User:PVardon/sandbox - Knowledge (XXG)

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epidemic proportions. Venereal diseases were thought to be destroying the German national strength, and it was the carrier’s national duty to seek the proper treatment to protect families and the nation from fertility destroying diseases. Germany passed an emergency decree that punished persons who knowingly engaged in sexual intercourse when infected with a venereal disease. As part of the official propaganda campaign against syphilis, public institutions would claim the disease could be passed to infants from the father at the moment of conception, from hotel sheets and toilet seats, and most usually from the lower social classes. Amid that heightened national concern, in 1919, Citron wrote, “Die Syphilis,” for a medical collection edited by Kraus. Citron’s book was perhaps the most authoritative and comprehensive review of the clinical and pathologic manifestations, the treatment for, and the serodiagnostic testing for syphilis in the German language and perhaps in any language of the era. Citron wrote that the transmission of syphilis would only occur from person to person,, a scientific message quite different than the official, more fear-based message. In 1921, Citron published experimental results for the treatment of gonorrhea.

224:, Citron developed the world’s first clinically viable serodiagnostic test for disease, a test and that would shape the field for decades. For his test, he pioneered the use of human antibodies, sampled from a broad range of stratified human medical data strictly controlled for sample variability. He used this method rather than the then prevalent use of small numbers of ad hoc samples of blood sera from animals to test for antigens as a marker for animal disease. Citron anticipated modern statistical methods to verify positive diagnostic results and using his method, developed the first clinically viable test to diagnose syphilis. His test would remain in use for over fifty years and would be popularly known either as the ‘Wassermann Test,’ or the ‘Wassermann Reaction.’ He also developed first clinically viable blood test to diagnose tuberculosis. 512:

around the world with various levels of skill, the Wassermann Test was believed to be cumbersome and prone to poor results unless performed by skilled technicians. Many alternative tests flourished with a variety of claims made about their results. The Committee, composed of leading non-German serologists from around the world, held an international competition to evaluate which was the technically best method to diagnose syphilis. The Committee ran repeated replication tests of the many alternative methods and despite a remaining hostility toward German scientists, determined Citron’s Wassermann Test was in the words of the League of Nations, “superior.” The League of Nations’ effort at standardization contributed in part to Fleck’s concern about Citron’s ‘catechism’ in serology.

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diseases were common. He also served as the division’s sanitation and hygiene officer where he would regularly inspect the sanitation and hygiene of the troops on the front lines. His division served on the Eastern Front during the battles of Tannenberg and Warsaw and on the Western Front during the major battles of the Somme and the Flanders, among many lesser battles. Citron would serve in the field hospital continuously from the start of the war, without a day's interruption for over three years, until Kraus made an urgent appeal for his return to the Charitie for the treatment of a neglected civilian population. Citron was discharged from the Army on Dec 31, 1917, having been awarded the honors of Iron Cross First and Second class.

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those who acknowledged an infection would have been treated with the then standard mercury treatment. The treatment, he surmised, probably suppressed the patient’s antibody production. Those that did not acknowledge an infection would not have been treated and would have higher antibody production. Citron’s insight is that medical therapy has an influence on antibody production, which is important to know for a testing laboratory. Citron surmised that Wassermann, Neisser, and Bruck’s results might have been so poor in part because they used sera from monkeys that had been medically treated with mercury first. Such an insight could only have been discovered using rigorously controlled clinical data.

213:, he was a clinical physician; during the First World War, a German Army field doctor; a Professor of Internal Medicine at the University of Berlin; the Chief of the Charite Hospital’s Bacteriological-Serological Scientific Laboratory and later the Physician in Chief for its Second Medical Clinic. He ended his career as the Physician-in-Chief at Cairo’s Jewish Hospital, L’ Hopital Israelite du Cairo. He wrote early medical textbooks in bacteriology and immunology and dozens of research papers published in leading medical journals. Proficient in five languages, German, English, French, Hebrew, and Arabic, he cared for patients in each. 369:

human samples, Citron could correlate the outcomes of his serological lab results with a patient’s medical data and clinical profiles. Citron would know whether the patient acknowledged having a syphilitic infection in the past, whether the symptoms of an infection were present or absent, the stages of the disease, whether primary, secondary, or tertiary, and the post-syphilitic condition of the patient. In 1907, Citron’s use of large stratified samples to control for the variability in human disease and variation in sample quality was an unknown practice and would only become a common practice in the 1950’s.

