1345:
worthiness. Secondly, before the conquest, the Manchu banner was a "citizen" army, and its members were Manchu farmers and herders obligated to provide military service to the state at times of war. The Qing government's decision to turn the banner troops into a professional force whose every welfare and need was met by state coffers brought wealth, and with it corruption, to the rank and file of the Manchu
Banners and hastened its decline as a fighting force. This was mirrored by a similar decline in the Green Standard Army. During peace time, soldiering became merely a source of supplementary income. Soldiers and commanders alike neglected training in pursuit of their own economic gains. Corruption was rampant as regional unit commanders submitted pay and supply requisitions based on exaggerated head counts to the quartermaster department and pocketed the difference. When the
1501:
corps were financed through provincial coffers and were led by regional commanders. This devolution of power weakened the central government's grip on the whole country, a weakness further aggravated by foreign powers vying to carve up autonomous colonial territories in different parts of the Qing Empire in the later half of the 19th century. Despite these serious negative effects, the measure was deemed necessary as tax revenue from provinces occupied and threatened by rebels had ceased to reach the cash-strapped central government. Finally, the nature of
Yongying command structure fostered nepotism and cronyism amongst its commanders, whom, as they ascended the bureaucratic ranks laid the seeds to Qing's eventual demise and the outbreak of regional warlordism in China during the first half of the 20th century.
1197:, which eventually outnumbered Banner troops by roughly three to one. The Green Standard Army so-named after the colour of their battle standards was made up of Ming troops who had surrendered to the Qing. They maintained their Ming era organization and were led by a mix of Banner and Green Standard officers. The Banners and Green Standard troops were standing armies, paid for by the central government. In addition, regional governors from provincial down to village level maintained their own irregular local militias for police duties and disaster relief. These militias were usually granted small annual stipends from regional coffers for part-time service obligations. They received very limited military drills if at all and were not considered combat troops.
1095:
1493:
513:
1627:
1288:). The Manchu court, keenly aware its own minority status, reinforced a strict policy of racial segregation between the Manchus and Mongols from Han Chinese for fear of being sinicized by the latter. This policy applied directly to the Banner garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within the cities they were stationed in. In cities where there were limitation of space such as in
1489:. Qi Jiguang's army was an ad hoc solution to the specific problem of combating pirates, as was Zeng Guofan's original intention for the Xiang Army, which was raise to eradicate the Taiping rebels. However, circumstances led to the Yongying system becoming a permanent institution within the Qing military, which in the long run created problems of its own for the beleaguered central government.
556:
153:(吳良輔; d. 1661), who had helped him defeat the Dorgon faction in the early 1650s, was caught in a corruption scandal in 1658. The fact that Wu only received a reprimand for his accepting bribes did not reassure the Manchu elite, which saw eunuch power as a degradation of Manchu power. The Thirteen Offices would be eliminated (and Wu Liangfu executed) by Oboi and the other
677:
642:
478:
599:
443:
416:
1505:
1229:
1358:
717:, Hung Taiji excluded imperial princes (his brothers) from the Council in order to enhance his own power. The members of the Council were mostly Manchu dignitaries who served as advisors in military matters. The Council was the most important policymaking body of the early Qing dynasty, until it was replaced by the
1566:, then deemed to be the strongest naval force in Asia. In doing so, Japan became the first Asian country to join the previously exclusively western ranks of colonial powers. The defeat was a rude awakening to the Qing court especially when set in the context that it occurred a mere three decades after the
1570:
set a feudal Japan on course to emulate the
Western nations in their economic and technological achievements. Finally, in December 1894, the Qing government took concrete steps to reform military institutions and to re-train selected units in westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were
1344:
The policy of posting Banner troops as territorial garrison was not to protect but to inspire awe in the subjugated populace at the expense of their expertise as cavalry. As a result, after a century of peace and lack of field training the Manchu Banner troops had deteriorated greatly in their combat
98:
When Hong Taiji came into power, the military was composed of entirely Mongol and Manchu companies. By 1636, Hong Taiji created the first of many
Chinese companies. Before the conquest of China, the number of companies organized by him and his successor was 278 Manchu, 120 Mongol, and 165 Chinese. By
1217:
service—mainly as infantry, artillery and sappers, was also alien to the Manchu nomadic traditions of fighting as cavalry. Furthermore, after the conquest the military roles played by Han bannermen were quickly subsumed by the Green
Standard Army. The Han Banners ceased to exist altogether after the
1216:
created a separate branch of Han
Banners to draw on this new source of manpower. However these Han bannermen were never regarded by the government as equal to the other two branches due to their relatively late addition to the Manchu cause as well as their Han Chinese ancestry. The nature of their
148:
and former regent
Jirgalang. By the late 1650s eunuch power became formidable again: they handled key financial and political matters, offered advice on official appointments, and even composed edicts. Because eunuchs isolated the monarch from the bureaucracy, Manchu and Chinese officials feared a
1533:
were, in the view of most historians with hindsight, piecemeal and yielded few lasting results. The various reasons for the apparent failure of late-Qing modernization attempts that have been advanced including the lack of funds, lack of political will, and unwillingness to depart from tradition.
