880:-lined pharyngeal pouches. The third and fourth pouch are responsible for developing into the inferior and superior parathyroid glands, respectively. The third pharyngeal pouch encounters the developing thyroid gland and they migrate down to the lower poles of the thyroid lobes. The fourth pharyngeal pouch later encounters the developing thyroid gland and migrates to the upper poles of the thyroid lobes. At 14 weeks of gestation, the parathyroid glands begin to enlarge from 0.1 mm in diameter to approximately 1 – 2 mm at birth. The developing parathyroid glands are physiologically functional beginning in the second trimester.
980:
increase in plasma insulin levels in response to injections of high levels of glucose. In contrast to insulin, the fetal plasma glucagon levels are relatively high and continue to increase during development. At the mid-stage of gestation, the glucagon concentration is 6 ÎĽg/g, compared to 2 ÎĽg/g in adult humans. Just like insulin, fetal glucagon plasma levels do not change in response to an infusion of glucose. However, a study of an infusion of alanine into pregnant women was shown to increase the cord blood and maternal glucagon concentrations, demonstrating a fetal response to amino acid exposure.
1698:. Cushing's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands. Some clinical signs of Cushing's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism. Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.
1506:
1754:
1766:
1110:(INSL3), a relaxin-like factor produced by the testicles, and the INSL3 G-coupled receptor, LGR8. During the transinguinal phase (25 to 35 weeks of gestation), the testicles descend into the scrotum. This stage is regulated by androgens, the genitofemoral nerve, and calcitonin gene-related peptide. During the second and third trimester, testicular development concludes with the diminution of the fetal Leydig cells and the lengthening and coiling of the
31:
2841:
1098:. Once synthesized, the anti-MĂĽllerian hormone initiates the ipsilateral regression of the MĂĽllerian tract and inhibits the development of female internal features. At 10 weeks of gestation, the Leydig cells begin to produce androgen hormones. The androgen hormone dihydrotestosterone is responsible for the development of the male external genitalia.
1172:, forms between the fourth and fifth week of gestation and upon full development, it gives rise to the anterior pituitary gland. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary vascular system begins to develop. During the first 12 weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary undergoes cellular differentiation. At 20 weeks of gestation, the
792:. At the end of the eighth week, the adrenal glands have been encapsulated and have formed a distinct organ above the developing kidneys. At birth, the adrenal glands weigh approximately eight to nine grams (twice that of the adult adrenal glands) and are 0.5% of the total body weight. At 25 weeks, the adult
1184:
regulation of transcription factors expressed in pituitary stem cells and dynamic gradients of local soluble factors. The coordination of the dorsal gradient of pituitary morphogenesis is dependent on neuroectodermal signals from the infundibular bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4). This protein is
983:
As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during the remaining fetal maturation, the islet cells are relatively immature in their capacity to produce glucagon and insulin. This is thought to be a result of the relatively
1155:
show that a specific complement of genes, such as follistatin and multiple cyclin kinase inhibitors are involved in ovarian development. An assortment of genes and proteins - such as WNT4, RSPO1, FOXL2, and various estrogen receptors - have been shown to prevent the development of testicles or the
1176:
has developed. The Rathke's pouch grows towards the third ventricle and fuses with the diverticulum. This eliminates the lumen and the structure becomes Rathke's cleft. The posterior pituitary lobe is formed from the diverticulum. Portions of the pituitary tissue may remain in the nasopharyngeal
464:
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a key regulator of the autonomic nervous system. The endocrine system has three sets of endocrine outputs which include the magnocellular system, the parvocellular system, and autonomic intervention. The magnocellular is involved in the expression of oxytocin or
1659:
are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing
971:
concentration within the fetal pancreas is 3.6 pmol/g at seven to ten weeks, which rises to 30 pmol/g at 16–25 weeks of gestation. Near term, the insulin concentration increases to 93 pmol/g. The endocrine cells have dispersed throughout the body within 10 weeks. At 31 weeks of development, the
988:
concentrations achieved via maternal transfer of glucose through the placenta. On the other hand, the stable fetal serum glucose levels could be attributed to the absence of pancreatic signaling initiated by incretins during feeding. In addition, the fetal pancreatic islets cells are unable to
979:
While the fetal pancreas has functional beta cells by 14 to 24 weeks of gestation, the amount of insulin that is released into the bloodstream is relatively low. In a study of pregnant women carrying fetuses in the mid-gestation and near term stages of development, the fetuses did not have an
515:(ADH) which is synthesized by supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus and oxytocin which is synthesized by paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus. ADH functions to help the body to retain water; this is important in maintaining a homeostatic balance between blood solutions and water.
1016:. In comparison, fetal haptic glucagon receptors are lowered in comparison to adult cells and the glycemic effect of glucagon is blunted. This temporary physiological change aids the increased rate of fetal development during the final trimester. Poorly managed maternal
820:
cells. The other part is from the caudal extensions of the fourth pharyngobranchial pouches which results in the parafollicular calcitonin-secreting cells. These two structures are apparent by 16 to 17 days of gestation. Around the 24th day of gestation, the foramen
1131:
develops into the urethra and lower region of the vagina, the genital tubercle develops into the clitoris, the urogenital folds develop into the labia minora, and the urogenital swellings develop into the labia majora. At 16 weeks of gestation, the ovaries produce
1024:, increased risk of miscarriage, and defects in fetal development. Maternal hyperglycemia is also linked to increased insulin levels and beta cell hyperplasia in the post-term infant. Children of diabetic mothers are at an increased risk for conditions such as:
1126:
become morphologically visible by the 8th week of gestation. The absence of testosterone results in the diminution of the
Wolffian structures. The MĂĽllerian structures remain and develop into the fallopian tubes, uterus, and the upper region of the vagina. The
1212:
being to express beta-subunits for LH and FSH. Male fetuses predominately produced LH-expressing gonadotrophs, while female fetuses produce an equal expression of LH and FSH expressing gonadotrophs. At 24 weeks of gestation, prolactin-expressing
1101:
The testicles descend during prenatal development in a two-stage process that begins at eight weeks of gestation and continues through the middle of the third trimester. During the transabdominal stage (8 to 15 weeks of gestation), the
788:. Cells that will become adrenal tissue move retroperitoneally to the upper portion of the mesonephros. At seven weeks of gestation, the adrenal cells are joined by sympathetic cells that originate from the neural crest to form the
460:
The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary are two out of the three endocrine glands that are important in cell signaling. They are both part of the HPA axis which is known to play a role in cell signaling in the nervous system.
1733:
is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form. All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers. All vertebrates have some form of a renin–angiotensin axis, and all
1462:
Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is
1694:. Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or
967:. The alpha cells reach their peak in the middle stage of gestation. From the middle stage until term, the beta cells continue to increase in number until they reach an approximate 1:1 ratio with the alpha cells. The
1484:
signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.