346:, Citron applied the combined action of antibody and complement-fixation theory to author five papers evaluating the immunity of various animals from diverse infectious diseases. He co-authored another four papers with Wassermann and other researchers on related topics, demonstrating in part that “antitoxins can be formed anywhere in the body when the toxin is fixed,” a phenomenon they described as local immunity. William Bulloch, a leading historian of bacteriology, described Citron’s animal studies with Wassermann as important for demonstrating Ehrlich’s theory of immunity. 365:

from monkeys to test for syphilitic antigens, is often cited as the basis for the Wassermann Test. However, the number of true positive results for this test was too low to be of any practical value. Wassermann, recognizing the limitation of his approach, assigned Citron to develop a test. Among competing methods developed in different laboratories, of which there would be many, only Citron’s method achieved reliably high true positive results. It would come to be used as the cornerstone diagnostic tool in the general population.

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prohibited from earning incomes in their private capacity and because they used the prestige of their positions to promote commercial products, the Prussian Health Ministry Court of Inquiry investigated their conduct. The Court determined this was a minor scandal and settled the matter for all three without consequence. Fleischmann’s use of the Citron name for the promotion of their products in the US was a measure of Citron’s continued international prestige.

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included subjects in religion. The one exception was the Johns Hopkin School of Medicine, which was modeled on German Universities. The AMA would only require the training of physicians with a scientific education in 1915 (Source: Levine, Emily J. Allies and Rivals: German-American Exchange and the Rise of the Modern Research University. United States, University of Chicago Press, 2021. Pages 117 to 119.)

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Egypt, Citron would serve as the Physician in Chief for the Jewish Hospital where he would practice medicine for the rest of his life. At the hospital, he joined several former students whom he had previously helped obtain their doctorates. The President of the Jewish Hospital was a former student. At the Jewish Hospital, he treated such renowned patients as Egypt’s

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public lectures on health, mentored younger physicians, and was in gradual semi-retirement by 1945. He also offered shelter in his home to his cousin, Eduard Aronsohn, and his family, refugees from Nazi Germany for an extended number of years. They would remember Citron for saving their lives and continued generosity for years afterward.

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and harassment of the Jewish residents along Kurfurstendamm and at his university throughout 1931 and 1932, Citron wanted to leave Germany. Lilli persuaded them to remain, perhaps aware of a growing illness that would soon take her young life. After 13 years of marriage, Lilli died of a brain tumor on December 1932.

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results with the known infection status of the patients. Anticipating the later use of more formal statistical methods, Citron used large numbers of well-controlled patient samples to allow the stratification of his results by disease stage rather than the prevailing method of utilizing small numbers of

443:(1910) (4th ed. 1923), which became a standard text for students and medical practitioners in German, English, Russian, Spanish, and Italian. He would regularly revise it through four editions. It was published a couple of years after the creation of Germany’s first Journal of Immunology in 1908 ‘ 599:

of late February 1933 that suspended the German Constitution, tension in the Berlin Jewish community was high. Brownshirts returned to again threaten the Jewish neighborhood along Kurfurstendamm during the first months of 1933. With the knowledge that Jewish employees would be dismissed as part

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Although a prominent researcher and physician, Citron lived on a modest civil servant’s salary. With a young family to support, Citron’s salary was cut by 6% in 1931, by another 20% in early 1932, and then another 20% later in 1932. With recurring Brownshirt-led anti-Jewish demonstrations

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With the end of the First World War, Citron married Lilli Alice Schayer in February 1919. They lived on Kurfurstendamm 66 and had three children in the first four years of their marriage, Devoted to the German Jewish community and a committed Zionist, Citron, along with friend Albert Einstein, headed

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Kraus stepped down as director of the 2 Medical Clinic in 1927 to be replaced by the longtime colleague of both Citron and Kraus, Prof. Dr. Gustav von Bregman. In the same year, Citron resigned from his position at the 2 Medical Clinic’s Polyclinic to devote more time at the dental school where

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and soon after, to the position of Professor of Internal Medicine, at the University of Berlin in 1913, at a time when the University of Berlin was the leading medical research center in the world. Germany had 30% of all Nobel Prizes in medicine and 50% of them were at the University of Berlin.