1500:
First, the
Yongying system signaled the end of Manchu dominance in Qing military establishment. Although the Banners and Green Standard armies lingered on as parasites depleting resources, henceforth the Yongying corps became the Qing government's de facto first-line troops. Secondly the Yongying
1224:
The socio-military origins of the Banner system meant that population within each branch and their sub-divisions were hereditary and rigid. Only under special circumstances sanctioned by imperial edict were social movements between banners permitted. In contrast, the Green
Standard Army was
2201:
1203:
Armies were broadly divided along ethnic lines, namely Manchu and Mongol. Although it must be pointed out that the ethnic composition of Manchu
Banners was far from homogeneous as they included non-Manchu bondservants registered under the household of their Manchu masters. As the war with
1457:
region where it was raised. The Xiang Army was a hybrid of local militia and a standing army. It was given professional training, but was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders — mostly members of the Chinese gentry — could muster. The Xiang Army and its successor, the
1516:
By the late 19th century, China was fast descending into a semi-colonial state. Even the most conservative elements within the Qing court could no longer ignore China's military weakness in contrast to the foreign "barbarians" literally beating down its gates. In 1860, during the
99:
the time of Hong Taiji's death there were more Chinese than Manchus and he had realized the need for there to be control exerted whilst getting approval from the Chinese majority. Not only did he incorporate the Chinese into the military, but also into the government. The
1521:, the capital Beijing was captured and the Summer Palace sacked by a relatively small Anglo-French coalition force numbering 25,000. Although the Chinese invented gunpowder, and firearms had been in continual use in Chinese warfare since as far back as the
797:
reign, Zungharia and Altishar were not part of "China," but of the Qing empire. Only in the 1830s did scholars start to use eighteenth-century maps to show that these regions were part of China, and start to give Chinese names to places in these regions.
1262:) and was stationed in Beijing. It served both as the capital's garrison and the Qing government's main strike force. The remainder of the Banner troops was distributed to guard key cities in China. These were known as the Territorial Eight Banner Army (
128:
in 1658. These two institutions based on Ming models further eroded the power of the Manchu elite and threatened to revive the extremes of literati politics that had plagued the late Ming, when factions coalesced around rival grand secretaries.
111:
and others. Each of these lower ministries was headed by a Manchu prince, but had four presidents, 2 were Manchu, 1 was Mongol, and 1 was Chinese. This basic framework remained, even though the details fluctuated over time, for some time.
1538:
1482:
in the mid-16th century. Qi Jiguang's doctrine was based on Neo-Confucian ideas of binding troops' loyalty to their immediate superiors and also to the regions in which they were raised. This initially gave the troops an excellent
1448:
to contain the rebellion. Zeng Guofan's strategy was to rely on local gentries to raise a new type of military organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly threatened. This new force became known as the
1148:) and were under the direct command of the emperor. The remaining Banners—in descending order of precedence the red, bordered white, bordered red, blue, and bordered blue—were known as the "Lower Five Banners" (
1562:, a country long regarded by the Chinese as little more than an upstart nation of pirates, had convincingly beaten its larger neighbour and in the process annihilated the Qing government's pride and joy — its modernized
613:. Furthermore, the ministry's functions were purely administrative campaigns and troop movements were monitored and directed by the emperor, first through the Manchu ruling council, and later through the Grand Council.
1473:
Before forming and commanding the Xiang Army, Zeng Guofan had no military experience. Being a classically educated Mandarin, his blueprint for the Xiang Army was taken from a historical source — the Ming general
260:
of the Ming dynasty, it was adopted by the Qing, but placed outside the regular bureaucracy. Staffed by members of the imperial clan, it used regular reports on births, marriages, and deaths to compile the
1244:
After defeating the remnants of the Ming forces, the Manchu Banner Army of approximately 200,000 strong at the time was evenly divided; half was designated the Forbidden Eight Banner Army (
519:) was in charge of taxation, and of the state monopolies over items like salt and tea. The department was charged with revenue collection and the financial management of the government.
26:
Themes: dyarchy; conquest elite; old (Ming) and new (Manchu) institutions; Yongzheng reforms; territorial administration; size of empire; multiform; challenges, successes, and failures.