1447:
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
2415:
Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Plieth D, Gorska AE, Dumont N, Shappell S, Washington MK, Neilson EG, Moses HL (February 2004). "TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia".
674:
blood sugar. Insulin is produced and excreted to lower blood sugar to normal levels. Glucagon, another hormone produced by alpha cells, is secreted in response to low blood sugar levels; glucagon stimulates
1380:
proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid changes to the activity of existing proteins, or slower changes in the
697:. Along with glucagon, insulin helps in maintaining glucose levels in our body. Insulin decreases blood glucose level ( a hypoglycemic hormone) whereas glucagon increases blood glucose level.
1066:
The reproductive system begins development at four to five weeks of gestation with germ cell migration. The bipotential gonad results from the collection of the medioventral region of the
1012:
during the stages leading up to birth. Fetal cells contain a higher amount of insulin receptors in comparison to adults cells and fetal insulin receptors are not downregulated in cases of
784:
differentiates into a tissue known as the genital ridge. The genital ridge produces the steroidogenic cells for both the gonads and the adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla is derived from
1421:
in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and
487:
There are many types of cells that make up the endocrine system and these cells typically make up larger tissues and organs that function within and outside of the endocrine system.
837:. By 50 days of gestation, the medial and lateral anlage have fused together. At 12 weeks of gestation, the fetal thyroid is capable of storing iodine for the production of
1298:). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (
3303:
2873:
265:. In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions, including
812:
develops from two different clusterings of embryonic cells. One part is from the thickening of the pharyngeal floor, which serves as the precursor of the thyroxine (T
927:. Studies on SOX3 gene mutations have demonstrated that it plays a role in parathyroid development. These mutations also lead to varying degrees of hypopituitarism.
4944:
1137:
845:, and free thyroid hormone. At 20 weeks, the fetus is able to implement feedback mechanisms for the production of thyroid hormones. During fetal development, T
4443:
4415:
4312:
379:
374:
369:
262:
84:
1185:
responsible for the development of the initial invagination of the Rathke's pouch. Other essential proteins necessary for pituitary cell proliferation are
3270:
1793:
1226:
414:, directly into interstitial spaces where they are absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the
511:
The posterior pituitary gland is a section of the pituitary gland. This organ does not produce any hormone but stores and secretes hormones such as
1208:
expression of human growth hormone. Once a fetus reaches 12 weeks of development, the thyrotrophs begin expression of Beta subunits for TSH, while
4271:
1189:(FGF8), Wnt4, and Wnt5. Ventral developmental patterning and the expression of transcription factors is influenced by the gradients of BMP2 and
3296:
2866:
4513:
2526:
2391:
2366:
2308:
2194:
1934:
1905:
1133:
211:, also have roles within the endocrine system by secreting certain hormones. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as
4195:
915:
have also been shown to play a crucial role in the formation of the parathyroid gland. Mutations in TBX1 and CRKL genes are correlated with
2815:
1037:
1753:
1488:
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as
3265:
747:
4156:
4128:
1873:
1200:
can be identified. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary is capable of secreting ACTH. Within eight weeks of gestation,
320:, are vascular, and commonly have intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as
1765:
3289:
2859:
2274:
466:
4616:
1838:
1106:
contracts and begins to thicken. The craniosuspensory ligament begins to break down. This stage is regulated by the secretion of
4190:
4722:
4345:
4281:
4175:
990:
2542:
Inder WJ, Meyer C, Hunt PJ (June 2015). "Management of hypertension and heart failure in patients with
Addison's disease".
4737:
4205:
4180:
1509:
964:
838:
547:
79:
384:
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4789:
4531:
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3324:
3194:
1675:. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of
333:
1505:
4276:
4256:
2008:
1358:
842:
555:
4902:
4784:
4025:
3055:
195:
also function as endocrine glands, among other functions. (The hypothalamus and pituitary glands are organs of the
4934:
4907:
4465:
3985:
2770:
Colombo L, Dalla Valle L, Fiore C, Armanini D, Belvedere P (April 2006). "Aldosterone and the conquest of land".
1638:
1173:
1095:
1061:
1021:
593:
2324:
479:. Some examples of tropic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland include TSH, ACTH, GH, LH, and FSH.
4939:
4536:
3993:
1626:
1330:
1005:
616:
571:
67:
1645:, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression,
963:. During the early stages of fetal development, the number of pancreatic alpha cells outnumbers the number of
4765:
3027:
2938:
2115:
1377:
1049:
920:
589:
529:
869:
showing the third (inferior) and fourth (superior) parathyroid glands during the 6th week of embryogenesis
4611:
4588:
4340:
4121:
3919:
3824:
3676:
3050:
1634:
1255:
960:
895:, which suggests the gene plays an important role in the development of the parathyroid gland. The genes,
601:
91:
3726:
1481:
1476:
1177:
midline. In rare cases this results in functioning ectopic hormone-secreting tumors in the nasopharynx.
1029:
1701:
Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.
834:
2026:"Physiology of the pancreatic α-cell and glucagon secretion: role in glucose homeostasis and diabetes"
3955:
3691:
3253:
3243:
2425:
1963:
1808:
1687:
1683:
1457:
1442:
1307:
1074:
break away from the adrenal primordium. Gonadal differentiation begins 42 days following conception.
973:
757:
659:
512:
313:
2469:"Cushing's disease: a multidisciplinary overview of the clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment"
1951:
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4503:
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4266:
4251:
4215:
3704:
3473:
3032:
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2977:
2845:
1713:
to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.
1710:
1394:
1354:
1299:
1168:
is formed within the rostral neural plate. The Rathke's pouch, a cavity of ectodermal cells of the
1111:
662:(a tissue which consists cells that secrete hormones) and acini. Acini secretes digestive enzymes.
597:
506:
1667:, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the
947:
have begun to emerge. Reaching eight to ten weeks into development, the pancreas starts producing
4238:
3896:
3767:
3529:
3520:
3506:
2950:
2918:
2900:
2795:
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2205:
2086:
1989:
1798:
1602:
1597:
1362:
1338:
1259:
1197:
924:
817:
559:
496:
472:
389:
196:
129:
2358:
1702:
1691:
679:
stores in the liver to release sugar into the bloodstream to raise blood sugar to normal levels.
2025:
1086:
form at six fetal weeks and the sertoli cells begin developing by the eight week of gestation.
4425:
4114:
4095:
4085:
3797:
3775:
3616:
3413:
3176:
3042:
2955:
2928:
2787:
2752:
2717:
2608:
2559:
2522:
2490:
2441:
2397:
2387:
2362:
2304:
2270:
2190:
2142:
2074:
2047:
1981:
1930:
1901:
1869:
1813:
1783:
1739:
1668:
1618:
1606:
1370:
1201:
1017:
994:
916:
873:
707:
690:
579:
439:
341:
329:
160:
1641:). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion,
4392:
4387:
3569:
3552:
3433:
3383:
3378:
3227:
3092:
3087:
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2960:
2933:
2779:
2744:
2680:
2639:
2598:
2551:
2480:
2433:
2346:
2217:
2037:
1971:
1656:
1334:
1145:
1128:
1067:
1013:
533:
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4350:
4145:
4070:
4018:
3970:
3901:
3891:
3488:
3316:
3110:
3102:
2995:
2990:
2908:
2891:
2708:
Pohorecky LA, Wurtman RJ (March 1971). "Adrenocortical control of epinephrine synthesis".