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Citron used human sera from almost a thousand human patients with known health profiles from the Charite hospital that he personally collected. His predecessors used sera from a small number of monkeys for which there were no health profiles. By using a large number of strictly controlled

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The important and immediate impact of Citron's contribution was the rapid and widespread adoption of his test for clinical use. With the adoption of Citron's test, clinicians worldwide changed the treatment protocol for patients who test positive for syphilis. With a positive test result, clinicians

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In 1945, with the end of the Second World War, at the age of 67, Citron was recruited by his old friend and colleague from the Charite, Dr. Picard to leave his semi-retirement to join him at Cairo’s Jewish Hospital, L’ Hopital Israelite du Cairo. As a member of the Royal Society of Medicine of

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Citron’s discovery had the immediate impact of changing the medical profession's use of mercurial therapy for syphilitic patients. From then on, testing, using Citron’s method would determine the treatment regime. A treatment would be initiated when there was a positive antibody reaction

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By August 1899, Citron had studied medicine at the universities of Munich, Freiburg, and Berlin, and passed the preliminary medical examination with the grade of ‘very good,’ a rare distinction. He began his obligatory military service as a field doctor where after partial fulfillment in 1902,

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While in Cyprus to visit his Israeli children, the longtime smoker felt the first symptoms of the lung cancer that at first appeared benign but which he seemed to know would be terminal. He would die of the disease in January 1952. On the last day of his life, while sitting on his death

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In 1930, with the Depression engulfing society and their clinical and teaching salaries cut (see below), Bregman, Kraus and Citron allowed their name and title to be used for the promotion of ‘the healthy use of Fleischmann yeast,’ a commercial product. Because physicians with public hospitals were

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Citron’s method achieved true positive test results of about 80% and was quickly recognized for its diagnostic value. Following Citron’s active efforts at persuasion through journal articles, his textbook of 1910, numerous lectures, and his engagement with individual researcher–clinicians over an

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With his success in the laboratory, and following the practice of Koch, Ehrlich, Neisser, and other leading researchers of infectious disease, Citron traveled abroad to study infectious disease in the field. Citron traveled to Italy where he worked as a clinical physician for several months, and to

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In 1906, Wassermann and Carl Bruck developed a serodiagnostic test for tuberculosis using bacterial extracts. Concurrently and independently, Citron developed a serodiagnostic test for tuberculosis using the entire bacterium. With a reliably high rate of true positives, these would be the world’s

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An American colleague wrote in 1910 about Citron that “he is a genial, earnest worker and a delightful gentleman, thoroughly interested in his work, an excellent teacher and in all probability one of the best laboratory men on the Continent,” a testament to Citron’s international reputation from a

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In the same year, 1906, Wassermann, newly appointed director of the Koch Institutes’ Division for Experimental Therapy and Serum Research, with Carl Bruck and Albert Neisser attempted to develop a practical serodiagnostic test for syphilis. Their method, which used a small number of ad hoc samples

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An early act of the League of Nations was to create their Health Organization’s Standardization Committee in 1921. The Standardization Committee’s first act as part of the worldwide concern about an epidemic of venereal diseases, was to evaluate Citron’s version of the Wassermann test. Used

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With his breakthrough, in 1907, Citron as the sole author published the technical details for his Wassermann Test, and with Kraus, as editor of a collection of related papers, published Citron’s general clinical and laboratory approach for the serodiagnosis of disease. In 1910, Citron published a

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Citron also noticed there were two groups of patients that exhibited strong clinical indications of syphilis but had differing antibody test results: one group acknowledged their infection, and another group had the infection but did not acknowledge an infection. Citron had the insight that

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A German medical school education of the era required four years of courses in biology, chemistry with laboratory techniques among other rigorous scientific subjects. A medical school education for American doctors had no formal requirements, were typically only 2 or 3 years long and often

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Marks, Harry M.. The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2000. Chap 5 Managing Chance. It was only by the 1950’s that statistical methods in clinical research were widely understood to be necessary to

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Citron left Germany for British Mandatory Palestine with his young children on March 20, 1933. He arrived in Tel Aviv to an emerging nation without a medical school or place to teach. He lived at 27 Nachmani Street, Tel Aviv where he worked as a clinical physician in private practice, gave

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disorders, and he contributed to the study of the pathogenesis of various tumors. His research was published in leading medical journals, and he wrote very early textbooks in bacteriology and immunology for students and practitioners that were revised through four editions, were translated into