136:
and the Manchu nobility, in July 1653 the Shunzhi Emperor established the Thirteen Offices (十三衙門), or Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus, which were supervised by Manchus, but manned by Chinese
149:
return to the abuses of eunuch power that had plagued the late Ming. Despite the emperor's attempt to impose strictures on eunuch activities, the Shunzhi Emperor's favorite eunuch
1539:
1540:
1349:
broke out in 1850s, the Qing court found out belatedly that the Banner and Green Standards troops could neither put down internal rebellions nor keep foreign invaders at bay.
449:). The Boards were in charge of routine business, that is, matters based on existing regulations and precedents, which the Boards were in charge of interpreting and applying.
144:. Eunuchs had been kept under tight control during Dorgon's regency, but the young emperor used them to counter the influence of other power centers such as his mother
2240:
789:. Check James A. Millward (1999), "'Coming Onto the Map': 'Western Regions' Geography and Cartographic Nomenclature in the Making of the Chinese Empire in Xinjiang,"
562:) was responsible for all matters concerning court protocol. It organized the periodic worship of ancestors and various gods by the emperor, managed relations with
192:
After the Kangxi Emperor managed to imprison Oboi in 1669, he reverted many of the regents' policies. He restored institutions his father had favored, including a
683:) handled all governmental building projects, including palaces, temples and the repairs of waterways and flood canals. It was also in charge of minting coinage.
2401:
2361:
1171:
692:
186:
100:
92:
1127:
1542:
1193:
in 1644 and as the Manchu rapidly gained control of large tracts of former Ming territory, the relatively small Banner armies were further augmented by the
295:) was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the Qing defeat of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the
173:. Citing the testament, Oboi and the other regents quickly abolished the Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus. Over the next few years, they enhanced the power of the
103:
was formed as the highest level of policy-making and was composed entirely of Manchu. However, Hong Taiji adopted from the Ming, such institutions as the
1174:
as well as high command of the army, until 1637 when they were excluded from the council by Hong Taiji, who replaced them with lower Banner leaders.
273:, but were still under the jurisdiction of the Imperial Clan Court; those who committed crimes were not tried through the regular legal system.
1292:, a new fortified town would be purposely erected to house the Banner garrison and their families. Beijing being the imperial seat, the regent
95:. Chinese advisors advocate adopting Chinese institutions modeled on those of the Ming. Six Ministries. Importance of the Inner Three Courts.
2267:
2184:
2149:
2078:
2066:
2054:
2042:
2030:
2005:
1973:
1949:
1929:
1909:
1869:
1845:
1809:
1797:
1777:
1749:
1725:
1701:
1681:
1662:
563:
1130:
The yellow, bordered yellow (i.e. yellow banner with red border), and white banners were collectively known as the "Upper Three Banners" (
1376:
in 1853. The rebels massacred the entire Manchu garrison and their families in the city and made it their capital. Shortly thereafter, a
609:
were under the direct control of the emperor and hereditary Manchu and Mongol princes, leaving the ministry only with authority over the
1332:) was portioned out to the remaining Manchu Eight Banners, each responsible for guarding a section of the Inner Citadel surrounding the
1584:
170:
154:
256:), or Court of the Imperial Clan, was responsible for all matters pertaining to the Qing imperial family. Established in 1389 by the
2342:
2323:
2211:
1541:
1094:
165:
The fake will in which the Shunzhi Emperor had supposedly expressed regret for abandoning Manchu traditions gave authority to the
2304:
1529:
had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete. The government attempts to modernize during the
1603:
1423:
1397:
1271:
536:
392:
221:
1492:
1415:
1389:
1263:
528:
384:
288:
282:
174:
133:
46:
1296:
had the entire Chinese population forcibly relocated to the southern suburbs which became known as the "Outer Citadel" (
917:
1166:) and were commanded by hereditary Manchu princes descended from Nurhachi's immediate family, known informally as the "
1530:
2206:. Vol. Volume 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series. Cambridge University Press. p. 202-210.