2587:"The neuroendocrine system of invertebrates: a developmental and evolutionary perspective"
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2512:
2300:
2294:
2098:
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1402:
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1314:
1193:(SHH). These factors are essential for coordinating early patterns of cell proliferation.
1165:
1152:
789:
646:
519:
functions to induce uterine contractions, stimulate lactation, and allows for ejaculation.
454:
419:
401:
337:
309:
224:
164:
152:
133:
36:
2384:
Surgical procedures and anesthetic implications: a handbook for nurse anesthesia practice
2429:
1967:
833:
develops. At approximately 24 to 32 days of gestation the median anlage develops into a
4869:
4838:
4810:
4755:
4650:
4367:
4298:
3947:
3837:
3681:
3659:
3632:
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3333:
3159:
3074:
3005:
2923:
2913:
2829:
2485:
2468:
1818:
1803:
1664:
1630:
1622:
1430:
1422:
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1190:
1181:
1045:
1001:
793:
769:
721:
641:
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451:
321:
317:
286:
228:
204:
4928:
4879:
4655:
4357:
4320:
4090:
3930:
3755:
3743:
3730:
3714:
3468:
3403:
3164:
3154:
3065:
2945:
2347:
1923:
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1672:
1318:
636:
447:
358:
325:
302:
216:
212:
172:
156:
117:
2799:
2571:
2245:
2229:
1993:
939:
begins to develop by the fourth week of gestation. Five weeks later, the pancreatic
4662:
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4460:
4200:
4167:
4075:
3398:
3346:
3248:
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1617:. Endocrine disease is characterized by misregulated hormone release (a productive
1464:
1406:
1366:
1209:
1103:
1091:
1033:
1025:
956:
826:
608:
551:
501:
491:
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415:
362:
252:
240:
232:
184:
168:
141:
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469:
is involved in controlling the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary.
2160:
1144:
is occurring. At 25 weeks of gestation, the ovary is morphologically defined and
312:, which secrete hormones to the outside of the body, and to the system known as
261:
that signal each other in sequence are often referred to as an axis, such as the
72:
4846:
4823:
4325:
4228:
4003:
3852:
3832:
3647:
3642:
3582:
3222:
3137:
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2134:
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1646:
1205:
1009:
985:
781:
733:
671:
567:
298:
30:
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which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.
199:. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus—it is located in the
4874:
4760:
4410:
4362:
4291:
4286:
3911:
3780:
3750:
3699:
3604:
3312:
3199:
3184:
2735:
Wilson JX (1984). "The renin-angiotensin system in nonmammalian vertebrates".
1976:
1726:
1650:
1326:
1322:
1303:
1279:
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1263:
1214:
1169:
1140:. At 20 weeks of gestation, the theca cell precursors are present and oogonia
940:
830:
702:
665:
585:
563:
294:
137:
2401:
1729:
have a hypothalamus–pituitary axis. All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in
4677:
4606:
4488:
4400:
4335:
4261:
3874:
3669:
3450:
3189:
3000:
2437:
1735:
1730:
1350:
1346:
1267:
1083:
944:
773:
684:
612:
540:
236:
220:
3281:
2791:
2685:
2668:
2644:
2627:
2612:
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2494:
2445:
2146:
2078:
2051:
1985:
582:
The endocrine system can control all emotions and can control temperature.
2840:
2756:
2721:
475:: The main role of the anterior pituitary gland is to produce and secrete
4828:
4727:
4709:
4667:
4645:
4568:
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4541:
4523:
4452:
4330:
4223:
4185:
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3935:
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3373:
3351:
3260:
3132:
2325:"Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2002"
1642:
1492:. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.
1489:
1041:
1000:
During fetal development, the storage of glycogen is controlled by fetal
952:
936:
888:
877:
785:
777:
728:
676:
653:
516:
431:
423:
316:
between cells over a relatively short distance. Endocrine glands have no
248:
188:
113:
2748:
2603:
2586:
2042:
776:. The adrenal cortex originates from the thickening of the intermediate
588:
cells of the parathyroid glands are richly supplied with blood from the
357:
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via
4732:
4699:
4694:
4686:
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4508:
4379:
4137:
4080:
3998:
3975:
3879:
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3019:
2783:
2694:
2653:
2221:
1706:
1614:
1610:
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1283:
1275:
1243:
1237:
1141:
968:
948:
892:
809:
797:
694:
623:
611:
and phosphate excretion. In addition, PTH stimulates the conversion of
605:
524:
435:
411:
290:
244:
208:
203:
adjacent to the pituitary gland—is to link the endocrine system to the
180:
121:
2555:
4856:
4818:
4637:
4578:
4035:
4030:
3965:
3960:
3906:
3842:
3790:
3709:
3599:
3587:
3542:
3501:
3496:
3438:
3363:
1722:
1682:
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include
1637:), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (
1386:
866:
849:
is the major thyroid hormone being produced while triiodothyronine (T
631:
270:
192:
176:
148:
2628:"Evolution of Thyroid Function and Its Control in Lower Vertebrates"
97:
4889:
4864:
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4747:
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4040:
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3652:
3559:
3460:
3418:
3408:
3357:
3149:
3124:
1504:
1342:
1287:
1270:. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes:
1251:
1123:
1107:
1071:
904:
884:
822:
716:
427:
407:
282:
278:
274:
258:
200:
125:
55:
1008:. Fetal insulin is responsible for increasing glucose uptake and
3812:
3547:
3423:
3341:
2467:
Buliman A, Tataranu LG, Paun DL, Mirica A, Dumitrache C (2016).
1186:
912:
908:
900:
896:
266:
4110:
3285:
2855:
1393:) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via
3847:
3664:
3428:
1180:
The functional development of the anterior pituitary involves
1087:
796:
zone develops and is responsible for the primary synthesis of
1512:
for endocrine disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002:
670:
The alpha cells of the pancreas secrete hormones to maintain
4106:
2386:. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 479.
336:, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow
2514:
Vander's Human
Physiology: the mechanisms of body function
2296:
Vander's Human
Physiology: the mechanisms of body function
1950:
Clifford B. Saper; Bradford B. Lowell (December 1, 2014).
361:. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the
1090:, the sex-determining locus, serves to differentiate the
285:. For example, the kidney secretes the endocrine hormone
1868:(10th ed.). McGraw Hill / Medical. pp. 49–68.