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are frequently cited as the developers of the Wassermann test. They were the first to attempt a diagnostic test for syphilis. Their method involved using blood sera from small numbers of syphilitic monkeys to test for the presence of antigens. Their method yielded low true positive results of

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Citron made several unique contributions. Rather than animals, he used human test subjects with known clinical profiles that included syphilis infection status. He evaluated the blood samples for antibodies, rather than antigens, using rigorous laboratory controls and compared those

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Citron would also be known for the breadth of his research. He was a leading authority for syphilis, and he made contributions to the understanding of the disease processes for gonorrhea, tuberculosis, typhus, meningitis, cholera, tetanus, and the swine flu among other infectious diseases. He

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The Spanish Flu was not the only infectious disease of national concern. In Dec 1918, with the post-world war return of millions of soldiers, there was a heightened concern for a rising incidence of venereal disease, especially syphilis and gonorrhea, which were widely believed to be at

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With the start of the First World War on Aug 1, 1914, Citron served as “Doctor for the Armies” with the 36 Infantry Division in the Lazarett military hospital Nr. 290. In that role he treated the wounded and ill when tuberculosis, malaria, diphtheria, typhus among other infectious

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Citron was born on October 26, 1878, in Berlin, Germany to religiously observant Jewish parents, Judah David Leib Citron and Lina Citron (formerly Aronsohn). His parents were wealthy sponge merchants one generation removed from the impoverished east Prussian shtetls of Vyekshnya and

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Citron, Julius Bernhard. "Die Syphilis" (in the edition of the Specialist Pathol Ther. KRAUS / BRUGSCH, vol. 2,1), Berlin 1919. Page 67, “Ihre Ubertragung durch von Mensch zu Mensch statt. Mitunter kann einmal eine Ubertragung durch von menschlichen Sekreten und Excreten verunreinigte

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Upon his return to the Charites 2 Medical Clinic, and his appointment as Physician in Chief for the Polyclinic, he resumed the treatment of patients, broadened his research interests and, during the worldwide Spanish Flu of 1918, wrote a “clinical picture” of the deadly pandemic.

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studied the treatment of diabetes using insulin within a couple of years of insulin's discovery in the US, when in Germany there were only a handful of vials of experimental insulin and only a couple of researchers. He pioneered research in the relationship of oral health to

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of April 7, 1933, and that Von Bergmann, Citron’s longtime colleague would be the “sober enforcer of the Nazi injustice,” Citron decided to leave. About 250 Jewish or dissident staff and faculty would be expelled from the Charite in those early months of the Nazi era.

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even in the absence of known symptoms and would continue until the reaction was shown to be persistently negative through testing. The prior practice was to treat with mercury only in the presence of observable symptoms and would continue until the symptoms disappeared.

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Kraus sitting far right, Nicolai, Citron, Von Bergmann, and Rahel Hirsch (photo 1910). Citron dedicated his 1910 book, Immunology to Fredrich Kraus on the occasion of the opening of the II Medical Division. (Photo Source: Die Charité in Berlin by Volker

463:” in 1927 and about 10,000 papers cited it by 1935. It was from Citron’s contribution to “a meaningful discovery” that a “thought collective” was formed and that created the “social conditioning” for the practice of their new science, serology. 587:

During the high era of the Weimar period, Citron enjoyed professional success working alongside Kraus and had a happy home life with Lilli. Germany’s revolutionary years, which started with the Great Depression, would change everything.

323:, were recognized as two of the world’s leading medical research centers of the era, both affiliated with the University of Berlin . He joined the Koch Institute as a research assistant in January 1904, the last year of Nobel Laureate 523:

he continued as Professor of Internal Medicine and taught dental students in what he described as the intersection between internal medicine and dentistry. He published two articles on the topic during this period of his career.

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Wassermann, A., A. Neisser, and C. Bruck. 1906. Eine serodiagnostische Reaktion bei Syphilis. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 32 (19): 745–6. Wassermann, August von et al. “Eine serodiagnostische Reaktion bei Syphilis.”

