479:-based organization advocating the use of parental controls like the V-chip, has consistently found otherwise in its research. They found in June 2007 that the majority of parents personally monitor their children's television viewing in some way, whether through use of the V-chip or other means. TV Watch has also found that most parents know that they have the option of the V-chip or other parental controls to monitor their children's television viewing, and believe it is primarily their responsibility, not that of the government, to protect children from inappropriate content on television.
243:) would establish this rating system. Along with the three founding associations, the chairman of the FCC would select five members of the advocacy community to participate in establishing television ratings. Altogether the FCC chairman, six members from each broadcasting industry and the five non-industry members make up a total of 24 participants. These ratings are the icons that appear in the corner of the television screen at the beginning of every show and after each commercial break for many broadcasters. These ratings include TV-Y, TV-Y7, TV-Y7-FV, TV-G, TV-PG, TV-14, and TV-MA.
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increasing variety of technology that is being developed and used in the household, however, parents are concerned that their children will be exposed to the same content they are trying to block through unrated commercials. Because commercials are not rated, the V-chip does not have the ability to censor lewd or inappropriate commercials. This raises issues because children can see the same content that they are blocked on regular shows while watching commercials. This causes the V-Chip to be ineffective unless it applies to both television programs as well as commercials.
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violence has on the youth of a nation and addresses how parents should exercise the control to limit and/or block what information their children are in fact viewing and what is being broadcast into their private homes. Also addressed is the inclusion of the implementation of a rating code for violence within television programming. Parents should be informed of the content of a program prior to its airing so that appropriate precautions may be made to protect their children from said material. The V-Chip technology would be employed in such an event.
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violence. TV-G includes programs appropriate for all ages because it contains little to no violence, no strong language, and little to no sexual situations. TV-PG programs may include materials that parents may find unsuitable, including moderate violence, some sexual situations, or infrequent coarse language. TV-14 programs have parents strongly cautioned for materials unsuitable for children under 14 years of age. Finally, TV-MA programs are specifically designed to be viewed by adults aged 17 and up.
361:, people "want to filter out dangerous ideas and views they do not agree with or expressions that offend and anger them." There is also cultural and familial differences; an action, activity, or behavior may be deemed as "appropriate" for one culture or for one family but may very well be considered "inappropriate" for another culture or for another family. Balkin says some people believe that the use of the V-chip is a way for the government to "intervene and impose binding moral standards" on others.
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209:. He said, "If every parent uses this chip wisely, it can become a powerful voice against teen violence, teen pregnancy, teen drug use, and for both learning and entertainment," as he signed the law on February 8, 1996. "We're handing the TV remote control back to America's parents so that they can pass on their values and protect their children." The addition of the V-chip into the Telecommunications Act was helpful to attract American voters for the 1996 Clinton-Gore campaign.
419:) were used to determine how crucial pre-emptive training and informational sessions on the V-chip were to their actual use. The first group was given a new TV, equipped with V-chip technology, and detailed information about the V-chip. The second group was also given a new TV equipped with V-chip technology but no special training on the V-chip. The control group was not given a new TV or special training but was followed over the same time period to observe their V-chip use.
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193:. The television industry was given the opportunity to establish ratings for its programming. The act also ordered that half of all television sets at least 13″ after July 1, 1999, had to have the V-chip installed and that all television sets at least 13″ after January 1, 2000, had to have it installed. In addition, the
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Many families either had no idea that their television possessed a V-chip or gave up after struggling to program it. Even families who were given extensive information on the V-chip still opted to not use the technology. Overall, this study suggests that there are an insufficient number of households
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Because rating commercials globally would be a difficult task, a possible suggestion would be to limit inappropriate commercials and promotions shown at certain times that children watch television. In order to give children some protection from seeing inappropriate commercials, certain improvements
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While a lot of controversies have been sparked by the V-chip, what sets it apart from other issues is that the V-chip imposes no government constraints on television programming itself; it is up to an individual family's discretion to choose which programs to block. When
Congressman Ed Markey, chair
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to observe the use of the V-chip in family households. The study was conducted on a total of 150 families with children between the ages of 7 and 10 who had V-chip television sets in their homes. Over the course of a year, families' use of the V-chip technology was observed to draw conclusions about
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While the V-chip is fairly inexpensive to add to individual television sets, a large amount of money has been spent educating people on the technology. $ 550 million was spent to educate parents on the V-chip, but they are no more aware of the technology or the ways in which it can be put to use now
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According to a 2003 study, parents' low level of V-chip use is explained in part by their unawareness of the device and the "multi-step and often confusing process" necessary to use it. Only 27% of all parents in the study group could figure out how to program the V-chip, and many parents "who might
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conference in France and later again at a conference in
Belgium. This is where Al Gore first became familiarized with the concept of the V-Chip and the exposure helped him to advise Bill Clinton, which led to the decision to pass the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Once the V-Chip gained the ability
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protocol, and this is detected by the television set's V-chip. If the program rating is outside the level configured as acceptable on that particular television, the program will be blocked. The V-chip does not block infomercial, news or sportscasts as this sort of programming does not have ratings.