144:
is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
876:
begins to develop. The human embryo forms five sets of
2669:"The Role of Thyroid Hormone in Amphibian Development"
1376:
Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific
872:
Once the embryo reaches four weeks of gestation, the
410:
of the endocrine system that secrete their products,
2269:(6th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
207:
via the pituitary gland.) Other organs, such as the
4888:
4855:
4837:
4809:
4774:
4746:
4708:
4685:
4676:
4636:
4629:
4597:
4559:
4522:
4479:
4451:
4442:
4424:
4378:
4311:
4237:
4214:
4166:
4155:
4144:
4061:
3984:
3946:
3823:
3766:
3725:
3690:
3631:
3568:
3528:
3519:
3487:
3459:
3332:
3323:
3236:
3213:
3175:
3123:
3101:
3073:
3064:
3041:
3018:
2976:
2899:
2890:
919:, while mutations in GATA3 have also resulted in a
78:
66:
54:
49:
44:
23:
2206:"Hormones and Behaviour: A Psychological Approach"
1922:
923:. Malformations in the GCM2 gene have resulted in
2517:. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp.
2299:. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp.
1721:A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all
2187:Hormones and behaviour: a psychological approach
1094:. The Sertoli cells are the point of origin for
1429:, on the other hand, belongs completely to the
1425:signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between
857:, are not detected until the third trimester.
756:is one of the first systems to develop during
600:(PTH). PTH acts on bone, the kidneys, and the
4122:
3297:
2867:
8:
1866:Greenspan's Basic and Clinical Endocrinology
1385:of target genes. Amino acid–based hormones (
997:necessary to secrete glucagon and insulin.
450:. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are
308:The endocrine system is contrasted both to
4682:
4633:
4448:
4163:
4152:
4129:
4115:
4107:
3525:
3329:
3304:
3290:
3282:
3271:List of human endocrine organs and actions
3070:
2896:
2874:
2860:
2852:
2349:Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
2263:Gilbert F (2000). "Juxtacrine Signaling".
1794:List of human endocrine organs and actions
1227:List of human endocrine organs and actions
29:
2772:Journal of Endocrinological Investigation
2684:
2643:
2602:
2484:
2133:Patel, H.; Jessu, R.; Tiwari, V. (2020).
2065:Patel, H.; Jessu, R.; Tiwari, V. (2021).
2041:
1975:
1671:has been shown to be involved in certain
1605:are common, including conditions such as
1313:Hormones are used to communicate between
1070:. At the five-week point, the developing
780:. At five to six weeks of gestation, the
532:of the thyroid gland produce and secrete
1900:. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education, Inc.
1891:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1621:), inappropriate response to signaling (
1401:, being lipid-soluble, move through the
853:) and its inactive derivative, reverse T
289:. Hormones can be amino acid complexes,
2007:"Chapter 3. Anterior Pituitary Gland".
1925:Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems
1830:
1749:
772:can be identified within four weeks of
658:Pancreas contain nearly 1 to 2 million
4945:Endocrine-related cutaneous conditions
2094:
2084:
95:
20:
2506:
2504:
2288:
2286:
1262:to target distant organs to regulate
887:have shown that interfering with the
132:and that target and regulate distant
7:
2252:. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
2210:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
2189:. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
2110:
2108:
1705:effects range from excess sweating,
1405:of target cells to act within their
554:, and subsequent elevated levels of
2673:Integrative and Comparative Biology
748:Development of the endocrine system
693:are beta cells. Beta cells secrete
263:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
1052:, and improper organ development.
800:during the early postnatal weeks.
546:in response to elevated levels of
16:Hormone-producing glands of a body
14:
2135:"Physiology, Posterior Pituitary"
2067:"Physiology, Posterior Pituitary"
1839:"Anatomy of the Endocrine System"
891:gene can cause parathyroid gland
865:A lateral and ventral view of an
566:and rate of all cells, including
385:Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone
4617:5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
2839:
2626:Dickhoff WW, Darling DS (1983).
2585:Hartenstein V (September 2006).
2204:Claire L. Gibson (Winter 2010).
2013:(4 ed.). McGraw Hill. 2013.
1764:
1752:
1603:Diseases of the endocrine system
2345:Kasper DL, Harrison TR (2005).
1325:activities, such as digestion,
340:. Endocrinology is a branch of
1738:have aldosterone as a primary
1725:with a nervous system and all
1196:Six weeks into gestation, the
562:, which further regulates the
124:that are released by internal
1:
2667:Galton VA (January 1, 1988).
1653:change, or hyperstimulation.
1510:Disability-adjusted life year
1038:respiratory distress syndrome
39:of the human endocrine system
2591:The Journal of Endocrinology
2473:Journal of Medicine and Life
2116:"267 Endocrine System Facts"
1258:that are transported by the
1204:cells begin to develop with
1156:lineage of male-type cells.
993:and rapidly degrade cAMP by
689:60% of the cells present in
615:to its most active variant,
375:GnRH – LH/FSH – sex hormones
112:is a messenger system in an
2071:How Does The Pancreas Work?
1391:peptide or protein hormones
626:absorption in the GI tract.
622:, which further stimulates
4961:
4785:Insulin-like growth factor
1595:
1474:
1455:
1440:
1235:
1224:
1187:Fibroblast growth factor 8
1118:Female gonadal development
1059:
745:
399:
2830:Resources in your library
2332:World Health Organization
1977:10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.023
1864:Gardner, Shoback (2017).
1639:toxic multinodular goitre
1174:hypophyseal portal system
1062:Development of the gonads
594:superior thyroid arteries
507:Posterior pituitary gland
90:
28:
2030:Journal of Endocrinology
1898:Anatomy & physiology
1627:diabetes mellitus type 1
1078:Male gonadal development
1050:congenital heart disease
560:anterior pituitary gland
497:Anterior pituitary gland
2939:Somatomammotrophic cell
2710:Pharmacological Reviews
2438:10.1126/science.1090922
2161:"Leydig cell | anatomy"
1843:www.hopkinsmedicine.org
1759:Female endocrine system
1709:, heat intolerance and
1256:multicellular organisms
984:stable levels of fetal
617:1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D
353:Major endocrine systems
4612:N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
4589:Pancreatic polypeptide
3756:Lymphoid immune system
3325:Musculoskeletal system
2544:Clinical Endocrinology
2024:Quesada, Ivan (2008).
1635:chronic kidney failure
1593:
1359:growth and development
1191:sonic hedgehog protein
1096:anti-MĂĽllerian hormone
961:pancreatic polypeptide
921:DiGeorge-like syndrome
754:fetal endocrine system
572:tissue differentiation
334:gastrointestinal tract
239:, the testis secretes
92:Anatomical terminology
3744:Myeloid immune system
3530:Cardiovascular system
2266:Developmental Biology
2122:. September 19, 2018.
1921:Sherwood, L. (1997).
1771:Male endocrine system
1508:
1496:Clinical significance
1477:Juxtacrine signalling
1304:intracrine signalling
1250:produced by cells in
1246:is any of a class of
1104:gubernacular ligament
1030:renal vein thrombosis
989:sufficiently produce
976:have differentiated.