976:
by 1615, there were eight banners, with the original four split into two with a red border (white for the red banner)
786:
1478:, who, because of the weakness of regular Ming troops, had decided to form his own "private" army to repel raiding
145:
990:
Mongol companies that were fighting along the Manchu banners were integrated into their own eight banners in 1635
993:
Some Mongol units fought for the Qing under "banners" that were not officially integrated into the eight banners
1377:
1372:, Qing forces suffered a series of disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city of
1555:
1547:
1384:
in what was considered the imperial heartlands. In desperation the Qing court ordered a Chinese mandarin,
1103:
2394:
The Chʻing Imperial Household Department: A Study of Its Organization and Principal Functions, 1662-1796
1526:
1237:
69:
Think of a structure that will be flexible enough to explain historical changes within a thematic survey
1023:
Created in 1645 after surrendered Chinese troops stopped being integrated into the Han-martial banners
578:
Unlike its Ming predecessor, which had full control over all military matters, the Qing Board of War (
698:
567:
1236:
of May 1645. By the late 19th century, the massacre was used by anti-Qing revolutionaries to arouse
1194:
1178:
1110:
The development of the Qing military system can be divided into two broad periods separated by the
610:
512:
215:
166:
53:
269:玉牒), which was revised 28 times during the Qing. Qing imperial clansmen were registered under the
2221:
1009:
Flexible integration of all kinds of tactics: mounted cavalry assisted by infantry and artillery
150:
2198:
Kwang-ching Liu, Richard J. Smith, "The Military Challenge: The North-west and the Coast," in
2014:, pp. 12 (marriages) and 75 (births and deaths; compilation of genealogy; number of revisions).
2482:
2460:
2438:
2410:
2397:
2370:
2357:
2338:
2319:
2300:
2207:
1567:
1369:
1346:
1233:
1218:
1111:
193:
125:
1518:
1315:
1297:
1245:
1149:
1131:
1099:
710:
657:
622:
579:
493:
458:
423:
362:
2491:
2469:
2447:
2423:
2383:
2233:
1626:
1621:
1559:
1485:
1167:
648:) handled all legal matters, including the supervision of various law courts and prisons.
410:
249:
1102:'s Southern Inspection Tour, Scroll Twelve: Return to the Palace (detail), 1764—1770, by
963:
Based on hunting groups called niru ("arrow"), which had become military companies (also
239:
1333:
1123:
1002:
Han eight banners continued to absorb surrendered or captured Chinese troops until 1645
308:
257:
182:
121:
104:
57:
1076:
Military control devolves to powerful governors-general (could go with previous point)
1563:
1496:
In 1894–1895, fighting over influence in Korea, Japanese troops defeated Qing forces.
1200:
1115:
730:
718:
606:
484:) was in charge of assigning, evaluating, promoting, and dismissing civil officials.
340:
316:
270:
38:
17:
1126:
society beyond petty clan affiliations, formed the core of the early Qing military.
1579:
under the overall supervision and control of a former Huai Army commander, General
1576:
1522:
1509:
1463:
1205:
1182:
760:
714:
380:
343:. By the nineteenth century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.
42:
2281:
Liu, Smith, "The Military Challenge: The North-west and the Coast," pp. 251-273.
1580:
1385:
1362:
1228:
1209:
304:
2253:
Liu, Smith, "The Military Challenge: The North-west and the Coast," pp.202-210.
555:
1475:
1450:
1213:
1186:
746:
702:
88:
63:
34:
303:. The Department's primary purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the
1467:
1459:
1221:'s banner registration reforms aimed at cutting down imperial expenditures.
676:
641:
477:
262:
108:
598:
442:
2200:
John King Fairbank, Kwang-Ching Liu, Denis Crispin Twitchett, ed. (1980).
1504:
422:), one Manchu and one Chinese, who were assisted by four vice presidents (
1572:
1445:
1289:
1128:
Need better explanation: total social-military structure, multi-ethnic...
794:
328:
320:
196:
through which Chinese officials gained an important voice in government.
178:
141:
2297:
Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723-1820
1357:
415:
1441:
1381:
1373:
1190:
1119:
706:
705:
in 1626 on the basis of informal advisory bodies created by his father
324:
312:
296:
84:
970:
formation into "Banners" as early as 1607 (mentioned in Korean source)
2335:
Ruling from Horseback: Manchu Politics in the Oboi Regency, 1661-1669
1611:
1431:
1405:
1323:
1305:
1293:
1279:
1253:
1157:
1139:
665:
630:
587:
544:
501:
466:
431:
400:
370:
300:
229:
137:
1902:, p. 71 (details of membership in the Deliberative Council);
1536:
1491:
1479:
1454:
1356:
1227:
1093:
2354:
The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
1710:, p. 163 ("Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus," supervised by Manchus).
1185:, the Banner system was expanded by Nurhachi's son and successor
1073:
Taiping rebellion, formation of the Huai Army and other militias
331:
region, and even published books. The Department was manned by
315:), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with
1380:
expeditionary force penetrated as far north as the suburbs of
1026:
Played a large role in the repression of the Three Feudatories
91:. Five great ministers of Nurhaci, the earliest origin of the
2356:, Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press,
2299:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1525:, the advent of modern weaponry resulting from the European
1189:
to include mirrored Mongol and Han Banners. After capturing
1558:
of 1894–1895 was a watershed for the Qing government.
327:, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the
157:
in March 1661 soon after the Shunzhi Emperor's death.
1770:, p. 52 (isolated emperor from his officials);
1314:). The northern walled city called "Inner Citadel" (
62:
Explain the creation of the main institutions under
2337:, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press,
1082:
Defeat against Japan marks failure of these reforms
2091:
2089:
999:in charge of infantry and artillery (one example?)
709:. In 1637, one year after he had declared himself
66:, as well as changes until Kangxi's personal reign
2316:A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China
1661:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchirokauer1978 (
1462:, created by Zeng Guofan's colleague and student
1724:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDennerline2002 (
1680:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDennerline2002 (
1225:originally intended to be a professional force.
49:, and other wikis classified as "main articles"
2266:harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFWakeman1985 (
2174:
2172:
383:. Each ministry was headed by two presidents (
2396:, Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center,
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2029:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFElliott2001 (
1948:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKessler1976 (
1868:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKessler1976 (
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1796:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWakeman1985 (
1776:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKessler1976 (
1748:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWakeman1985 (
1700:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWakeman1985 (
1583:, who used his position to eventually become
1232:A late-Qing woodblock print representing the
996:Han companies were absorbed from 1637 to 1642
693:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers
339:包衣), or "bondservants," from the Upper Three
187:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers
93:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers
8:
2053:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRhoads2000 (
2041:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRawksi1998 (
2004:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHucker1998 (
1972:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRawski1988 (
1928:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSpence2002 (
1908:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSpence2002 (
1656:
1079:Wars with western powers force more reforms
923:Eight Banners (Manchu, then Mongol and Han)
1719:
1675:
983:Incorporation of Mongol and Chinese troops
736:Foreign relations and the tributary system
2239:CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (
2077:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLui1990 (
973:At first there were probably four banners
2148:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWu1970 (
2065:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWu1970 (
1503:
1212:population under Manchu rule increased,
2318:, Stanford: Stanford University Press,
2262:
2178:
2131:
2119:
2024:
1943:
1863:
1839:
1803:
1791:
1771:
1743:
1695:
1644:
1596:
1575:. The most successful of these was the
751:Started as Bureau of Mongolian Affairs
323:, engaged in trading activities (jade,
244:
2480:
2458:
2436:
2419:
2408:
2379:
2368:
2229:
2219:
2107:
2095:
2048:
2036:
2011:
1999:
1987:
1967:
1963:
1923:
1903:
1851:
1707:
605:) had very limited powers. First, the
120:The Shunzhi emperor reestablished the
2163:
1899:
1887:
1875:
1827:
1815:
1767:
1755:
1731:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1546:Footage of a naval battle during the
1177:As Qing power developed north of the
299:emperor and the accession of his son
177:, which was run by Manchus and their
161:Reaction, reversal, and stabilization
7:
2059:. Outside the regular legal system:
311:(in which tasks it largely replaced
2072:
1172:ruling council of the Manchu nation
293:Dorgi baita be uheri kadalara yamun
2143:
2060:
1585:President of the Republic of China
793:20.2: 61-98. Shows that until the
361:The Six Boards or Six Ministries (
24:
1056:The creation of the Grand Council
101:Council of Deliberative Officials
83:Early Jurchen institutions under
1625:
1587:and finally emperor of China.
1466:, were collectively called the "
1090:Beginnings and early development
675:
640:
597:
554:
511:
476:
441:
414:
185:, and limited membership in the
1534:These reasons remain disputed.
787:Cartography in the Qing dynasty
132:To counteract the power of the
2295:Bartlett, Beatrice S. (1991),
1854:, p. 163 (specific date).
1616:
1607:
1436:
1427:
1419:
1410:
1401:
1393:
1328:
1310:
1284:
1275:
1267:
1258:
1162:
1144:
670:
635:
592:
549:
540:
532:
506:
471:
436:
405:
396:
388:
375:
234:
225:
1:
2403:0674127617; 9780674127616
2363:0674127617; 9780674127616
847:Management of the bureaucracy
566:, and oversaw the nationwide
289:Imperial Household Department
283:Imperial Household Department
277:Imperial Household Department
200:The Emperor and his household
175:Imperial Household Department
155:regents of the Kangxi Emperor
134:Imperial Household Department
47:Imperial Household Department
2392:Torbert, Preston M. (1977),
1444:into a standing army called
1353:Transition and modernization
937:Rise of the Jurchens/Manchus
918:Military of the Qing dynasty
776:The Imperial Medical College
701:was formally established by
2314:Hucker, Charles O. (1985),
1531:Self-Strengthening Movement
943:Economic support for troops
2512:
2422:value: invalid character (
2382:value: invalid character (
2352:Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998),
1170:." The princes formed the
915:
781:Territorial administration
758:
744:
728:
690:
621:The Board of Punishments (
379:) were inherited from the
307:and the activities of the
280:
213:
79:Early institution building
2333:Oxnam, Robert B. (1975),
1319:
1301:
1249:
1181:in the last years of the
1153:
1135:
1029:Role in keeping the peace
661:
626:
583:
497:
462:
427:
366:
220:The Imperial Clan Court (
1571:collectively called the
1388:, to organize regional (
1049:KX, YZ, and QL campaigns
940:Efficient fighting force
812:Prefects and magistrates
785:Might need something on
568:civil examination system
457:The Board of Personnel (
189:to Manchus and Mongols.