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After being inspired to make a change in the violent programming available to youth, Oregon engineer John
Jackson developed the V-chip. Jackson conducted an independent study in Southern Oregon to determine the effects of television on violence. In Canada in the early 1990s, studies on the possible
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Despite the amount that has been spent on educating parents on use of the V-chip, there is still a low proportion of users. Of parents who have access to the V-chip, just 20% actually use it. As reported in 2007, 52% of parents who had access to the V-chip were unaware of its existence, and 27% of
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An idea for blocking programs in this way was patented by Brett West and John P. Gardner in 1994 and tested in Canada. The patent was number 5,550,575. Two others separately patented devices similar or identical to the V-chip: John Olivo of
Parental Guide of Omaha, and an Air Force captain by the
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report in
September 2001 as support. In ACLU's website, ACLU quoted the FTC in saying, "Most researchers and investigators agree that exposure to media violence alone does not cause a child to commit a violent act, and that it is not the sole, or even the most important, factor in contributing to
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The V-chip has a four-digit numerical password in order to keep older children from changing its settings. The V-chip can be overridden by anyone who reads the television's instruction and finds out how to reset the password to 0000 (built into the V-chip in case the parents themselves forget the
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reported that the V-chip was envisioned to be inexpensive. The cost to install the V-chip into televisions that are not already equipped with it is between $ 5–10. In addition, every television set with screens of 13″ or larger sold after the year 2000 is required to have a V-chip pre-installed.
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Another argument brought up is that it is not the government's right to monitor or censor what viewers watch on television. According to this argument, because the government regulates the rating system, it is also regulating much of parents' decision making processes on their children's viewing
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The portion of the overall act that affects the V-chip is of Title V. This section, "Obscenity and
Violence," addresses the influence parents may have over their children's viewing capabilities on cable television. Section 551, Parental Choice in Television Programming, outlines the effects that
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The V-chip has provided parents and guardians the ability to monitor and block television shows that are unfavorable for children to watch in specific households by reading the information that is encoded in the rated program and blocking it based upon that rating it has been given. Due to the
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TV-Y includes all television programs designed to be appropriate for all children. TV-Y7 programs are directed to older children, specifically aged 7 and above. TV-Y7-FV programs are also directed to older children aged 7 and above with the addition that this rating denotes fantasy or animated
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In 1993, Keith Spicer met with top
American executives and disclosed information about the V-Chip Technology. "Tim Collings' creation holds promise in the future of the television industry, and the more exposure achieved, the more nations are able to benefit." Discussions took place about the
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rights by restricting what content they could play. The inventor of the V-chip technology originally meant for it to be a simple tool that parents could use to restrict their children's television viewing. He did not expect it would become a national standard for all televisions.
383:, stated, "These FCC recommendations are political pandering. The government should not replace parents as decision makers in America's living rooms. There are some things that the government does well. But deciding what is aired and when on television is not one of them."
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in the television signal. The system receives a special code in the broadcast signal that indicates the show's score according to a simple numerical rating system for violence, sex, and language. The programs' signals are encoded based on their rating, on
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American Civil
Liberties Union. (2004, September 15). ACLU Comments to the Federal Communications Commission re: MB Docket No. 04-261, the Matter of Violent Television Programming and Its Impact on Children. Retrieved February 12, 2008, from
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The rules adopted by the
Commission require that, as of July 1, 1999, half of all new televisions with screens of 13" or greater be equipped with a V-Chip and that all such televisions be equipped with this technology as of January 1,
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The TV ratings system is designed to aid parents in deciding what programming they deem appropriate for their children to watch. One such site that explains the ratings system is TheTVBoss.org, which was created by the United States
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of
Massachusetts. According to him the "V" stands for "violence". By contrast, in an interview with Tim Collings, one of the people who claim to have invented the device, he said that it was intended to stand for "viewer control."