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Citron and Kraus as leading physicians in Europe, in promotional articles for Fleischmann’s Yeast. Note, the article does not mention the Wassermann Test, suggesting Citron’s international reputation was independent of it by this

205:(Oct 26, 1878 – Jan 18, 1952) was an early German Jewish researcher in bacteriology, immunology, and serology, specialties devoted to the prevention of infectious disease. Best known for his contribution to the development of the 793:

Henk van den Belt. The Collective Construction of a Scientific Fact: A Re-examination of the Early Period of the Wassermann Reaction (1906–1912), Social Epistemology, (2011) 25:4, 311-339, see especially pages 324 to 327.

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Citron with an historic group of medical researchers at the Charite in 1909. Von Bergmann (No. 7) would follow Kraus as Clinic Director in 1927. In 1933, Von Bergmann would enforce Nazi policy to remove the Jewish

279:’s first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland in 1897. Citron almost certainly attended at least the 5th Zionist Congress in 1901 and maybe earlier Zionist Congresses as a spectator, where he formed relationships with 239:

about 20%, too low to be of clinical value. Recognizing their results’ shortcomings, Wassermann assigned Citron to develop a method. Citron’s method achieved verifiably true positive results in humans of about 80%.

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Kaunas. Family memoirs mention that Citron was a precocious child who made regular visits to his ancestral shtetls where the future bacteriologist-hygienist was said to enjoy riding on manure wagons.

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Citron, Julius Bernhard. "Die Syphilis" (in the edition of the Specialist Pathol Ther. KRAUS / BRUGSCH, vol. 2,1), Berlin 1919. Pg 1018, “Dass bei der congenitalen, auf placentarem Wege erfolgenden Infektion.”

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would describe as the “catechism” in the field of serology through at least the mid-1930’s. The textbook also set off what Fleck described as an “avalanche” when he noted that over 1,500 papers cited Citron’s

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He served in the German Army as a field doctor in 1902, completing his military service in October 1903. He then continued his education at the highly selective Royal Institute for Infectious Disease

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multiple languages and were used for several decades. As a Professor of Internal Medicine at the University of Berlin for over two decades, he taught hundreds of medical students until the Nazi era.

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Timm, Annette F.. The Politics of Fertility in Twentieth-Century Berlin. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2010. Chap 1 Venereal disease and the crisis of sexuality in the Weimar Republic.

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Henk van den Belt. The Collective Construction of a Scientific Fact: A Re-examination of the Early Period of the Wassermann Reaction (1906–1912), Social Epistemology, (2011) 25:4, pages 323-327

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extended period, which he understood to be a part of the scientific process, his method was adopted by a majority of bacteriologist – serologists and clinical hospitals around the world.

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Henk van den Belt. The Collective Construction of a Scientific Fact: A Re-examination of the Early Period of the Wassermann Reaction (1906–1912), Social Epistemology, (2011) 25:4, pg 325

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Weindling, Paul, “Health, Race and German Politics Between National Unification and Nazism 1870 – 1945,” Cambridge History of Medicine, Cambridge University Press, 1989, pages 158, 159.

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Citron in middle (6 person from left and right) at opening of Charite’s Bacteriological-Serological Laboratory in 1910. (Photo Source: Die Charité in Berlin by Volker Hess)

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Wassermann, A., and Citron, J., ‘Ueber die Bildungsstatten der Typhusimmunkorper. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der localen Im¬ munitat der Gewebe , Ztschr.f. Hyg. u. Infektionskrankh., 1905

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Citron was appointed the Charite’s Chief of the Bacteriological-Serological Scientific Laboratory in 1912, the year that he published his updated comprehensive book of bacteriology,

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young age. Citron, though, should be known as more than one of the best laboratory men. Citron laid the groundwork for integrating the laboratory sciences with clinical practice.

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who, only a few years after attempting to lead a revolution in Germany, was seeking residency in Germany in 1929. Citron and Kraus had previously examined Trotsky in 1926.

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bed, his close friend Picard found him reading a scientific volume, which his friend thought represented his life, the life of a leading medical mind, curious until the end.

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even in the absence of symptoms and would continue the treatment until their patients tested negative. This is important because syphilis often does not manifest symptoms.

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Wildt, Michael. An Uncompromising Generation: The Nazi Leadership of the Reich Security Main Office. United Kingdom, University of Wisconsin Press, 2009. Pages 50 & 84.

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Marks, Harry M.. The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2000. Page 200

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Ottoman Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt for his practical field studies. Through his travels, Citron developed an affection for the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean.

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The British Lancet announcement from 1913 of Citron’s appointment as Professor to the University of Berlin and the cover of his comprehensive book of bacteriology.

