. (2001).
1135:Bybee, J. L. (1985).
818:10.1075/sfsl.69.01men
656:Frequency explanation
147:Conversation analysis
1012:Discourse and Syntax
968:Cognitive Psychology
770:Construction grammar
753:de-categorialization
701:Construction grammar
571:, and language as a
565:construction grammar
535:language acquisition
391:Internet linguistics
301:Construction grammar
1025:Givon, T. (1979c).
780:Linguistic typology
765:Applied linguistics
727:It drives me crazy.
611:linguistic typology
558:Morten Christiansen
326:Systemic functional
121:Applied linguistics
63:General linguistics
587:Disciplinary roots
431:Theory of language
401:Origin of language
356:Autonomy of syntax
311:Grammaticalization
157:Discourse analysis
152:Corpus linguistics
1223:978-0-19-254637-1
827:978-90-272-1579-6
628:Cognitive Grammar
550:Michael Tomasello
521:, morphology and
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217:Psycholinguistics
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714:words (or
711:grammarian
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89:Pragmatics
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662:frequency
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