965:pancreatic beta cells
825:, a thin, flask-like
406:Endocrine glands are
380:CRH – ACTH – cortisol
197:neuroendocrine system
4096:Islets of Langerhans
3956:Genitourinary system
3692:Integumentary system
3254:Organ of Zuckerkandl
3244:Enteroendocrine cell
2848:at Wikimedia Commons
2686:10.1093/icb/28.2.309
2645:10.1093/icb/23.3.697
2010:Endocrine Physiology
1929:. Wadsworth Pub Co.
1809:Paracrine signalling
1625:), lack of a gland (
1590: More than 1000
1458:Paracrine signalling
1443:Autocrine signalling
1417:The typical mode of
1308:paracrine signalling
974:islets of Langerhans
758:prenatal development
660:islets of Langerhans
513:antidiuretic hormone
314:paracrine signalling
4898:Natriuretic peptide
4216:Posterior pituitary
4201:Somatostatin (GHIH)
3986:Reproductive system
3705:Subcutaneous tissue
3474:Cartilaginous joint
3033:Parafollicular cell
2749:10.1210/edrv-5-1-45
2604:10.1677/joe.1.06964
2430:2004Sci...303..848B
2382:Macksey LF (2012).
2043:10.1677/JOE-08-0290
1968:2014CBio...24R1111S
1845:. November 19, 2019
1711:high blood pressure
1395:signal transduction
1306:) or nearby cells (
1248:signaling molecules
691:islet of Langerhans
598:parathyroid hormone
4239:Anterior pituitary
3768:Respiratory system
3521:Circulatory system
3177:Islets of pancreas
2951:Corticotropic cell
2784:10.1007/bf03344112
2632:American Zoologist
2222:10.1353/pbm.0.0141
1952:"The Hypothalamus"
1814:Releasing hormones
1799:Neuroendocrinology
1598:Endocrine diseases
1594:
1524: Less than 80
1339:sensory perception
1260:circulatory system
1198:corticotroph cells
1112:seminiferous cords
1006:placental lactogen
925:hypoparathyroidism
874:parathyroid glands
861:Parathyroid glands
564:metabolic activity
558:, produced by the
550:, produced by the
473:Anterior Pituitary
390:Leptin vs. ghrelin
130:circulatory system
128:directly into the
61:systema endocrinum
4922:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4805:
4804:
4625:
4624:
4555:
4554:
4307:
4306:
4104:
4103:
3627:
3626:
3617:Glymphatic system
3515:
3514:
3279:
3278:
3119:
3118:
3043:Parathyroid gland
3014:
3013:
2956:Gonadotropic cell
2929:Somatotropic cell
2844:Media related to
2816:Library resources
2737:Endocrine Reviews
2556:10.1111/cen.12592
2528:978-0-07-304962-5
2511:Vander A (2008).
2393:978-0-7637-8057-9
2368:978-0-07-139140-5
2310:978-0-07-304962-5
2293:Vander A (2008).
2196:978-0-521-69201-4
1936:978-0-495-39184-5
1907:978-0-321-86158-0
1896:Marieb E (2014).
1784:Endocrine disease
1746:Additional images
1740:mineralocorticoid
1688:Cushing's disease
1684:Addison's disease
1669:estrogen receptor
1619:pituitary adenoma
1607:diabetes mellitus
1217:begin to emerge.
1122:For females, the
1018:diabetes mellitus
995:phosphodiesterase
917:DiGeorge syndrome
835:bilobed structure
580:Parathyroid gland
465:vasopressin. The
440:parathyroid gland
370:TRH – TSH – T3/T4
342:internal medicine
330:submucosal glands
175:, and the (male)
106:
105:
101:
4952:
4935:Endocrine system
4683:
4678:Digestive system
4634:
4449:
4388:Thyroid hormones
4164:
4153:
4131:
4124:
4117:
4108:
4063:Endocrine system
3825:Digestive system
3570:Lymphatic system
3553:Lymphatic vessel
3526:
3330:
3306:
3299:
3292:
3283:
3228:Corpora arenacea
3093:Zona reticularis
3088:Zona fasciculata
3083:Zona glomerulosa
3071:
2968:Chromophobe cell
2961:Thyrotropic cell
2897:
2884:endocrine system
2876:
2869:
2862:
2853:
2846:Endocrine system
2843:
2821:Endocrine system
2804:
2803:
2767:
2761:
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2539:
2533:
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2508:
2499:
2498:
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2464:
2458:
2457:
2424:(5659): 848–51.
2412:
2406:
2405:
2379:
2373:
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2342:
2336:
2335:
2329:
2321:
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2200:
2185:Neave N (2008).
2182:
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2015:
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1998:
1997:
1979:
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1911:
1893:
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1879:
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1854:
1852:
1850:
1835:
1768:
1756:
1657:Endocrinopathies
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1403:plasma membranes
1399:steroid hormones
1317:and tissues for
1146:folliculogenesis
1138:LH/hCG receptors
1129:urogenital sinus
1068:urogenital ridge
1022:fetal macrosomia
1014:hyperinsulinemia
935:The human fetal
786:ectodermal cells
530:follicular cells
153:endocrine glands
110:endocrine system
98:edit on Wikidata
33:
24:Endocrine system
21:
4960:
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4955:
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4949:
4940:Endocrine cells
4925:
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4923:
4914:
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4833:
4801:
4770:
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4704:
4672:
4621:
4593:
4551:
4518:
4475:
4438:
4420:
4404:
4396:
4374:
4358:Adrenal medulla
4351:Androstenedione
4303:
4233:
4210:
4158:
4147:
4140:
4135:
4105:
4100:
4057:
4019:Seminal vesicle
3980:
3942:
3892:Small intestine
3819:
3762:
3721:
3686:
3623:
3564:
3511:
3489:Muscular system
3483:
3455:
3334:Skeletal system
3319:
3310:
3280:
3275:
3232:
3209:
3171:
3115:
3111:Chromaffin cell
3097:
3060:
3037:
3028:Follicular cell
3010:
2991:Median eminence
2972:
2909:Pars intermedia
2892:Pituitary gland
2886:
2882:Anatomy of the
2880:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2824:
2823:
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2018:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1962:(23): R1111-6.
1956:Current Biology
1949:
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1779:
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1769:
1760:
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1748:
1719:
1703:Graves' disease
1696:hypocortisolism
1692:Graves' disease
1600:
1592:
1591:
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1445:
1439:
1419:cell signalling
1415:
1413:Cell signalling
1321:regulation and
1240:
1234:
1229:
1223:
1166:pituitary gland
1162:
1160:Pituitary gland
1153:gene expression
1120:
1082:For males, the
1080:
1064:
1058:
1002:glucocorticoids
933:
863:
856:
852:
848:
815:
806:
790:adrenal medulla
766:
750:
744:
722:Granulosa cells
647:Adrenal medulla
620:
544:
537:
485:
477:tropic hormones
420:pituitary gland
404:
402:Endocrine gland
398:
365:and pituitary.