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Still in 1907, Citron left the Koch Institute for a position with the 2 Medical Clinic of the Charite Hospital and Medical Research Center, under Clinic director,

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August von Wassermann and Carl Bruck, "Experimentelle Studien Uber die Wirkung von Tuberkelbacillen Praparaten," Deut. med. Wochenschr., 32 (1906), 449-454.

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Citron with daughter Evelyn and grandson Gadi (Gary) in Cyprus (approx. 1950) at the time he experienced the first symptoms of his terminal illness.

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Rafal Bialynicki-Birula, The 100th anniversary of Wassermann-Neisser-Bruck reaction, Clinics in Dermatology, Volume 26, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 79-88

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Citron’s offer letter to be Physician in Chief for the Jewish Hospital (1944) Cairo’s Jewish Hospital, L’ Hopital Israelite du Cairo (Stock Photo)

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first discovered insulin as a treatment for diabetes in 1922. Within a couple of years, Citron conducted experiments with insulin in 1924.

451:’ in 1916, and even before America’s first professional society in the field, the American Association of Immunologists, in 1913. 439:

Citron published his next medical textbook, Die Methoden der Immunodiagnostik und Immunotherapie und ihre praktische Verwertung (

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Citron, an early and lifelong Zionist, was a founding member of the Bar Kochba youth group of Berlin in 1898, just a year after

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Citron, Julius Bernhard. "Die Syphilis" (in the edition of the Specialist Pathol Ther. KRAUS / BRUGSCH, vol. 2,1), Berlin 1919

231: 573: 319:) where important discoveries in the cause of infectious disease were first made. The Robert Koch Institute, along with the 821:

Der Veränderbare Körper : Jüdische Turner Männlichkeit Und Das Wiedergewinnen Von Geschichte in Deutschland Um 1900

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It was from this textbook that the scientific paradigm for the first generation of serologists was created, and which

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Citron, Julius. "Die Komplementbindungsversuche bei Erkrankungen mit bekannten, aber nicht züchtbaren Erregern."

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Mazumder, Paulin M. H., “In the Silence of the Laboratory: The League of Nations Standardizes Syphilis Tests,”

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The Charite’s 2nd Medical Clinic: Citron bottom row, second from right. Kraus, standing middle (approx. 1926)

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Kater, Michael H.. Doctors under Hitler. United Kingdom, University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 13

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Kater, Michael H.. Doctors under Hitler. United Kingdom, University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 13

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Citron, Julius. "Die erfolgreiche Behandlung eines Falles von Gonokokkensepsis mit Meningokokkenserum1."

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Bulloch, William. The History of Bacteriology. United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 1938, page 270.

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Lilli Schayer (date unknown) and Citron with Lilli and his first two children, Ralph and Herbert, 1922.

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Silverstein, Arthur M. "The heuristic value of experimental systems: the case of immune hemolysis."

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Silverstein, Arthur M. "The heuristic value of experimental systems: the case of immune hemolysis."

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Silverstein, Arthur M. "The heuristic value of experimental systems: the case of immune hemolysis."

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As one of the last professional activities that Citron and Kraus conducted together, they examined

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See here for the Charites’ account of the growing influence of National Socialism at the Charite.

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outbreak of 1905, probably Berlin’s relatively limited outbreak of that year that took few lives.

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Julius Citron, "Ueber naturliche und kiinstliche Agressine," Zentralbl. Bakter., 41 (1906), 230

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Kraus, Rudolf, and Levaditi, C.: Handbuch der Technik und Methodik der Immunitätsforschung, Bd

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Notice in French newspaper that Citron and Kraus examined Trotsky in 1929 as they had in 1926.

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Fleck, Ludwik et al. “Genesis and development of a scientific fact.” (1979). Chap 3 & 4.

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Cover for Citron’s first book, Clinical Bacteriology, Protozoa and Immunodiagnostics (1908)

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at the age of 24, he completed his dissertation, was awarded a degree as a medical doctor

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Citron also participated in the Koch Institute’s activities to combat Berlin’s limited

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Citron in Aug 1914 at the start of the war and during the war (place and date unknown)

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from Freiburg University and passed the state medical exam with the grade of ‘good.’

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A death notice for Citron from the British ‘Jewish Chronical,’ dated March 1952.