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effects of television on violence were conducted by the Canadian Radio-Television Commission, a committee of Parliament, and Heritage Canada. The reports all concluded that violence on television in Canada was a serious problem.
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of the House Telecommunications Subcommittee, introduced the first V-chip legislation, he told the press that parents "will be given the power to send a message directly to the industry. The government will not be involved."
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category. It is intended for use by parents to manage their children's television viewing based on blocking systems. Televisions manufactured for the United States market since January 2000 are required to have the V-chip
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The networks feared that a single profanity would block an entire program. They also feared that they would lose advertising revenue because advertisers would not pay for time slots during programs that might be blocked.
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Many parents' groups are in favor of monitoring children's viewing habits, mostly for the purpose of building family values. "America's families will be now the ultimate judges of effectiveness," said Lois Joan White,
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In response to the PTC survey on the V-chip that claimed the device's failure, TV Watch maintains that the survey was "flawed by faulty analysis and biased methodology". TV Watch also participated in a
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increasing amount of violence on TV and the importance of monitoring and blocking shows. This sparked interest, but no steps were taken for implementation. In 1994 the technology was presented at a
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96:. Since the idea for blocking programs in this way was patented and tested in Canada by Brett West and John P. Gardner in 1994, many devices using V-chip technology have been produced.
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to the V-Chip should be made that can follow the same standard across all areas of media that include "broadcast, cable, satellite, DVRs and, to the extent possible, the Internet."
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was introduced in the United States, in which broadcasters had to play TV content suitable for all ages. This idea was quickly abandoned because broadcasters felt it violated their
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to block multiple shows at the same time interest in the technology expanded significantly. In January 1998 exclusive rights to the V-Chip were sold to Tri-Vision Electronics Inc.
1099:(2004) Parents, Media and Public Policy: A Kaiser Family Foundation Survey. Program for the Study of Media and Health, Publication No. 7156, September 23, pp. 7. Retrieved from
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24 out of 110 families (22%) tried the device at some point but didn't use it through the year either through choice or because they did not understand how to use the V-chip
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Marketing Violent Entertainment to Children: A Review of the Self-Regulation and Industry Practices in the Motion Picture, Music Recording, & Electronic Game Industries
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forum in June 2007, based on recent Kaiser research, which claims that most parents do monitor their children's television viewing, whether or not by means of the V-chip.
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president, in 1997 in support of V-chip technology. The V-chip is also supported by other websites like FamilySafeMedia.com, which presents technologies like the
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to call the television industry's V-chip education campaign a failure. This poll did not measure whether parents were aware of the V-chip and chose not to use it.
1116:""In the Matter of Violent Television Programming and Its Impact on Children," MB Docket No., 04-261, Federal Communications Commission (April 25, 2007), Page 14"
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decreed that the television industry should create a voluntary rating system for its shows called the TV parental guidelines. Three main associations (the
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argues, "Research has not proven that watching violence on television causes watchers to commit violence" citing the Federal Trade Commission's
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indicated, among other things, that 88% of respondents did not use a V-chip or cable box parental controls in the previous week, leading the
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Only 33 out of 110 families (30%) who received a new television set with V-chip technology programmed it during the course of the study
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26% of all parents had not bought a new television set since January 2000, when the V-chip was first required in all televisions
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stated, "What I see is a solution that's flawed at every level. Conceptually, it's not bad, but practically, it's abhorrent."
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297:. The report discusses the low usage of V-chip technology. In its analysis, the report addresses the following studies:
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The V-chip gained popularity when it was revealed at a Technology Exposition at the G7 meetings in Brussels in 1995.
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39% of all parents had bought a new television set since January 2000, but did not think it even included a V-chip
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conducted a telephone survey in 2004 of 1,001 parents of children ages 2–17. The results of that survey showed:
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receivers in Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and the United States, that allows the blocking of programs based on their
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679:"Commissioner Gloria Tristani commends manufacturers for meeting deadlines to install V-chips in televisions"
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parents who knew of the V-chip's existence opted not to try it. Tim Winters, the Executive director for the
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949:"Developing television ratings in Canada and the United States: The perils and promises of self-regulation"
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471:(PTC) research has shown low percentages in parental involvement in television viewing control,
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Tim Collings states he developed the V-chip technology while he was an engineering professor at
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Although there is debate over who patented the V-chip, Wi-LAN of Ottawa is the current holder.