169:of the Kangxi Emperor's
1556:First Sino-Japanese War
1548:First Sino-Japanese War
254:uksun be kadalara yamun
2203:Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911
1706:("Thirteen Offices");
1551:
1513:
1497:
1365:
1241:
1107:
1039:The eighteenth century
897:The examination system
852:Selection of personnel
492:The Board of Revenue (
352:The central government
291:(Ch: Neiwufu 內務府; Ma:
265:of the imperial clan (
2023:Banner registration:
1914:(other institutions).
1545:
1527:Industrial Revolution
1507:
1495:
1360:
1240:among the population.
1238:anti-Manchu sentiment
1231:
1122:as a way to organize
1118:, first developed by
1097:
1059:Funding and logistics
882:Government activities
817:The local bureaucracy
1340:Peace and stagnation
946:Political power base
807:Provincial governors
721:in the early 1730s.
699:Deliberative Council
687:Deliberative Council
656:The Board of Works (
617:Board of Punishments
527:The Board of Rites (
305:Qing imperial family
1954:(restored in 1670).
1754:(composed edicts);
1631:Dabkūri dorgi hoton
1424:traditional Chinese
1398:traditional Chinese
1272:traditional Chinese
1208:progressed and the
1195:Green Standard Army
877:The judicial system
791:Late Imperial China
611:Green Standard Army
537:traditional Chinese
393:traditional Chinese
216:Imperial Clan Court
210:Imperial Clan Court
146:the Empress Dowager
140:rather than Manchu
116:The Shunzhi reforms
54:Imperial Clan Court
1659:, pp. 326–327
1552:
1514:
1498:
1453:, named after the
1416:simplified Chinese
1390:simplified Chinese
1366:
1264:simplified Chinese
1242:
1108:
842:Internal frontiers
529:simplified Chinese
453:Board of Personnel
385:simplified Chinese
357:The Six Ministries
1906:, pp. 126–27
1830:, pp. 52–53.
1734:, pp. 52–53.
1568:Meiji Restoration
1543:
1470:" (Brave Camp).
1370:Taiping Rebellion
1368:Early during the
1347:Taiping Rebellion
1336:palace complex.
1234:Yangzhou massacre
1219:Yongzheng Emperor
1114:(1850–1864). The
1112:Taiping Rebellion
902:Water conservancy
822:Other territories
564:tributary nations
194:Grand Secretariat
181:, eliminated the
167:nativist policies
126:Grand Secretariat
2503:
2495:
2490:Empty citation (
2488:
2486:
2478:
2473:
2468:Empty citation (
2466:
2464:
2456:
2451:
2446:Empty citation (
2444:
2442:
2434:
2427:
2421:
2416:
2414:
2406:
2387:
2381:
2376:
2374:
2366:
2347:
2328:
2309:
2282:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2237:
2232:has extra text (
2231:
2227:
2225:
2217:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2176:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2153:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2084:
2082:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2035:. Jurisdiction:
2034:
2021:
2015:
2009:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1941:
1935:
1933:
1921:
1915:
1913:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1801:
1789:
1783:
1781:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1693:
1687:
1685:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1657:Schirokauer 1978
1654:
1633:
1629:
1618:
1609:
1601:
1544:
1519:Second Opium War
1480:Japanese pirates
1438:
1429:
1421:
1412:
1403:
1395:
1330:
1321:
1312:
1303:
1286:
1277:
1269:
1260:
1251:
1168:Iron Cap Princes
1164:
1155:
1146:
1137:
1100:Qianlong Emperor
892:State monopolies
867:The legal system
679:
672:
663:
644:
637:
628:
601:
594:
585:
560:Dorolon i jurgan
558:
551:
542:
534:
515:
508:
499:
488:Board of Revenue
480:
473:
464:
445:
438:
429:
418:
407:
398:
390:
377:
368:
246:
236:
227:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2489:
2479:
2477:
2467:
2457:
2455:
2445:
2435:
2433:
2417:
2407:
2404:
2391:
2377:
2367:
2364:
2351:
2345:
2332:
2326:
2313:
2307:
2294:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2228:
2218:
2214:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2182:
2177:
2170:
2162:
2158:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2130:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2094:
2087:
2076:
2064:
2052:
2040:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1971:
1966:, p. 531;
1962:
1958:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1907:
1898:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1807:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1775:
1766:
1762:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1723:
1720:Dennerline 2002
1718:
1714:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1679:
1676:Dennerline 2002
1674:
1670:
1660:
1655:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1636:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1537:
1486:esprit de corps
1414:) and village (
1355:
1342:
1092:
1016:Green Standards
949:Ethnic policies
920:
914:
909:
907:Disaster relief
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
824:
819:
814:
809:
804:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
757:
749:
743:
738:
733:
727:
695:
689:
654:
619:
576:
525:
517:Boigon i jurgan
490:
455:
359:
354:
349:
285:
279:
218:
212:
207:
202:
163:
118:
81:
76:
22:
21:
20:
12:
11:
5:
2509:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2475:
2453:
2430:
2429:
2402:
2389:
2362:
2349:
2343:
2330:
2324:
2311:
2305:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2283:
2274:
2263:Wakeman (1985)
2255:
2246:
2212:
2191:
2168:
2156:
2136:
2124:
2112:
2100:
2098:, p. 179.
2085:
2016:
1992:
1980:
1956:
1936:
1916:
1892:
1880:
1856:
1832:
1820:
1794:, p. 1016
1784:
1760:
1736:
1712:
1688:
1668:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1634:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1354:
1351:
1341:
1338:
1334:Forbidden City
1091:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1006:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
985:
984:
980:
979:
978:
977:
974:
971:
968:
958:
957:
953:
952:
951:
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
932:
931:
925:
924:
916:Main article:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
827:Mongol regions
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
766:Other agencies
764:
759:Main article:
756:
753:
745:Main article:
742:
739:
737:
734:
729:Main article:
726:
723:
691:Main article:
688:
685:
681:Weilere jurgan
653:
652:Board of Works
650:
646:Beidere jurgan
618:
615:
575:
572:
524:
523:Board of Rites
521:
489:
486:
482:Hafan i jurgan
454:
451:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
281:Main article:
278:
275:
258:Hongwu Emperor
214:Main article:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
183:Hanlin Academy
162:
159:
122:Hanlin Academy
117:
114:
105:Six Ministries
80:
77:
75:
72:
71:
70:
67:
60:
58:Six Ministries
50:
23:
15:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2508:
2493:
2484:
2476:
2471:
2462:
2454:
2449:
2440:
2432:
2431:
2425:
2412:
2405:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2372:
2365:
2359:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2344:0-226-64244-5
2340:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2325:0-8047-1193-3
2321:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2278:
2275:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2235:
2230:|volume=
2223:
2215:
2213:0-521-22029-7
2209:
2205:
2204:
2195:
2192:
2186:
2181:, p. 128
2180:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2166:, p. 30.
2165:
2160:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2140:
2137:
2134:, p. 28.
2133:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2116:
2113:
2110:, pp. 179-80.
2109:
2104:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2074:
2068:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1996:
1993:
1990:, p. 13.
1989:
1984:
1981:
1975:
1970:, p. 233
1969:
1965:
1960:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1940:
1937:
1931:
1926:, p. 133
1925:
1920:
1917:
1911:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1893:
1890:, p. 65.
1889:
1884:
1881:
1878:, p. 63.
1877:
1871:
1865:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1836:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1821:
1818:, p. 54.
1817:
1811:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1788:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1761:
1758:, p. 52.