355:
350:
322:salivary glands
310:exocrine glands
102:
40:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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4811:Adipose tissue
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4798:
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4779:
4772:
4771:
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4756:Enteroglucagon
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4656:Beta thymosins
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4368:Norepinephrine
4365:
4355:
4354:
4353:
4348:
4343:
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4328:
4321:Adrenal cortex
4317:
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3948:Urinary system
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3870:Laryngopharynx
3867:
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3845:
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3838:Salivary gland
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3772:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3748:
3747:
3746:
3735:
3733:
3731:immune systems
3727:Haematopoietic
3723:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3718:
3717:
3707:
3702:
3696:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3679:
3677:Somatic system
3674:
3673:
3672:
3667:
3660:Sensory system
3657:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3637:
3635:
3633:Nervous system
3629:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3612:CNS equivalent
3609:
3608:
3607:
3602:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3574:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3534:
3532:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3479:Synovial joint
3476:
3471:
3465:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3355:
3349:
3338:
3336:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3311:
3309:
3308:
3301:
3294:
3286:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3246:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3162:
3160:Granulosa cell
3157:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3129:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3107:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3079:
3077:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3024:
3022:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3008:
3006:Herring bodies
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2934:Prolactin cell
2931:
2924:Acidophil cell
2921:
2916:
2914:Pars tuberalis
2911:
2905:
2903:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2871:
2864:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2833:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2810:External links
2808:
2806:
2805:
2762:
2727:
2700:
2659:
2638:(3): 697–707.
2618:
2577:
2534:
2527:
2500:
2459:
2407:
2392:
2374:
2367:
2337:
2316:
2309:
2282:
2275:
2255:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2216:(1): 152–155.
2195:
2177:
2152:
2141:. StatPearls.
2125:
2104:
2095:|website=
2073:. StatPearls.
2057:
2016:
1999:
1942:
1935:
1913:
1906:
1881:
1875:978-1259589287
1874:
1856:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1819:Tropic hormone
1816:
1811:
1806:
1804:Nervous system
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1751:
1747:
1744:
1718:
1715:
1673:breast cancers
1631:erythropoiesis
1623:hypothyroidism
1596:Main article:
1586:
1584: 800–1000
1580:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1475:Main article:
1472:
1469:
1456:Main article:
1453:
1450:
1441:Main article:
1438:
1435:
1431:nervous system
1423:neuroendocrine
1414:
1411:
1236:Main article:
1233:
1230:
1222:
1219:
1182:spatiotemporal
1161:
1158:
1119:
1116:
1108:insulin-like 3
1079:
1076:
1060:Main article:
1057:
1054:
1046:cardiomyopathy
932:
929:
862:
859:
854:
850:
846:
829:of the median
813:
805:
802:
794:adrenal cortex
770:adrenal cortex
765:
764:Adrenal glands
762:
746:Main article:
743:
740:
739:
738:
737:
736:
726:
725:
724:
714:
713:
712:
711:
710:
705:
700:
699:
698:
682:
681:
680:
651:
650:
649:
644:
642:Adrenal cortex
637:Adrenal glands
634:
629:
628:
627:
618:
577:
576:
575:
542:
535:
522:
521:
520:
504:
499:
494:
484:
481:
452:neuroendocrine
448:adrenal glands
400:Main article:
397:
394:
393:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
359:feedback loops
354:
351:
349:
346:
326:mammary glands
303:prostaglandins
287:erythropoietin
229:growth hormone
205:nervous system
173:adrenal glands
118:feedback loops
104:
103:
94:
88:
87:
82:
76:
75:
70:
64:
63:
58:
52:
51:
47:
46:
42:
41:
34:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4957:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4900:
4899:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4887:
4881:
4880:Prostaglandin
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4854:
4848:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4840:
4836:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4812:
4808:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4787:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4773:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4688:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4675:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4635:
4632:
4628:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4600:
4596:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4486:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4423:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4405:
4399:
4397:
4391:
4390:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4377:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4359:
4356:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4310:
4300:
4297:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4236:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4217:
4213:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:Hypothalamic–
4154:
4151:
4149:
4143:
4139:
4132:
4127:
4125:
4120:
4118:
4113:
4112:
4109:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4068:
4066:
4064:
4060:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3996:
3995:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3983:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3945:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3931:Biliary tract
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3889:
3888:
3885:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3765:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3749:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3716:
3715:Mammary gland
3713:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3658:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3634:
3630:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3469:Fibrous joint
3467:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3335:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3313:Human systems
3307:
3302:
3300:
3295:
3293:
3288:
3287:
3284:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3166:
3165:Corpus luteum
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3155:Theca interna
3153:
3152:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3066:Adrenal gland
3063:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2946:Basophil cell
2944:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2919:Pars distalis
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2877:
2872:
2870:
2865:
2863:
2858:
2857:
2854:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2766:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2731:
2728:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2704:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2679:(2): 309–18.
2678:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2597:(3): 555–70.
2596:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2550:(6): 789–92.
2549:
2545:
2538:
2535:
2530:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2515:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2411:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2375:
2370:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2350:
2341:
2338:
2333:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2312:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2276:0-87893-243-7
2272:
2268:
2267:
2259:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2198:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2178:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2088:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2011:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1938:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1917:
1914:
1909:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1857:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1831:
1825:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1789:Endocrinology
1787:
1785:
1782:
1781:
1776:
1767:
1762:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1717:Other animals
1716:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1629:, diminished
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1613:disease, and
1612:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1578: 720–800
1572: 640–720
1566: 560–640
1560: 480–560
1554: 400–480
1548: 320–400
1542: 240–320
1536: 160–240
1518: No data
1511:
1507:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1478:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1459:
1451:
1449:
1444:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1319:physiological
1316:
1311:
1309:
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1301:
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1293:
1289:
1286:derivatives (
1285:
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1135:
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1125:
1117:
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1113:
1109:
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1099:
1097:
1093:
1092:Sertoli cells
1089:
1085:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1020:is linked to
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
998:
996:
992:
987:
986:serum glucose
981:
977:
975:
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966:
962:
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928:
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868:
860:
858:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
819:
811:
810:thyroid gland
804:Thyroid gland
803:
801:
799:
795:
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787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
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759:
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749:
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731:
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709:
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688:
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678:
673:
669:
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664:
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648:
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621:
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587:
584:
583:
581:
578:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
538:
531:
528:
527:
526:
525:Thyroid gland
523:
518:
514:
510:
509:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
489:
488:
482:
480:
478:
474:
470:
468:
467:parvocellular
462:
458:
456:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
436:thyroid gland
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
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383:
381:
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264:
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234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
213:endocrinology
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
179:and (female)
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
99:
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89:
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81:
77:
74:
71:
69:
65:
62:
59:
57:
53:
48:
43:
38:
32:
27:
22:
19:
4663:Thymopoietin
4599:Pineal gland
4584:Somatostatin
4547:Progesterone
4494:Progesterone
4461:Testosterone
4444:Gonadal axis
4416:Thyroid axis
4313:Adrenal axis
4168:Hypothalamus
4062:
3918:
3886:
3859:
3611:
3594:
3577:
3537:
3215:Pineal gland
3205:Epsilon cell
3143:Sertoli cell
3056:Oxyphil cell
2986:Pars nervosa
2883:
2820:
2778:(4): 373–9.