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Citron died and was buried in the Bassatine Jewish Cemetery of Cairo, Egypt.

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With the appointment of Hitler as Reich Chancellor on Jan 30, 1933, and the

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Immunity, Methods of Diagnosis and Therapy and Their Practical Application)

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Citron, Julius, and Fritz Munk. "Das Wesen der Wassermannschen Reaktion."

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Citron is recognized as a persecuted colleague at the Charite, today.

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In his first year at the Koch Institute, and within a few years of

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Paradentoses as a symptom of endocrine and metabolic disorders

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revised version of his Wassermann Test with co-author, Munk.

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Citron shortly before his death in Cairo and his burial site.

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Citron, Julius. "Das klinische Bild der spanischen Grippe."

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Charite Hospital 2 Medical Clinic (stock photo date unknown)

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Citron’s very rare book, ‘Die Syphilis’ and its first page.

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Clinical Bacteriology Protozoa and Immunodiagnostics (1908)

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Bacteriology, Immunology, Serology and Internal Medicine

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Laboratory Disease, Robert Koch’s Medical Bacteriology,

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Lilli Alice Schayer (1893 - 1932) (m. 1919; 3 children)

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Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009,

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Citron was buried at Cairo’s Basatin Jewish cemetery.

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would initiate the treatment of their patients with