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1439:"The Parents Television Council's Release is Flawed by Faulty Analysis and Biased Methodology"
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otherwise have used the V-Chip were frustrated by an inability to get it to work properly."
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931:"Tri-Vision Moves to Next Level in Roll-out of Its V-Chip Product Line in North America".
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name of Carl Elam. Collings, Olivo, and Elam all claim to have invented the technology.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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From 1999 to 2001, a research study was conducted at the University of Pennsylvania
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1382:"The Ratings Sham II: TV Executives Still Hiding Behind a System That Doesn't Work"
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One of the driving forces of the development of the V-chip was the signing of the
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Generation Digital: politics, commerce, and childhood in the age of the internet.
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Generation Digital:politics, commerce, and childhood in the age of the internet.
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77 families (70%) never used the V-chip technology at all during the year study
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Doug Abrahams (March 1998). "Regulators adopt plan for V-Chip, TV ratings".
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McGeady, Paul J.; Godwin, Michael (1997). "Issues in Internet Pornography".
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Therefore, some say the cost is insignificant when purchasing a television.
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1007:"V-chip | Parental Control, TV Ratings & Content Blocking | Britannica"
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Of those 33 families, only nine families (8%) regularly used the technology
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In the Matter of Violent Television Programming And Its Impact On Children
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in British Columbia, but he did not obtain a patent on the technology.
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The V-Chip Debate: Content filtering from television to the internet
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The V-Chip Debate: Content Filtering From Television to the Internet
574:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
1282:"Parents' Use of the V-Chip to Supervise Children's Television Use"
811:"TV's Ultimate Irony: Sex and Violence sells only Sex and Violence"
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The phrase "V-chip" was purportedly coined by then-Representative
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739:"The V-Chip: Options to Restrict What Your Children Watch on TV"
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National Association of Broadcasters' TV Guidelines information
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20% of all parents knew they had a V-chip, but had not used it.
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of the broadcast signal's vertical blanking interval using the
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1163:. Retrieved February 12, 2008, from Yale University Website
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youth aggression, anti-social attitudes, and violence."
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Censorship technology based on parental guidance ratings
1313:(2007) The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
770:(2007) The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
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the overall use of the V-chip in family environments.
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The V-chip was an added provision in Bill Clinton's
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785:"Question Lingers as FCC Prepares V-Chip Standards"
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873:. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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778:
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885:"A Brief History of Colling's V-Chip Invention"
532:and TVGuardian as alternatives to the V-chip.
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946:McDowell, Stephen; Maitland, Carleen (2011).
8:
1469:"TV Watch Releases Results from Newest Poll"
370:than they were before the funds were spent.
197:supported the act and worked to enforce it.
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1696:Brazil - The Third Country To Adopt V-Chip
1333:, Hart Research. June 2007. Archived from
1185:"TV Watchdog is Barking up the Wrong Tree"
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956:. New York, New York: Routledge. p.
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590:Learn how and when to remove this message
2760:2000 establishments in the United States
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2603:Also used in China's DVB-S/S2 network.
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1218:"F.C.C. Moves to Restrict TV Violence"
653:South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut
440:that implement the V-chip technology.
312:15% of all parents had used the V-chip
1289:Annenberg Public Policy Center Report
379:habits. Caroline Fredrickson, of the
241:Motion Picture Association of America
237:National Cable Television Association
7:
1324:"TV Watch Survey of Parents Topline"
1249:"Ad Council Unveils V-Chip Campaign"
357:According to J.M. Balkin, author of
233:National Association of Broadcasters
1216:Labaton, Stephen (April 26, 2007).
982:"Santa Clara University: PPT Slide"
709:Teresa Riordan (October 28, 1996).
1380:Kuhn, Katherine (April 16, 2007).
906:"Whatever Happened to the V-Chip?"
783:Mifflin, Lawrie (March 12, 1998).
99:V-chip technology works much like
25:
1033:Touro Law Review Touro Law Review
837:"Interview with Mr. Tim Collings"
809:Lavers, Daphne (September 2001).