2775:
2771:
2765:
2743:(1): 45–61.
2740:
2736:
2730:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2635:
2631:
2621:
2594:
2590:
2580:
2547:
2543:
2537:
2513:
2479:(1): 12–18.
2476:
2472:
2462:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2383:
2377:
2348:
2340:
2331:
2319:
2295:
2265:
2258:
2249:
2240:
2213:
2209:
2186:
2180:
2168:. Retrieved
2164:
2155:
2138:
2128:
2120:Facts Legend
2119:
2070:
2060:
2033:
2029:
2019:
2009:
2002:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1924:
1916:
1897:
1865:
1859:
1847:. Retrieved
1842:
1833:
1720:
1700:
1681:
1662:
1655:
1647:hyperplastic
1601:
1530: 80–160
1487:
1480:
1465:somatostatin
1461:
1446:
1416:
1375:
1367:reproduction
1312:
1241:
1210:gonadotrophs
1195:
1179:
1163:
1150:
1121:
1100:
1081:
1065:
1034:hypocalcemia
1026:polycythemia
999:
982:
978:
957:somatostatin
934:
882:
871:
864:
827:diverticulum
816:) producing
807:
767:
753:
751:
734:Leydig cells
632:Thymus Gland
609:reabsorption
604:to increase
596:and secrete
552:hypothalamus
502:Pineal gland
492:Hypothalamus
486:
471:
463:
459:
444:hypothalamus
416:pineal gland
405:
363:hypothalamus
356:
307:
299:leukotrienes
257:
253:progesterone
241:testosterone
185:hypothalamus
151:, the major
146:
142:hypothalamus
109:
107:
60:
18:
4847:Osteocalcin
4824:Adiponectin
4651:Thymosin α1
4426:Parathyroid
4326:Aldosterone
4229:Vasopressin
4086:Parathyroid
3786:Nasopharynx
3648:Spinal cord
3583:Bone marrow
3352:Collar bone
3266:Development
3249:Paraganglia
3223:Pinealocyte
3138:Leydig cell
2716:(1): 1–35.
2357:. pp.
2355:McGraw Hill
2250:MedlinePlus
2036:(1): 5–19.
1727:vertebrates
1677:oncogenesis
1331:respiration
1272:eicosanoids
1215:lactotrophs
1206:cytoplasmic
1202:somatotroph
1151:Studies of
1148:can begin.
1010:lipogenesis
883:Studies in
782:mesonephros
742:Development
703:Delta cells
672:homeostatic
666:Alpha cells
568:cell growth
332:within the
295:eicosanoids
161:parathyroid
138:vertebrates
116:comprising
50:Identifiers
4929:Categories
4875:Calcitriol
4761:Peptide YY
4411:Calcitonin
4363:Adrenaline
4292:Lipotropin
4287:Endorphins
3865:Oropharynx
3605:Lymph node
3538:peripheral
3384:Metatarsus
3379:Metacarpus
3358:Thigh bone
3354:(clavicle)
3200:Delta cell
3185:Alpha cell
3051:Chief cell
2246:"Hormones"
2212:(Review).
2165:Britannica
1826:References
1731:amphibians
1660:hormones.
1651:neoplastic
1482:Juxtacrine
1471:Juxtacrine
1397:pathways;
1383:expression
1337:function,
1327:metabolism
1323:behavioral
1280:amino acid
1264:physiology
1225:See also:
1170:oropharynx
945:beta cells
818:follicular
768:The fetal
685:Beta cells
586:Epithelial
243:, and the
4646:Thymosins
4607:Melatonin
4489:Estradiol
4336:Cortisone
4262:Prolactin
4159:pituitary
4146:Endocrine
4071:Pituitary
3920:accessory
3875:Esophagus
3595:secondary
3507:Diaphragm
3451:Cartilage
3399:Phalanges
3190:Beta cell
3001:Pituicyte
2978:Posterior
2402:632070527
2097:ignored (
2087:cite book
1736:tetrapods
1490:connexons
1452:Paracrine
1437:Autocrine
1351:lactation
1347:excretion
1300:autocrine
1268:behaviour
774:gestation
613:Vitamin D
348:Structure
247:secretes
237:melatonin
235:secretes
227:secretes
225:pituitary
221:thyroxine
219:secretes
165:pituitary
4839:Skeleton
4829:Resistin
4728:Secretin
4710:Duodenum
4668:Thymulin
4569:Glucagon
4561:Pancreas
4542:Estrogen
4524:Placenta
4331:Cortisol
4224:Oxytocin
4186:Dopamine
4138:Hormones
4051:Placenta
4014:Testicle
4009:Prostate
3936:Pancreas
3897:Appendix
3887:lower GI
3860:upper GI
3808:Bronchus
3751:Lymphoid
3434:Vertebra
3389:Ossicles
3374:Mandible
3261:Placenta
3133:Testicle
2901:Anterior
2800:25316873
2792:16699307
2613:17003257
2572:13552007
2564:25138826
2495:27974908
2446:14764882
2230:72100830
2170:June 14,
2147:30252386
2079:30252386
2052:18669612
1994:18782796
1986:25465326
1849:June 14,
1777:See also
1643:agenesis
1378:receptor
1363:movement
1296:proteins
1292:peptides
1276:steroids
1232:Hormones
1221:Function
1042:jaundice
953:glucagon
937:pancreas
931:Pancreas
878:endoderm
798:steroids
778:mesoderm
677:glycogen
654:Pancreas
602:GI tract
590:inferior
517:Oxytocin
424:pancreas
412:hormones
291:steroids
249:estrogen
189:pancreas
155:are the
122:hormones
114:organism
4733:Motilin
4700:Ghrelin
4695:Gastrin
4687:Stomach
4574:Insulin
4509:Relaxin
4504:Inhibin
4499:Activin
4471:Inhibin
4380:Thyroid
4091:Adrenal
4081:Thyroid
3999:Scrotum
3976:Urethra
3971:Bladder
3880:Stomach
3803:Trachea
3739:Myeloid
3578:primary
3444:Sternum
3394:Patella
3369:Humerus
3360:(femur)
3195:PP cell
3103:Medulla
3020:Thyroid
2757:6368215
2722:4941407
2695:3883279
2654:3882951
2519:345–347
2486:5152600
2454:1703215
2426:Bibcode
2418:Science
2334:. 2002.