186: 174: 159: 151: 143: 135: 123: 111: 95: 572:among others in support of the creation of the 447:,’ well before America’s first journal, the ‘ 8: 43:. A user sandbox is a subpage of the user's 735:Citron, Julius. "Experiments on insulin." 697:Vortrag Berliner medizinische Gesellschaft 103: 92: 468:Clinical Bacteriology and Protozoa (1912) 813:DMW-Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 718:DMW-Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 7: 778:address the variability of disease. 770:address the variability of disease. 564:a group of prominent Jews including 344:Ehrlich’s complement-fixation theory 757:Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 445:Zeitschrift fur Immunitdtsforschung 602:Nazi Civil Service Restoration Act 14: 867:Journal of the History of Biology 788:Journal of the History of Biology 687:Journal of the History of Biology 357:earliest successful blood tests. 709:Gebrauchsgegenstande erfolgen.” 192: 163:Ralph, Herbert and Evelyn Citron 53:Create or edit your own sandbox 24: 799:Die serodiagnostik der syphilis 727:, Vol 16, No. 3, pp 437 – 459. 574:Hebrew University of Jerusalem 207:Wassermann serodiagnostic test 1: 76:Submit your draft for review! 823:. Mohr Siebeck 2009. Pg 53 310:Julius Citon's Dissertation 49:not an encyclopedia article 883: 742:Citron, Julius Bernhard, “ 725:Social History of Medicine 815:36.34 (1910): 1560-1561. 797:Citron, Julius Bernhard. 461:serodiagnosis of syphilis 220:In the emerging field of 191: 182: 167: 139:Bassatine Jewish Cemetery 102: 720:47.31 (1921): 891-891. 203:Julius Bernhard Citron: 619:Emperor Haile Selassie 311: 303: 832:Robert Koch Institute 597:Reichstag Fire Decree 449:Journal of Immunology 333:August von Wassermann 317:Robert Koch Institute 309: 301: 267:Early Life and Career 228:August von Wassermann 97:Julius Bernard Citron 838:Christoph Gradmann, 748:Schw. Monat. f. Zahn 830:Later renamed the 621:, and the Persian 312: 304: 302:Julius Citron 1898 869:(1994): 437-447. 819:Wildmann Daniel. 790:(1994): 437-447. 750:41 (1931): 1219. 739:20 (1924): 1362. 689:(1994): 437-447. 660: 655: 649: 639: 633: 584: 555: 542: 529: 508: 494: 481: 435: 430: 424: 418: 411: 404:(4th ed. 1924). 200: 199: 169:Scientific career 84: 83: 60:Other sandboxes: 58: 874: 658: 653: 647: 637: 631: 582: 552: 540: 527: 517:Fredrick Banting 506: 492: 479: 433: 427: 422: 415: 409: 321:Charite Hospital 196: 127:January 18, 1952 115:October 26, 1878 107: 93: 80: 79: 77: 66:Template sandbox 52: 28: 27: 21: 882: 881: 877: 876: 875: 873: 872: 871: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 837: 817: 781: 773: 768: 752: 734: 730: 683: 678: 676: 673: 662: 652: 646: 636: 579: 566:Rabbi Leo Baeck 561: 549: 539: 526: 505: 488: 478: 438: 421: 414: 407: 269: 147:Wassermann Test 131: 128: 119: 118:Berlin, Prussia 116: 98: 91: 75: 73: 72: 70: 69: 25: 19: 12: 11: 5: 880: 878: 600:of the coming 560: 557: 515:The American, 470:(2nd ed. 1924) 398:Fredrich Kraus 285:Chaim Weitzman 281:Theodore Herzl 277:Theodore Herzl 268: 265: 232:Albert Neisser 198: 197: 189: 188: 184: 183: 180: 179: 176: 172: 171: 165: 164: 161: 157: 156: 153: 149: 148: 145: 144:Known for 141: 140: 137: 133: 132: 129: 125: 121: 120: 117: 113: 109: 108: 100: 99: 96: 90: 85: 82: 81: 50: 31: 29: 18: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 879: 870: 868: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 843: 841: 835: 833: 828: 824: 822: 816: 814: 809: 807: 802: 800: 795: 791: 789: 784: 779: 775: 771: 766: 763: 760: 759:32: 745-746. 758: 751: 749: 745: 740: 738: 732: 728: 726: 721: 719: 714: 710: 706: 703: 700: 698: 693: 690: 688: 682: 679: 675: 671: 668: 665: 661: 656: 650: 644: 640: 634: 629: 626: 624: 620: 617:, Ethiopia’s 616: 610: 606: 603: 598: 593: 589: 585: 580: 577: 575: 571: 567: 558: 556: 550: 547: 543: 537: 535: 530: 524: 520: 518: 513: 509: 503: 499: 495: 490: 486: 482: 476: 473: 469: 464: 462: 457: 452: 450: 446: 442: 436: 431: 425: 419: 412: 405: 403: 399: 394: 390: 386: 384: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 352: 347: 345: 341: 336: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 308: 300: 296: 294: 288: 286: 282: 278: 273: 266: 264: 261: 258: 254: 248: 246: 240: 237: 233: 229: 225: 223: 218: 214: 212: 208: 204: 195: 190: 185: 181: 177: 173: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 136:Resting place 134: 126: 122: 114: 110: 106: 101: 94: 89: 88:Julius Citron 86: 78: 68: 67: 63: 56: 48: 46: 42: 41: 37: 30: 23: 22: 16: 866: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 844: 839: 836: 829: 825: 820: 818: 812: 810: 805: 803: 798: 796: 792: 787: 785: 780: 776: 772: 767: 764: 761: 756: 753: 747: 743: 741: 737:Med. Klinik. 736: 733: 729: 724: 722: 717: 715: 711: 707: 704: 701: 696: 694: 691: 686: 684: 680: 677: 672: 669: 666: 663: 657: 651: 645: 641: 635: 630: 627: 623:Shah of Iran 611: 607: 594: 590: 586: 581: 578: 570:Judah Magnus 562: 551: 548: 544: 538: 534:Leon Trotsky 531: 525: 521: 514: 510: 504: 500: 496: 491: 487: 483: 477: 471: 467: 465: 460: 456:Ludwig Fleck 453: 448: 444: 440: 437: 432: 426: 420: 413: 406: 401: 395: 391: 387: 382: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 348: 340:Jules Bordet 337: 329:Paul Ehrlich 313: 292: 289: 274: 270: 262: 249: 241: 226: 219: 215: 202: 201: 168: 130:Cairo, Egypt 87: 62:Main sandbox 59: 33: 17:Heading text 699:17 (1918). 615:King Farouk 342:’s test of 325:Robert Koch 559:Later Life 236:Carl Bruck 834:in 1943. 808:2: 1112. 576:. 385:samples. 293:cum laude 257:metabolic 253:endocrine 187:Signature 45:user page 34:the user 489: 222:serology 211:syphilis 160:Children 32:This is 628: 351:cholera 245:mercury 64:| 40:PVardon 36:sandbox 417:staff. 408: 383:ad hoc 234:, and 175:Fields 152:Spouse 554:time. 429:Hess) 331:and 283:and 255:and 209:for 124:Died 112:Born 55:here 625:. 287:. 38:of 568:, 335:, 230:, 51:. 472:, 459:“ 315:( 57:.

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