743:Federal Communications Commission
659:Television content rating systems
465:Federal Communications Commission
291:Federal Communications Commission
195:Federal Communications Commission
1445:. April 19, 2007. Archived from
1183:Huff, Richard (March 30, 2007).
544:
36:
1542:. July 16, 1997. Archived from
1475:. June 19, 2007. Archived from
422:Overall, the study found this:
506:Ease of monitoring for parents
401:Annenberg Public Policy Center
381:American Civil Liberties Union
347:American Civil Liberties Union
207:Telecommunications Act of 1996
187:Telecommunications Act of 1996
1:
2770:Media content ratings systems
2108:Field-sequential color system
1247:Ogg, Erica (March 30, 2007).
164:Forces leading to development
2688:Reverse Standards Conversion
1681:TV Watch: 1-2-3 Safe TV tips
1291:. University of Pennsylvania
1161:Media Filters and the V-Chip
865:Price, Monroe Edwin (1998).
632:Motion picture rating system
387:Insufficient number of users
359:Media Filters and the V-Chip
1644:Interview with Tim Collings
817:. Delta Blue Communications
570:the claims made and adding
407:Three experimental groups (
341:Lack of supporting research
293:released a report entitled
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2765:Censorship of broadcasting
1540:Education Policy Institute
1516:. United States Ad Council
1389:Parents Television Council
952:. In Price, Monroe (ed.).
536:The V-chip and commercials
526:Parent-Teacher Association
477:Charleston, South Carolina
469:Parents Television Council
456:
394:Parents Television Council
331:Parents Television Council
220:
201:The Telecommunications Act
105:vertical blanking interval
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1749:
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1536:"Education Reform Review"
121:password that they set).
45:This article needs to be
1280:Jordan, A.; E. Woodard.
485:Kaiser Family Foundation
306:Kaiser Family Foundation
83:is a technology used in
76:holding a V-chip in 1996
1732:Broadcast video formats
1309:Montgomery, Kathryn C.
766:Montgomery, Kathryn C.
519:Support from PTA groups
453:Parental responsibility
289:On April 25, 2007, the
262:Simon Fraser University
2698:Television transmitter
1676:TV Parental Guidelines
1666:FCC V-Chip information
1419:Cite journal requires
1361:Cite journal requires
1159:Balkin, J. M. (1998).
374:Infringement on rights
229:United States Congress
223:TV Parental Guidelines
77:
2775:Television technology
2683:MPEG transport stream
2510:MPEG-1 Audio Layer II
2073:Mechanical television
1981:Zweikanalton (A2/IGR)
1566:"What is the V-Chip?"
1479:on September 27, 2007
1398:on September 26, 2007
457:Further information:
71:
2718:Widescreen signaling
2693:Standards conversion
2678:Moving image formats
1649:May 6, 2006, at the
1500:The Washington Times
1449:on September 1, 2007
1128:on November 12, 2010
498:The Washington Times
251:Invention and patent
169:Scientific-technical
2750:Canadian inventions
2673:Display motion blur
1691:Disable your V-Chip
1624:"Fjallfoss.fcc.gov"
1261:on January 30, 2013
1254:New York Daily News
1190:New York Daily News
935:. January 26, 1998.
681:. FCC. June 9, 1999
622:Analog transmission
139:Family Viewing Hour
72:The U.S. President
2755:1994 introductions
2724:Analogue TV Topics
1546:on August 13, 2007
1170:2008-02-17 at the
1011:www.britannica.com
843:on October 3, 2009
718:The New York Times
555:possibly contains
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2515:MPEG Multichannel
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1570:Family Safe Media
1471:(Press release).
1441:(Press release).
967:978-0-8058-3061-3
910:Popular Mechanics
637:Parental controls
617:Analog television
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557:original research
101:closed captioning
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1514:"TheTVBoss.org"
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1197:on May 18, 2008
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495:In March 1998,
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463:While the U.S.