2301:332–333
1964:Bibcode
1723:animals
1707:fatigue
1665:thyroid
1663:As the
1615:obesity
1611:thyroid
1501:Disease
1427:neurons
1284:protein
1244:hormone
1238:Hormone
1142:mitosis
1124:ovaries
969:insulin
949:insulin
893:aplasia
717:Ovaries
708:F Cells
695:insulin
624:calcium
606:calcium
428:ovaries
271:kidneys
245:ovaries
217:thyroid
209:kidneys
181:ovaries
157:thyroid
73:D004703
45:Details
4857:Kidney
4819:Leptin
4778:/other
4638:Thymus
4579:Amylin
4453:Testis
4346:DHEA-S
4148:glands
4076:Pineal
4036:Vagina
4031:Uterus
4026:Female
3966:Ureter
3961:Kidney
3907:Rectum
3843:Tongue
3791:Larynx
3710:Breast
3682:Tissue
3600:Spleen
3588:Thymus
3543:Artery
3502:Tendon
3497:Muscle
3461:Joints
3439:Pelvis
3414:Tarsus
3404:Radius
3364:Fibula
3347:Carpus
3317:organs
3125:Gonads
3075:Cortex
2818:about
2798:
2790:
2755:
2720:
2693:
2652:
2611:
2570:
2562:
2525:
2493:
2483:
2452:
2444:
2400:
2390:
2365:
2307:
2273:
2228:
2193:
2145:
2077:
2050:
1992:
1984:
1933:
1904:
1872:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1407:nuclei
1387:amines
1369:, and
1355:stress
1335:tissue
1315:organs
1294:, and
1288:amines
1278:, and
1252:glands
1084:testes
1072:gonads
1056:Gonads
959:, and
911:, and
867:embryo
831:anlage
729:Testis
455:organs
432:testes
408:glands
396:Glands
328:, and
283:gonads
259:Glands
233:pineal
231:, the
223:, the
215:. The
193:thymus
191:, and
183:. The
177:testis
171:, and
169:pineal
149:humans
140:, the
134:organs
126:glands
37:glands
4890:Heart
4865:Renin
4795:IGF-2
4790:IGF-1
4776:Liver
4766:GLP-1
4748:Ileum
4630:Other
4514:GnSAF
4481:Ovary
4046:Ovary
4041:Vulva
4004:Penis
3926:Liver
3902:Colon
3853:Tooth
3833:Mouth
3798:Lower
3776:Upper
3653:Nerve
3643:Brain
3560:Heart
3419:Tibia
3409:Skull
3237:Other
3150:Ovary
2996:Stalk
2796:S2CID
2691:JSTOR
2650:JSTOR
2568:S2CID
2450:S2CID
2328:(xls)
2226:S2CID
1990:S2CID
1343:sleep
941:alpha
905:GATA3
889:HOX15
823:cecum
483:Cells
338:lumen
318:ducts
301:, or
279:heart
275:liver
201:brain
136:. In
96:[
56:Latin
35:Main
4341:DHEA
4277:ACTH
4272:CLIP
4267:POMC
4196:GHRH
4176:GnRH
3994:Male
3912:Anus
3813:Lung
3781:Nose
3729:and
3700:Skin
3548:Vein
3424:Ulna
3342:Bone
3315:and
2788:PMID
2753:PMID
2718:PMID
2609:PMID
2560:PMID
2523:ISBN
2491:PMID
2442:PMID
2398:OCLC
2388:ISBN
2363:ISBN
2359:2074
2305:ISBN
2271:ISBN
2191:ISBN
2172:2022
2143:PMID
2139:NCBI
2099:help
2075:PMID
2048:PMID
1982:PMID
1931:ISBN
1902:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1851:2022
1690:and
1389:and
1371:mood
1266:and
1164:The
1136:and
1004:and
991:cAMP
943:and
913:SOX3
909:GCM2
901:CRKL
897:TBX1
885:mice
808:The
752:The
592:and
570:and
539:and
446:and
281:and
267:bone
251:and
108:The
85:9668
68:MeSH
4908:BNP
4903:ANP
4870:EPO
4738:VIP
4723:GIP
4718:CCK
4537:HPL
4532:hCG
4466:AMH
4434:PTH
4282:MSH
4257:TSH
4247:FSH
4206:MCH
4191:CRH
4181:TRH
3848:Lip
3670:Eye
3665:Ear
3429:Rib
2780:doi
2745:doi
2681:doi
2640:doi
2599:doi
2595:190
2552:doi
2481:PMC
2434:doi
2422:303
2218:doi
2038:doi
2034:199
1972:doi
1649:or
1633:in
1310:).
1302:or
1254:in
1134:FSH
1088:SRY
843:TSH
839:TRH
556:TSH
548:TRH
147:In
120:of
80:FMA
4931::
4299:GH
4252:LH
2794:.
2786:.
2776:29
2774:.
2751:.
2739:.
2714:23
2712:.
2689:.
2677:28
2675:.
2671:.
2648:.
2636:23
2634:.
2630:.
2607:.
2593:.
2589:.
2566:.
2558:.
2548:82
2546:.
2521:.
2503:^
2489:.
2475:.
2471:.
2448:.
2440:.
2432:.
2420:.
2396:.
2361:.
2353:.
2330:.
2303:.
2285:^
2248:.
2224:.
2214:53
2208:.
2163:.
2137:.
2118:.
2107:^
2091::
2089:}}
2085:{{
2069:.
2046:.
2032:.
2028:.
1988:.
1980:.
1970:.
1960:24
1958:.
1954:.
1884:^
1841:.
1742:.
1686:,
1679:.
1609:,
1433:.
1409:.
1373:.
1365:,
1361:,
1357:,
1353:,
1349:,
1345:,
1341:,
1333:,
1329:,
1290:,
1274:,
1242:A
1114:.
1048:,
1044:,
1040:,
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1032:,
1028:,
955:,
951:,
907:,
903:,
899:,
841:,
760:.
457:.
442:,
438:,
434:,
430:,
426:,
422:,
418:,
344:.
324:,
305:.
297:,
293:,
277:,
273:,
269:,
255:.
187:,
167:,
163:,
159:,
4403:4
4401:T
4395:3
4393:T
4130:e
4123:t
4116:v
3305:e
3298:t
3291:v
2875:e
2868:t
2861:v
2802:.
2782::
2759:.
2747::
2741:5
2724:.
2697:.
2683::
2656:.
2642::
2615:.
2601::
2574:.
2554::
2531:.
2497:.
2477:9
2456:.
2436::
2428::
2404:.
2371:.
2313:.
2279:.
2232:.
2220::
2199:.
2174:.
2149:.
2101:)
2081:.
2054:.
2040::
1996:.
1974::
1966::
1939:.
1910:.
1878:.
1853:.
1282:/
855:3
851:3
847:4
814:4
619:3
574:.
543:4
541:T
536:3
534:T
100:]
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