1757:
1751:
1746:, p. 931
1745:
1740:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1722:, p. 113
1721:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1698:, p. 931
1697:
1692:
1689:
1683:
1678:, p. 113
1677:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1613:
1605:
1600:
1597:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1564:Beiyang Fleet
1561:
1557:
1549:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1477:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1425:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1359:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1281:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1116:Eight Banners
1113:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1089:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
988:
987:
986:
982:
981:
975:
972:
969:
966:
962:
961:
960:
959:
955:
954:
948:
945:
942:
939:
936:
935:
934:
933:
929:
928:
927:
926:
922:
921:
919:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
866:
861:
857:Communication
856:
851:
846:
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
799:
796:
792:
788:
780:
775:
771:The Censorate
770:
765:
762:
754:
752:
748:
740:
735:
732:
731:Grand Council
725:Grand Council
724:
722:
720:
719:Grand Council
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
694:
686:
684:
682:
678:
673:
667:
659:
651:
649:
647:
643:
638:
632:
624:
616:
614:
612:
608:
607:Eight Banners
604:
603:Coohai jurgan
600:
595:
589:
581:
573:
571:
569:
565:
561:
557:
552:
546:
538:
530:
522:
520:
518:
514:
509:
503:
495:
487:
485:
483:
479:
474:
468:
460:
452:
450:
448:
447:Ashan i amban
444:
439:
433:
425:
421:
417:
412:
408:
402:
394:
386:
382:
378:
372:
364:
356:
351:
346:
344:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
284:
276:
274:
272:
271:Eight Banners
268:
264:
259:
255:
251:
247:
241:
237:
231:
223:
217:
209:
204:
199:
197:
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
160:
158:
156:
152:
147:
143:
139:
135:
130:
127:
123:
115:
113:
110:
106:
102:
96:
94:
90:
86:
78:
73:
68:
65:
61:
59:
55:
51:
48:
44:
40:
39:Grand Council
36:
32:
31:
30:
27:
19:
18:User:Madalibi
2393:
2353:
2334:
2315:
2306:0-52008645-7
2296:
2288:Bibliography
2277:
2258:
2249:
2202:
2194:
2179:Elliott 2001
2159:
2139:
2132:Torbert 1977
2127:
2120:Torbert 1977
2115:
2103:
2075:, p. 31
2051:, p. 46
2039:, p. 72
2027:, p. 88
2025:Elliott 2001
2019:
2010:(staffing);
2002:, p. 28
1995:
1983:
1959:
1946:, p. 30
1944:Kessler 1976
1939:
1919:
1895:
1883:
1866:, p. 26
1864:Kessler 1976
1859:
1842:, p. 27
1840:Kessler 1976
1835:
1823:
1806:, p. 27
1804:Kessler 1976
1792:Wakeman 1985
1787:
1774:, p. 27
1772:Kessler 1976
1763:
1744:Wakeman 1985
1739:
1715:
1696:Wakeman 1985
1691:
1671:
1630:
1615:
1599:
1577:Beiyang Army
1553:
1523:Song Dynasty
1515:
1510:Beiyang Army
1499:
1484:
1472:
1464:Li Hongzhang
1435:
1409:
1367:
1343:
1327:
1309:
1285:zhùfáng bāqí
1283:
1257:
1243:
1223:
1206:Ming Dynasty
1199:
1183:Ming Dynasty
1176:
1161:
1145:shàng sān qí
1143:
1109:
964:
930:Significance
912:The military
832:Central Asia
790:
784:
761:Zongli Yamen
755:Zongli Yamen
750:
715:Qing Dynasty
696:
680:
669:
655:
645:
634:
620:
602:
591:
577:
574:Board of War
559:
548:
526:
516:
505:
491:
481:
470:
456:
446:
435:
419:
404:
381:Ming Dynasty
374:
360:
347:Inner Palace
336:
332:
309:inner palace
292:
286:
266:
253:
245:Tsung-jen fu
243:
233:
219:
191:
179:bondservants
171:four regents
164:
142:bondservants
131:
119:
97:
82:
43:Zongli Yamen
28:
25:
2420:|isbn=
2380:|isbn=
2146:, p. 9
2108:Rawski 1998
2096:Rawski 1998
2063:, p. 9
2049:Rhoads 2000
2037:Rawksi 1998
2012:Rawski 1998
2000:Hucker 1998
1988:Rawski 1998
1968:Rawski 1988
1964:Hucker 1985
1924:Spence 2002
1904:Spence 2002
1852:Rawski 1998
1708:Rawski 1998
1581:Yuan Shikai
1554:Losing the
1512:in training
1386:Zeng Guofan
1363:Zeng Guofan
1210:Han Chinese
420:Aliha amban
205:The Emperor
2164:Oxnam 1975
1900:Oxnam 1975
1888:Oxnam 1975
1876:Oxnam 1975
1828:Oxnam 1975
1816:Oxnam 1975
1768:Oxnam 1975
1756:Oxnam 1975
1732:Oxnam 1975
1640:References
1617:zǐjìnchéng
1476:Qi Jiguang
1451:Xiang Army
1259:jìnlǚ bāqí
1214:Hong Taiji
1187:Hong Taiji
1179:Great Wall
862:Corruption
747:Lifan Yuan
741:Lifan Yuan
703:Hung Taiji
335:(Chinese:
240:Wade–Giles
235:Zōngrén fǔ
151:Wu Liangfu
89:Hong Taiji
64:Hung Taiji
35:Lifan Yuan
2222:cite book
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837:Tibet
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317:Tibet
267:Yudie
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