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413:Low Information
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57:February 2020
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1802:Clear-Vision
1599:
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1573:. Retrieved
1569:
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1548:. Retrieved
1544:the original
1539:
1530:
1520:November 29,
1518:. Retrieved
1508:
1499:
1493:
1481:. Retrieved
1477:the original
1463:
1451:. Retrieved
1447:the original
1433:
1412:cite journal
1400:. Retrieved
1393:the original
1375:
1354:cite journal
1342:. Retrieved
1335:the original
1318:
1310:
1305:
1293:. Retrieved
1288:
1275:
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2722:Templates (
2439:MPEG-H HEVC
2178:Progressive
794:October 11,
2744:Categories
2566:Captioning
2368:MPEG-4 AVC
2136:Interlaced
2061:Historical
1997:Captioning
1956:BTSC (MTS)
1931:1250 lines
1915:1125 lines
1744:Television
1660:Ad Council
1656:v-chip.org
1575:October 8,
1550:October 8,
665:References
627:Censorship
564:improve it
513:Ad Council
467:(FCC) and
327:Zogby poll
280:Criticisms
239:, and the
94:technology
2780:Parenting
2703:Test card
2376:ATSC A/72
2282:DVB 3D-TV
1894:819 lines
1822:625 lines
1782:525 lines
1764:405 lines
1605:"FCC.gov"
1591:"FCC.gov"
1058:"FCC.gov"
991:April 16,
580:June 2010
568:verifying
256:Invention
181:Political
126:Ed Markey
2615:Defunct.
2581:Teletext
2447:ATSC 3.0
2103:567-line
2098:455-line
2093:441-line
2088:375-line
2083:343-line
2078:180-line
2068:Pre-1940
2022:Teletext
1902:System E
1830:System B
1790:System M
1772:System A
1647:Archived
1483:July 15,
1453:July 15,
1402:July 26,
1344:July 15,
1168:Archived
1165:yale.edu
1149:aclu.org
1039:(1): 99.
847:June 23,
723:June 23,
685:June 23,
611:See also
491:Expenses
365:Expenses
2462:ISDB-S3
2411:MobaHo!
2358:MobaHo!
2127:Digital
1874:PALplus
1295:May 27,
1101:kff.org
1068:May 28,
1016:May 23,
916:May 23,
890:May 27,
562:Please
530:Weemote
444:Support
217:Ratings
133:History
110:line 21
89:ratings
47:updated
2535:HE-AAC
2457:HD DMB
2002:CGMS-A
1938:HD-MAC
1798:NTSC-J
1755:Analog
1132:May 3,
964:
714:(News)
268:Patent
235:, the
81:V-chip
18:V-Chip
2477:Audio
2429:ABS-S
2401:SBTVD
2340:ABS-S
2299:ABS-S
2242:UHDTV
2235:1080p
2166:1080i
1966:NICAM
1948:Audio
1878:SECAM
1870:PAL-N
1812:B-MAC
1806:PAL-M
1627:(PDF)
1396:(PDF)
1385:(PDF)
1338:(PDF)
1327:(PDF)
1285:(PDF)
1126:(PDF)
1119:(PDF)
692:2000.
285:Usage
2571:CPCM
2525:LPCM
2495:AC-4
2485:AC-3
2467:DTMB
2421:AVS2
2406:1seg
2391:DTMB
2381:CMMB
2335:DTMB
2327:AVS+
2317:CMMB
2294:DTMB
2289:ISDB
2272:ATSC
2230:720p
2225:HDTV
2218:576p
2213:480p
2208:EDTV
2201:288p
2196:240p
2191:1seg
2186:LDTV
2161:HDTV
2154:576i
2149:480i
2144:SDTV
2113:OSKM
2042:VITC
2032:VEIL
1961:EIAJ
1922:MUSE
1794:NTSC
1577:2023
1552:2023
1522:2007
1485:2007
1455:2007
1425:help
1404:2007
1367:help
1346:2007
1297:2010
1267:2007
1231:2007
1203:2007
1134:2007
1070:2009
1018:2024
993:2022
962:ISBN
918:2024
892:2010
849:2010
823:2007
796:2008
751:2021
725:2010
687:2010
475:, a
345:The
304:The
2667:DCI
2576:EPG
2556:AFD
2530:AAC
2520:PCM
2505:DRA
2500:DTS
2489:5.1
2452:DVB
2396:DVB
2386:DMB
2309:AVS
2277:DVB
2052:XDS
2047:WSS
2037:VIT
2027:VBI
2017:PDC
2012:GCR
2007:EPG
1971:SAP
1884:MAC
1866:PAL
566:by
114:XDS
2746::
2608:^
2596:^
2252:8K
2247:4K
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